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  As of November 2025, the Grand Egyptian Museum is fully open to the public. The long-awaited institution exhibits over 50,000 objects, tracing Egypt’s history from its Predynastic beginnings to the Coptic period.   Now, for the first time since 1922, the GEM’s King Tut galleries reunite all 5,398 objects excavated from the famed pharaoh’s burial across two extraordinary exhibition halls.   The Complete Assemblage in the GEM’s King Tut Galleries The gilded coffin of King Tutankhamun underwent restoration before going on view in the Grand Egyptian Museum’s King Tut galleries. Source: Mohamed Hossam/EPA.   The Grand Egyptian Museum‘s King Tut galleries reunite every zone of the KV62 archaeological site, including the antechamber, annex, burial chamber, and treasury. This allows the assemblage to be exhibited as a single, cohesive record for the first time in its history.   Everyday objects appear alongside ceremonial objects, inviting comparison within context. For example, Tutankhamun‘s clothing—sized for a teenager—is displayed alongside monumental shrines, sharpening the contrast between his boyhood and his pharaonic legacy.   Look for: The entire King Tut collection (5,398 objects), presented across two exhibition halls Four nested gilded shrines that enclosed the sarcophagus Three coffins of Tutankhamun, including the solid gold inner coffin Canopic shrine with four goddesses guarding the calcite canopic chest Funerary beds of Tutankhamun in animal forms (lion, cow, hippopotamus) Hundreds of shabti figures as royal servants for the afterlife   Daily Life and Craft in the GEM’s King Tut Galleries A pair of gilded sandals from Tutankhamun’sn’s tomb. Source: Al Pavangkanan/Wikimedia Commons.   The most ordinary objects can often tell the most interesting stories about the people who used them. Linen garments worn by King Tut exhibit stitch patterns optimized for climate and movement. Sandals preserve wear and ancient repairs that attest to their use. Cosmetic and writing kits record daily routine. And, visible joinery in stools and chairs—mortise and tenon, pegs, veneers, inlay—bears evidence of workshop training and imported timber supply in New Kingdom Egypt.   Look for: Tutankhamun’s sandals and gold toe stalls with visible wear Folding stool and inlaid chair showing mortise-and-tenon joinery Cosmetics of Tutankhamun, including kohl pots and unguent jars with residue Writing kit of Tutankhamun, featuring a pen case and palette Game boards, such as Senet and Mehen, from the royal household Headrests and travel chests that map routine and movement   Royal Ideology and Courtly Life Tutankhamun’sn’s gilded wooden throne, its backrest showing Ankhesenamun anointing the king. Source: Grand Egyptian Museum, Cairo   In King Tut’s burial chamber, four gilded shrines and three coffins were arranged in a nested formation. This was to preserve the mummy and to secure the boy king’s passage into the afterlife. Inside the shrines sat the stone sarcophagus, containing three coffins, which ended with a solid gold inner coffin and a mask. The canopic shrine with its four goddess guardians protected the mummy’s organs.   Ancient Egyptian customs are evident in the construction and decoration of the burial chamber, both of which are touched upon in the GEM’s King Tut galleries. Sun disks, wings, and cobras symbolize protection and renewal. Hinges, corner joints, gilding overlaps, and tool marks track how the enclosure was carefully designed and built.   Look for: Gold mask of Tutankhamun in the ritual sequence Tutankhamun’s gilded throne with Ankhesenamun anointing the king Coffins and sarcophagi as a stepwise program of protection and renewal Canopic jars of Tutankhamun within the canopic shrine Pectorals and collars with solar and protective motifs Funerary papyri and amulets that encode royal transformation   Mobility and Power Golden chariot of King Tutankhamun in the new conservation lab at the Grand Egyptian Museum. Source: Mohamed El-Shahed/AFP.   Six chariots excavated from King Tut’s tomb show how movement was engineered for display, sport, and war. Wheel hubs and spokes, axle placement, draught poles, yokes, and lashings register speed, control, and load. Gilding and paint residues mark parade builds, while plainer shells suggest training or hunting.   Additionally, conservators reconstructed approximately 1,500 gold flakes into leather harness panels, which feature Syrian plant motifs and an Aegean spiral—indicating a diplomatic influence on design choices.   Look for: Six Tutankhamun chariots with distinct wheels and lashings Reconstructed harness panels from 1,500 gold flakes with Syrian and Aegean motifs Composite bows and quivers with hundreds of arrows Shields and daggers of Tutankhamun as court and combat gear Throwing sticks and hunting equipment linking sport to kingship   Materials and Methods: Networks of Knowledge Tutankhamun’s meteoritic iron dagger with its gold sheath. Source: Grand Egyptian Museum.   Various materials found in King Tut’s tomb connect the boy king’s brief reign to broader Bronze Age networks. Blue glass and faience trace high-temperature craft, cedar and ebony trace supply routes, resins and pigments widen scope beyond the Nile, and gold leaf signals skilled labor.   Methods of creation are also visible. Conservation of the King Tut trove has revealed grid lines, underdrawings, reinforced joins, as well as the meteoritic dagger’s nickel and cobalt signatures. Objects shed light on the decision-making and creative processes of ancient people.   Look for: Meteoritic iron dagger of Tutankhamun with high nickel and cobalt Libyan Desert Glass scarab pectoral highlighting exotic materials Blue glass and faience as evidence of high-temperature recipes Imported cedar and ebony for furniture and chests Pigments and resins that trace long-distance supply Visible tool marks, grid lines, and ancient repairs made legible through conservation

© The Trustees of the British Museum   The legendary Trojan War was considered by the ancient Greeks to be the most important conflict of the Bronze Age. It pitted the Greeks (called Achaeans, Argives, or Danaans), imagined to be the Mycenaean ancestors of the classical Greeks, against the city of Troy and its allies in Asia Minor. The epic poem centers on conflicts between the heroes and champions on the opposing sides. Each hero is described in larger-than-life terms, but not all are equal in valor, skill, courage, or intelligence. Meet 13 of the great heroes that fought on the side of the Greeks, how they are portrayed in Homer’s Iliad, and the mark they have left on history.   1. Achilles: The Greek Army’s Greatest Hero Detail of a krater showing Achilles and Hector in combat, attributed to the Berlin Painter, c. 490-460 BCE. Source: British Museum   Achilles is portrayed as the greatest hero among the Greeks and is the central character of the Iliad. Achilles was the son of the Argonaut Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, a goddess of the sea. He was trained by the centaur Chiron, who taught him the art of war. It was prophesied that he would either live a long life in obscurity or die young and obtain glory. To avoid this, Thetis dipped him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable; critically, she missed his heel where she held him.   Homer’s Iliad begins with Achilles withdrawing himself and his soldiers from the war after quarreling with Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek army. As the situation deteriorates for the Greeks, Achilles rejects all attempts to mollify him. Finally, Patroclus, his cousin and close friend, convinces Achilles to allow him to take his place at the head of his troops, wearing Achilles’ armor. Patroclus saves the Greeks but is killed, causing Achilles to rejoin the war.   Kylix depicting Hephaestus giving arms of Achilles to Thetis, attributed to the Foundry Painter, c. 5th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Given new armor forged by the god Hephaestus, Achilles goes on a rampage, slaughtering hundreds of Trojans, fighting the river god Scamander, and killing the Trojan hero Hector. He then holds elaborate funeral games in honor of Patroclus. Achilles goes on to kill Penthesilea, the queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of Ethiopia, both of whom were Trojan allies. Achilles himself is killed by the Trojan hero Paris, though this scene does not appear in the Iliad. Achilles’ funeral is instead referenced in the Odyssey.   2. Agamemnon: Commander of the Greek Army at Troy Mask of Agamemnon, Mycenae, 1600-1500 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   The king of Mycenae, commander of the Achaean army, and brother of Menelaus, Agamemnon was the most powerful lord in Greece. After Helen of Troy and Paris ran off, Agamemnon gathered the Greek contingents to invade Troy in response to the heinous breach of hospitality. Before the Greek fleet departed, Agamemnon insulted the goddess Artemis. He was forced to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to make amends, an act that his wife Clytemnestra never forgave.   According to the Iliad, in the 10th year of the war, Agamemnon again offended the gods by taking Chryseis, the daughter of a priest of Apollo, as a slave. He was forced to return her to avoid plague, and so decided to take Achilles’ slave girl, Briseis. This insult sparked the conflict that led Achilles to withdraw from the war. Agamemnon led the Greeks against Troy without Achilles, with disastrous consequences.   Chryses vainly soliciting the Return of Chryseis before the Tent of Agamemnon, by Jacopo Alessandro Calvi, 1760-1815. Source: National Trust Collections of Britain   Agamemnon, though not the equal of Achilles in bravery or Ajax in strength, is still one of the greatest Achaean warriors of all the Trojan War Heroes. In one memorable scene, he goes on a killing spree, almost on the scale of Achilles. After the fall of Troy, Agamemnon receives the Trojan princess Cassandra as a prize and delays his return voyage in an attempt to appease the goddess Athena, because Ajax had violated her sanctuary during the sack of Troy. Agamemnon’s eventual homecoming is not a happy one. He and Cassandra are murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Orestes and Electra, Agamemnon’s children, eventually avenge his death.   3. Menelaus: Homeric Lord of the Spartans Menelaus pursuing Helen and startled by her beauty, by the Altamura painter, c. 470-450 BCE. Source: British Museum   Husband of Helen, brother of Agamemnon, and king of Sparta, Menelaus appears in both the Iliad and the Odyssey. According to legend, Menelaus was one of many Greek suitors who sought to marry the beautiful Helen. To avoid conflict, her father made the suitors swear an oath to abide by the decision, support each other, and defend Helen’s husband. When Paris took Helen to Troy, Menelaus called on the suitors to fulfill their oath.   Attic black-figure amphora depicting Menelaus leaving Troy with Helen, c. 6th century BCE. Source: Antikensammlung, Berlin   In the Iliad, Menelaus challenges Paris to single combat and easily defeats him. However, Paris is saved by Aphrodite, and Menelaus is wounded by the Trojan warrior Pandarus, who shoots him with an arrow. Menelaus helps retrieve Patroclus’ body and is credited with killing eight named Trojan warriors. He is one of the warriors who hid inside the famed Trojan Horse and participated in the Sack of Troy; again, this episode is not recorded in the Iliad, but recounted in the Odyssey. Later, he takes Helen back with him to Sparta after a long journey during which a storm forces them to stop in Crete and Egypt.   4. Odysseus: Architect of the Greek Victory  Pottery cup depicting Achilles and Odysseus, Attic, c. 470 BCE. Source: British Museum   Odysseus is the cunning king of Ithaca. Always with a plan, he devised the oath that bound the Achaeans to come to the aid of Helen’s husband, though he himself tried to avoid the conflict. His attempt was discovered and exposed by Palamedes, whose downfall Odysseus later orchestrated with the aid of his usual partner in crime, Diomedes. Throughout the story, he often serves as counselor and advisor, especially to Agamemnon. He is the main emissary sent to persuade Achilles to rejoin the war, where he shows his diplomatic skills.   Terracotta relief of Odysseus returning to Penelope, Melia, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   He and Diomedes also conduct several special operations against the Trojans. They kill the Trojan ally Rhesus and steal the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy. After Ajax and Odysseus retrieve the body of Achilles, Odysseus is awarded Achilles’ armor, which leads Ajax to commit suicide. Ultimately, it is Odysseus who engineers the fall of Troy. First, he reinforces the Greeks by bringing Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and Philoctetes, the wielder of Heracles’ bow, into the Greek camp. He then creates the famed Trojan Horse.   Odysseus is best known for his long journey home, recounted in the Odyssey, which took him ten years. When he finally arrived in Ithaca, he had to use his cunning again to reclaim his palace from suitors keen to marry his still-loyal wife Penelope.   5. Patroclus: The Tragic Martyr at Troy Achilles bandaging Patroclus’ wounds illustrated on the interior of a Greek kylix, or drinking cup. Source: Antes Museum in Berlin, Germany   The son of Menoetius, the king of Opus, and a former Argonaut, Patroclus was sent to be raised alongside Achilles after killing another child over a game. Slightly older than Achilles, he served as a squire, counselor, and wartime companion. Although later Greek authors expanded and reinterpreted their relationship, there is no sexual dynamic between Achilles and Patroclus in the Homeric tradition.   When the war turned against the Greeks and the Trojans threatened the Greek ships, Patroclus convinced the reticent Achilles to lend him both his soldiers and equipment. Wearing Achilles’ armor and carrying Achilles’ weapons, he leads Achilles’ troops. Patroclus drives the Trojans back to the city gates and kills the Trojan hero Sarpedon.   Achilles Removing Patroclus’ Body From the Battlefield, print by Léon Davent, 16th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   However, Patroclus pushes his luck and is killed by the Trojan heroes Euphorbus and Hector with the aid of Apollo. Hector takes Achilles’ armor, but Menelaus and Ajax rescue Patroclus’ body. A distraught Achilles later holds an elaborate burial and funeral games for Patroclus, and rejoins the war to seek vengeance.   6. Ajax the Greater: Defender of the Greek Ships and Army The duel of Hector and Ajax on an Attic red-figure cup,  c. 5th-4th century BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   The towering Ajax was the son of Telamon and king of Salamis. He was another Argonaut, who also hunted the Calydonian boar, and half-brother of Teucer, another warrior in the Greek army. The strongest of all the Greek warriors, Ajax was trained alongside Achilles by the centaur Chiron. Known as the “Bulwark of the Achaeans,” succeeding despite receiving little assistance from the gods (unlike many other heroes). Throughout the course of the Iliad, he is never wounded.   Ajax often fought alongside Teucer, who sheltered behind his massive shield. Ajax fought a duel against Hector, which lasted for an entire day. They meet again later, when Hector attacks the Greek camp and ships. Ajax is crucial to the Greek defense, nearly killing Hector with a rock and holding off the Trojan army almost single-handedly.   The suicide of Ajax the Great, Etrurian red-figured calyx-krater, c. 400–350 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ajax is one of the emissaries sent to Achilles by Agamemnon to try to convince him to rejoin the fight. He recovers Patroclus’ body after he was killed by Hector, and recovers Achilles’ body after he is killed, with the help of Odysseus. When Odysseus and not he is awarded Achilles’ arms and armor, Ajax’s honor is insulted, and he becomes enraged. Ajax slaughters the Achaean livestock, which Athena causes him to mistake for his enemies. Upon recovering his senses, Ajax is unable to live with the shame of his actions and commits suicide.   7. Diomedes: The Young Greek Rival of Achilles Roman Cameo of Diomedes Stealing the Palladium, c. 1st century BCE/CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum   Youngest of the Greek heroes, Diomedes, the king of Argos, still had more military experience than most of the other champions. Before the Trojan War, Diomedes led a major expedition against Thebes, where his father had died as one of the Seven Against Thebes. During the war, he kills the Trojan hero Pandarus, nearly kills the hero Aeneas, faces Hector, and becomes the only mortal to wound two gods, Aphrodite and Ares, in a single day.   Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium, from the Florentine Picture-Chronicle, circle of Maso Finiguerra and Baccio Baldini, 1470-1475. Source: British Museum   He was also respected for his wisdom and counsel. He was selected as an emissary to Achilles and had a memorable exchange with the Trojan hero Glaucus on the battlefield. Diomedes often partnered with Odysseus on special operations, such as the night raid on the camp of the Trojan ally Rhesus and the theft of the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy.   After the Fall of Troy, Diomedes returned safely to Argos but was exiled by his wife and the people who had turned against him. Eventually, Diomedes settled in Southern Italy and founded ten cities in the region.   8. Nestor: Counselor and Advisor of the Greek Army Cup showing Hecamede mixing kykeon for Nestor, c. 490 BCE. Source: Louvre   An Argonaut, who had battled centaurs and hunted the Calydonian boar, the aged hero Nestor was king of Pylos. Too old to engage in combat, Nestor led his troops from his chariot and let his sons, Antilochus and Thrasymedes, do the fighting. Nestor was a skilled public speaker and counselor who often offered his advice to the younger leaders of the Greek army.   There is a subtext of humor in Homer’s portrayal of Nestor, who is never able to dispense his advice without first offering long-winded accounts of his own heroic actions in the past when he faced similar situations. Nestor’s military advice is also often considered anachronistic, more suited to an earlier time when he was younger. While much of Nestor’s advice is of questionable quality, his reputation as a wise counselor rested on his speaking abilities.   A Roman mosaic probably depicting Nestor, between Achilles and Briseis, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the Fall of Troy, Nestor immediately left for home rather than trying to appease the gods and arrived safely without any issues. He later appears briefly in the Odyssey when Telemachus travels to Pylos seeking news of his father Odysseus.   9. Idomeneus: Cretan Ally of the Greek Army Le retour d’Idomédée, by Jacques Gamelin 1738-1803. Source: Musée des Augustins   The leader of the Cretan forces, Idomeneus was the son of Deucalion, an Argonaut who also participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, and the grandson of Minos, remembered for his Labyrinth and the Minotaur.  Idomeneus was one of the older Greek warriors and a trusted advisor, but continued to fight on the front lines. He is credited with killing twenty Trojans and three Amazons, and briefly repulsed one of Hector’s most determined attacks.   After the fall of Troy, Idomeneus returns to Crete, but his ships are caught in a terrible storm. In exchange for divine protection, Idomeneus promises Poseidon that, should he survive, he will sacrifice the first living thing he encounters to the god. Upon his return, Idomeneus is greeted by his son, whom he dutifully sacrifices. Angered by this, the gods send a plague to Crete, and the Cretan people exile Idomeneus, who travels first to Calabria in Italy and then to Colophon in Anatolia.   10. Machaon: The Greek Physician at Troy Asclepius with his sons Podalirius and Machaon and his three daughters, with supplicants, Greek relief, c. 470-450 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum of Athens Telephus, son of Hercules, cured of a potentially fatal wound with some rust from Achilles’ spear, with which he had originally been wounded, Pierre Brebiette, 17th century, courtesy The Wellcome Library[/caption]   Alongside his brother Podalirius, Machaon led the Thessalian contingent of the Achaean army, though he is remembered more as a healer than a fighter. Machaon was the son of Asclepius, the god of healing and medical arts. During the Trojan War, Machaon tended to the various Greek warriors when they were wounded.   Telephus, son of Hercules, cured of a potentially fatal wound with some rust from Achilles’ spear, with which he had originally been wounded, Pierre Brebiette, 17th century. Source: Wellcome Library   His most important contribution to the war effort was the healing of Telephus, the king of Mysia. After arriving off the coast of Anatolia, the Greeks attacked Mysia, mistaking it for the city of Troy. The Greek attack was beaten off, but Achilles dealt Telephus a wound with his spear, which refused to heal.   Seeking a cure for his wound, Telephus journeyed to Argos, where the Greek fleet was regrouping. Machaon revealed that the only way to cure the wound was with rust from Achilles’ spear. When his wound was healed, the grateful Telephus offered to guide the Greeks to Troy. Machaon was killed in the tenth year of the war by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus.   11. Ajax the Lesser: Brutal Greek Hero of the Locrians  Achilles and Ajax Playing a Board Game, by Exekias, black-figure, c. 540-30 BCE.   The leader of the Locrian contingent of the Achaean army, this Ajax was known as the “Lesser” or “Little” to distinguish him from Ajax, the son of Telamon. He was skilled at throwing a spear and was an exceptionally fast runner; only Achilles was faster. During the funeral games held to honor Patroclus, he competed in a foot race. He was tripped by Athena, who favored Odysseus, so that he finished second.   Later, Ajax participated in the sack of Troy, dragging the Trojan princess Cassandra from the Temple of Athena, and in some accounts, raped her in the temple. After his crime was revealed, he hid from the rest of the Greeks until they departed. As Ajax then made his own way home, Athena caused his ship to sink after it was struck by lightning. Ajax and some of his men survived with the aid of Poseidon and were left clinging to a rock, where he screamed his defiance at the gods. Offended, Poseidon split the rock so that Ajax was swallowed by the sea.   12. Teucer: The Greatest Archer of the Greek Army Bronze Sculpture of Teucer by Hamo Thornycroft, 1919. Source: Carnegie Museum of Art   This great archer Teucer, from the island of Salamis, was related to heroes on both sides of the Trojan War. He was the half-brother of Ajax the Greater, nephew of King Priam of Troy, and cousin to the Trojan princes Hector and Paris. Homer credited him with killing some 30 Trojan warriors and even with wounding the Trojan hero Glaucus.   During Hector’s drive towards the Greek camp and ships, Teucer teamed up with Ajax, firing his bow from the cover of Ajax’s shield. His attempts to kill Hector were thwarted by Apollo, who redirected his arrows. Hector briefly put Teucer out of commission by flinging a rock at him, but Teucer returned and continued to fight until Zeus caused his bow to break. Teucer later confronted Hector again with a spear and narrowly escaped.   After Ajax committed suicide, Teucer guarded his body to ensure it received a proper burial, but failed to recover his arms and armor. When he returned home after the war, he was banished for not returning with Ajax’s body, arms, or armor. He went on to found the city of Salamis in Cyprus.   13. Philoctetes: Wielder of Herakles’ Bow  Terracotta squat lekythos depicting Philoctetes, Greek c. 420 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Famed as an archer, Philoctetes was the son of Poeas, an Argonaut and the king of Meliboea in Thessaly. As a youth, Philoctetes won great favor from Herakles by being the only one brave enough to light his funeral pyre. Herakles had donned the shirt of Nessus, which was contaminated with the venom of the Lernaean Hydra. Unable to remove the shirt, Herakles built himself a funeral pyre to end his suffering. In gratitude, the newly deified Herakles gifted Philoctetes his bow and arrows, which had been dipped in the venom of the hydra.   On the way to Troy, Philoctetes was stranded on the island of Lemnos by his fellow Greeks, on the advice of Odysseus. There are at least four different explanations for this, but all agree that he received a wound on his foot that festered and had a terrible smell.   The isolation of Philoctetes on Lemnos, by Jean-Charles-Joseph Rémond, 1818. Source: Musee des Augustins   After ten years of war, the prophetic Trojan prince Helenus advised the Greeks that Troy would not fall without the bow of Herakles. Returning to Lemnos, Odysseus and Diomedes, or Neoptolemus, discovered that Philoctetes was still alive. After being convinced to sail for Troy, Philoctetes’ wound was healed at the Greek camp. With the bow of Herakles in hand, Philoctetes kills Paris and is one of the Greek heroes selected to hide inside the Trojan Horse.   Major Milestones in the Timeline of the Trojan War King Menelaus of Sparta marries Helen, and all her suitors swear to defend him Prince Paris of Troy visits Sparta and breaks the codes of hospitality, abducting Helen to Troy King Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, gathers the Greek troops, though Odysseus and Achilles try to avoid the draft Agamemnon offends Artemis and must sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia before sailing for Troy The Iliad picks up the story in the 10th year of the siege of Troy Agamemnon offends Achilles, causing him to withdraw from the war effort Patroclus fights in Achilles’ place and is killed by Hector Achilles rejoins the war in grief and vengeance, killing Hector and dishonoring his body Achilles is killed, shot with an arrow by Paris with the help of Apollo Odysseus is given Achilles’ arms and armor, and Ajax kills himself Following a prophecy, Philocetes, wielding the bow of Herakles, is retrieved from an island where he was abandoned, and kills Paris Odysseus devises the plan of the Trojan Horse, and Troy is sacked by the Greeks Each of the Greek heroes begins their journeys home, including the famous ten-year journey of Odysseus

  All cinema often dramatizes history, but several Japanese war films managed to stay grounded in fact while still delivering captivating stories. This article highlights four films that may use some dramatic license but ultimately get to the heart of some of Japan’s most iconic battles. From the legendary samurai duel at Kawanakajima to the largest field battle in Japanese history or the harrowing trench war at Port Arthur, these movies offer visceral, faithful insights into bloodsoaked episodes that have helped shape modern Japan.   Heaven and Earth (1990) and the Battle of Kawanakajima (1561) Takeda Shingen, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1843-1847. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The 1990 epic Heaven and Earth, directed by Haruki Kadokawa, dramatizes the fourth Battle of Kawanakajima, the most significant of five clashes between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, two legends of the Sengoku period. After the emperor and the shogun lost authority in the mid-15th century, warlords across Japan began campaigns of conquest to consolidate power and put as much of the fragmented country under their control as possible. A direct confrontation between Takeda and Uesugi was all but inevitable.   One of the most famous battles in the history of Japanese warfare occurred on October 18, 1561, and involved roughly 20,000 troops under Takeda and 13,000 under Uesugi. Both sides suffered heavy losses—4,000 and 3,000 respectively—yet the outcome remained inconclusive.   Heaven and Earth captures the scale of the battle by using thousands of extras and filming in Alberta to recreate the open plains of Shinano (modern-day Nagano Prefecture). It faithfully reproduces uniforms and Sengoku-period tactics, such as the kakuyoku (“crane wing”), Takeda Shingen’s take on the pincer movement. The film also emphasizes the importance of subterfuge during large-scale feudal battles.   Uesugi Kenshin, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1843-1844. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps the film’s most iconic moment is the climactic one-on-one confrontation between Kenshin and Shingen. This idea was drawn from real accounts: “[Kenshin] swung his sword at Shingen, who did not have time to draw his own sword. He rose from his camp stool and parried the blows as best he could with the heavy war fan that he had been using for signaling” (Turnbull, S., 2008, p. 75). While the film embellishes this very brief encounter into a heroic and cinematic duel, it reflects a kernel of truth that underscores the weight of the rivalry between some of the biggest figures in all of Japanese warfare.   Heaven and Earth unfortunately emphasizes Kenshin’s spirituality and moral code and contrasts it with Shingen’s military drive, portraying the former as something of a hero and the latter as something of a villain, which does not conform to the historical facts. Beyond that, though, there are enough elements in the film that offer a solid foundational insight into samurai battlefield tactics.   The Floating Castle (2012) and the Siege of Oshi (1590) Still from the Movie “The Floating Castle” directed by Shinji Higuchi and Isshin Inudo, 2012. Source: Official trailer   The Floating Castle, directed by Shinji Higuchi and Isshin Inudo, tells the true story of the siege of Oshi Castle of 1590, when a small garrison held off a vastly superior force. In the late 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Japan’s second great unifier, was campaigning in Musashi Province. One of his main men on the ground was Ishida Mitsunari, who was sent with over 23,000 troops to take Oshi Castle defended by just a little over 500 samurai and around 2,000 civilians under Narita Nagachika in what is today Saitama Prefecture. Ishida’s victory seemed more than certain.   The Floating Castle nails the essentials of this historic event: the attacker’s numerical superiority, the fortress’ month-long, defiant resistance, and the innovative siege tactics used by Mitsunari. Mitsunari attempted to replicate Hideyoshi’s earlier success at Takamatsu by diverting local rivers to flood Oshi Castle, building 28 kilometers of dikes in the process. Yet owing to the castle’s high elevation, the stratagem failed. Another thing that the movie gets right is the role of Kaihime, a female warrior, in the defense of Oshi Castle: “Ishida Mitsunari was therefore surprised when he discovered that a woman was defending Oshi” (Turnbull, S., 2010, p. 34).   Oshi Castle. Photograph by kamoseiro, 2007. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The defenders only surrendered when news of their lord’s defeat at Odawara reached them. In the end, Oshi Castle was never taken by force. The Floating Castle weaves comic elements into the story, which does clash somewhat with the spirit of what was ultimately an inspiring tale of resistance against impossible odds. However, the topography, the design of the castle, the troop movements, and other military details are quite realistic and serve as a valuable visual aid to learning about the basics of Japanese siege tactics.   The movie also shines a light on female warriors and locations that rarely if ever get mentioned in the West when discussing Japanese warfare, such as Saitama or Odawara, elevating its educational value.   Sekigahara (2017) and the Battle of Sekigahara (1600) Still from the Movie “Sekigahara” directed by Masato Harada, 2017. Source: Official trailer   The 2017 epic war drama Sekigahara, directed by Masato Harada, tells the story of the 1600 Battle of Sekigahara, the epic clash that led to the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate and led to over two and a half centuries of peace. Taking place on October 21, 1600 in modern-day Gifu Prefecture, the battle pitted the Eastern Army of Tokugawa Ieyasu (Toranaga in Shogun) against the Western Army led by Ishida Mitsunari.   In total, over 160,000 troops were involved in the largest and arguably most important battle in the history of feudal Japanese warfare: “[In] the autumn of 1600 the issue of supremacy was settled clearly and permanently after only one major battlefield confrontation, at Sekigahara northeast of Kyoto” (Totman, C., 2016, p. 219).   The movie manages to capture a lot of the important background leading up to the battle, like the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the fracturing of his regime, and the power vacuum that ultimately ended with anywhere between 35,000 and 45,000 deaths.   While the film simplifies some political alliances and allegiances (which is to be expected since there were more than 40 generals and commanders on the fields of Sekigahara), it succeeds in conveying the unimaginable scale and chaos of the massive battle. But even trimmed down, the film does seem to have both regular audiences and history buffs in mind, bursting with tons of information like personal names and locations, all while trying to capture as much real history on film as possible. The final effect can be a little dizzying but so was the actual Battle of Sekigahara itself.   Battle of Sekigahara Folding Screen, Author Unknown, Date Unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While studying the film, it is important to look past its flattering portrayal of Ishida and the depiction of Ieyasu as a cold, calculating antagonist. It might make for a more easily digestible plot but it has little basis in reality. The romantic subplot between Ishida and a female ninja named Hatsume should also be overlooked.   However, despite its cinematic liberties, Sekigahara provides a very strong starting point for understanding one of the most pivotal battles in Japanese history, which has been brought to the big screen with more attention to detail than almost any other historic epic in recent memory. It is not perfect, but it goes beyond the basics by faithfully presenting the stakes, the key players, and the battlefield maneuvers that forever changed Japan.   The Battle of Port Arthur (1980) and the Siege of Port Arthur (1904-1905) Still from the Movie “The Battle of Port Arthur” directed by Toshio Masuda, 1980. Source: Official trailer   The Battle of Port Arthur, directed by Toshio Masuda, vividly depicts the battles for Hill 203/Mount Vysokaya during the Siege of Port Arthur. The brutal siege by the Empire of Japan to capture the Russian naval base in Manchuria lasted from August 1, 1904 to January 2, 1905, making it the longest conflict of the Russo-Japanese War. Hill 203 (named for its height in meters) was the key to Japan’s strategy. Capturing it would allow them to place an artillery spotter in the perfect vantage point and accurately shell Russia’s fleet, crippling their naval capabilities in the region.   However, the attack turned into a grueling affair, considered by some the most violent episode of the entire Russo-Japanese War. The exact details are scarce but we know that Russian defenses were fierce, using a complex system of trenches, machine guns, barbed wire, and heavy artillery in one of the earliest examples of modern siege warfare. Japan ultimately took the hill but suffered significant losses.   203 Meter Hill, Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, 1909. Source: Records of Naval Battles in Meiji 37th-38th vol. via Wikimedia Commons   The film accurately captures the savagery of the hill’s repeated assaults and the new, mechanized nature of war that the top brass failed to grasp. During the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), General Nogi Maresuke took the Port Arthur area from Qing China in just a few days, so it was expected of him to repeat that feat with the Russians. The same underestimation of the enemy is felt throughout The Battle of Port Arthur.   The movie emphasizes the physical and emotional toll that trench warfare exacts on soldiers. While it does not fully explore the broader elements of the siege, its focus on the personal hell that soldiers on both sides went through drives home the point that Hill 203 was a new frontier of combat. As such, it is not surprising that the movie features dramatized elements, especially fictional, personal stories of some individual soldiers, but in this case, the fiction helps us understand real history better. In the end, the film stands as a historically grounded, emotionally impactful portrayal of early 20th-century Japanese warfare that anticipated the bloody trench warfare of the First World War.   Sources:   Totman, C. (2016). A History of Japan, Second Edition.   Turnbull, S. (2008). Kawanakajima 1553-64: Samurai power struggle.   Turnbull, S. (2010). Samurai Women: 1184–1877.

  A surprising number of U.S. states owe their names to real historical figures,  some well-known and others more obscure. From monarchs and naval heroes to the nation’s preeminent Founding Father, these names grace US maps as well as fill its history books. Yet, behind them hide deeper tales of power dynamics, colonial ambitions, and cultural values.   Virginia: Queen Elizabeth I The Darnley Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, 1575, unknown artist. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   Virginia was the first permanent British colony established in the United States, so it was fitting to name it after the famous monarch who granted its charter, Queen Elizabeth I. Known as the “Virgin Queen” because she refused to marry, Elizabeth cultivated her image as a symbol of purity and national devotion and was more than happy to grant permission for the new colony to honor her title. The name “Virginia” first appeared on European maps following Sir Walter Raleigh’s use of the name in 1584. The courtier and one of the Queen’s favorite adventurers bestowed the title on the new English Colony without ever stepping on American soil, in honor and thanks to Elizabeth for granting his brother Humphrey Gilbert the charter for the expedition.   Interestingly enough, until the Virgin Queen presumably gave her blessing for the name, the British referred to their new American colony as Wingandacon—a misinterpretation of the land’s name derived from their initial encounter with the Indigenous population. The name appeared in official English documents until the more fitting one proposed by Raleigh replaced it in the late 16th century. The change was made official during Elizabeth’s reign, likely showcasing her support, when Richard Hakluyt, a well-respected chronicler, geographer, and promoter of English colonization, began using it in his published works, including 1589’s The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation.    Similarly to Elizabeth bestowing her name, albeit indirectly, on the new British lands in America, so did the colony confer it on the first baby born across the Atlantic Ocean, Virginia Dare, a granddaughter of the governor of the ill-fated first British settlement of Roanoke.   North and South Carolina: King Charles I Portrait of King Charles I by Anthony van Dyck, c. 1635. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   The name Carolina, like Virginia, stems from an English monarch, Charles I—more specifically, the feminine variation of the Latin version of the King’s name, Carolus. The earliest use of the name appears on the 1629 patent that Charles granted his loyal supporter Sir Robert Heath, then Attorney General of England, to establish a colony in the New World. Ironically, the venture never materialized due to the lack of funding and religious restrictions against Catholic settlers whom Heath hoped to grant passage to the New World. The idea was revived under Charles’ son, Charles II, in 1660, following his father’s execution and the English Civil War between the King and Parliament.   Having reclaimed the throne, Charles II issued a new “Carolina” charter in 1663 to a group of aristocrats who had supported his return to power after a time of Parliamentary rule. Known as Lord Proprietors, the eight aristocrats intended to create a quasi-feudal society proposed by philosopher John Locke. However, geography and economics soon divided the colony into two distinct entities. Whereas North Carolina developed slowly with diminutive tobacco farms, fewer water ports, and scattered settlements, South Carolina expanded and blossomed after establishing Charleston in 1670. It promptly became one of the wealthiest colonies in America, built on rice, indigo, and the backs of enslaved laborers.   The formal split occurred in 1712, yet the two existed under the same proprietorship until 1729, when the British government purchased them from the Lord Proprietors and turned them into two separate royal colonies. Despite the change, the name Carolina remained a symbol of the restored monarchy and the Crown’s colonial reach.   Georgia: King George II Portrait of George II by Thomas Hudson, 1744. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   Georgia was the last of the original British colonies, and the last of the dozen original colonies formed and populated by immigrants arriving from the Old World, rather than carved out of other colonies. Unlike the other colonies’ ties to dreams of profit and religious freedom, Georgia was born out of a social experiment. Chartered in 1732 and named in honor of the reigning British King George II, who ruled from 1727 to 1760, the colony was a brainchild of a former army officer and member of the British Parliament, James Oglethorpe. The politician and a reformer envisioned a colony where the “worthy poor,” withering away in overcrowded debtor’s prisons in Britain, could receive a second chance at life.   Together with a group of philanthropists known as the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America—undoubtedly named as such to court favor for their endeavor—Oglethorpe petitioned the King for land where convicted debtors could repay their debt by building communities and avoiding the moral decay of urban poverty. With the charter in hand, the member of Parliament and 120 settlers founded Savannah in 1733. The settlers included debtors, persecuted Protestants, and other poor seeking new opportunities.   Intended to blend social idealism and military strategy by acting as a buffer zone between British colonies and Spanish Florida, Georgia hit a snag when it became apparent that its soil and climate made plantation agriculture highly profitable. The original charter favored a society of industrious farmers, banning slavery, large landholdings, and rum. Watching the success of the neighboring colony of South Carolina’s cash crop economy, the settlers demanded changes to Georgia’s strict rules. By 1752, the Trustees had given up control, and the colony’s utopian vision gave way to a market-based economy.   Louisiana: King Louis XIV Portrait of King Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1700-1701. Source: Louvre Museum   Because King Louis XIV, the Sun King, was arguably the most powerful monarch in France’s history, it was fitting to name the nation’s grand prize in the Americas after him. While an earlier expedition down the Mississippi River to find its source was unsuccessful, the 1682 endeavor by René-Robert Cavelier and Sieur de LaSalle that saw them reach the Gulf of Mexico secured for their King the rights to the entire river valley.   Standing on the banks of what today is New Orleans, La Salle proclaimed: “On the part of the very-high, very powerful Prince Louis the Great, by the grace of God King of France and Navarre, fourteenth of this name…[I have taken possession] of this country of Lousiana.” Following a ceremony at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the explorers planted a cross and buried a brass plate proclaiming the land as belonging to the Sun King. Their claim extended from the Great Lakes down to the Gulf, encompassing parts of fifteen current US states and more than 800,000 square miles.   Louisiana, or more correctly, La Louisiane (meaning “the Land of Louis”), was designed as a linchpin of France’s empire in the Americas, linking New France (modern-day Canada) to the Gulf of Mexico. Sparsely populated and thinly governed, the area became a loose network of missions and forts operated by French Jesuits and traders. Always lightly defended, France ceded Louisiana to Spain following defeat in the Seven Years’ War in 1763, to avoid losing it to the British along with French Canada.   Spain ruled the territory until 1800, when it quietly returned it to France through the Treaty of San Ildefonso. Seeking funds for his military conquests, Napoleon Bonaparte then sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, doubling the size of the young republic.   Washington: George Washington America’s First President, George Washington, by Gilbert Stuart, 1803. Source: The Clark Museum   Washington became a state relatively late in the United States’ history. In fact, by the time it was admitted to the Union in 1889, more than a century had passed since George Washington led the nation as the first president, and the name Washington was already synonymous with American ideals of republican virtue.   Because the Columbia River acted as a natural divide within Oregon Territory, and the settlers of the northern portion felt cut off from the area’s political and economic center in the south, a petition arrived in Congress to carve out the northern portion of the territory and grant it its own governance. In 1853, Congress christened the land “Washington Territory” as a tribute to the nation’s Founding Father. The symbolism was not lost on the Legislative branch members as the United States was being torn apart at the seams by sectional conflict, which would plunge the nation into the Civil War in less than a decade. Washington’s name was meant to serve as a unifying symbol, a reminder of shared origins and ideals, especially with its location in the often-contested western frontier.   The only debate and confusion stemmed from fears that its name would be confused with Washington, D.C., the capital also named after the Revolutionary War general. Ultimately, the symbolism and need for a unifying event won over, leading to Washington Territory becoming the only state named after a native-born American when it was finally granted statehood in 1889. Unlike previous states named after people, Washington’s naming celebrated democracy, merit, and American identity instead of honoring hereditary titles and noble patrons.   Lesser-Known Inspirations in the Mid-Atlantic The Thirteen Original Colonies in 1774 (McConnell’s historical maps of the United States). Source: Library of Congress   What separates Maryland from other early colonies named after kings or queens is that Queen Henrietta Maria, in whose honor the colony was christened in 1632, was a consort and not a reigning monarch at the time. The French-born Catholic wife of King Charles I of England never visited or influenced the colony’s founding. Terra Mariae (Mary’s Land) first appeared in the original charter granted to Cecil Calvert, the 2nd Lord Baltimore, to lend the colony monarchical legitimacy. It was also a nod to Catholicism, as Calvert envisioned Maryland as a haven for persecuted English Catholics, who shared the Queen’s religion.   The name Delaware originates from Sir Thomas West, the third Baron De La Warr, who once served as the governor of Virginia in the early 17th century. West never set foot in Delaware during his lifetime. Having arrived with fresh supplies and military leadership following Jamestown’s “Starving Time” of 1609-1610, West was widely credited with saving the Virginia colony. The following year, sailing under De La Warr’s authority, Virginia explorers encountered a body of water they decided to name after him, De La Warr’s River and De La Warr’s Bay, as a way to honor the hero of Jamestown, who at the time was the highest-ranking colonial official. Soon, the locals began calling the surrounding lands Delaware, a name that stuck when the area ultimately became a colony.   Finally, in the late 17th century, King Charles II of England owed a significant debt to the estate of Admiral Sir William Penn, a distinguished naval officer who helped restore the monarch to the throne. To settle the said debt, the King granted Admiral Penn’s son, the young William Penn, a large tract of land in the Colonies in 1681. Charles named the 45,000 square miles in the New World “Pennsylvania,” which means “Penn’s Woods.”

  The Silk Road was a web of trade routes that spanned from about 138 BCE to around 1453 CE that enabled the flow of trade items and cultures between North Africa, parts of the Middle East, Europe, and Asia. First established by China’s Han dynasty and later revived by the Tang dynasty, it is widely referred to as the first artery of global exchange because of the influence it had on Eastern and Western cultural, economic, and governance systems.   Why the Han Dynasty Established the Silk Road Sun Quan, Great Emperor of Eastern Wu from the Thirteen Emperors Scroll by Yan Liben, Tang Dynasty, 7th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston)   The Han Dynasty led by Emperor Wu initially established the Silk Road as it sought to trade with regions in the West. Unfortunately, it faced constant threats from nomadic tribes. To overcome the problem, Wu sought to engage in diplomacy and extensive military campaigns. And so he dispatched an envoy, Zhang Qian, to forge alliances against the formidable Xiongnu confederation of nomadic groups that hindered the expansion of the trade routes. In 138 BCE, the Han envoy Zhang Qian undertook a mission to the Western Regions that provided invaluable intelligence. His first mission is considered to be the initial foundation of the Silk Road.    Zhangye National Geopark in the Hexi Corridor. Source: Wikipedia   On his second mission in 119 BCE, he established the first diplomatic ties with kingdoms such as Wusun through the exchange of items such as gold and silk. Soon, the Han Dynasty’s military was able to advance into the Hexi Corridor and Tarim Basin, creating the security needed for trade to flourish. This was achieved through major military attacks that defeated the Xiongnu and pushed them from the Hexi Corridor. The corridor harbored a key route that connected China to the Western Regions. Military bases were set up along the route to secure it.   What Happened After the Fall of the Han Dynasty Map of the Tang Dynasty’s Empire. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By the 1st century CE, Chinese silk was in high demand as far west as Rome. Over time, the Han-era Silk Road became one of the biggest achievements of the Han dynasty’s foreign policy. Notably, the routes constantly required military protection against the Xiongnu, leading to the extension of the Great Wall and the establishment of garrisons and fortified towns. However, after the fall of the Han Dynasty in 220 CE, other regional groups such as the Sassanid Empire in Western Asia began to fill in the void by managing some of the routes.   That was until the 7th century CE when the Tang Dynasty re-established Chinese control over the routes.   Changes After the Tang Dynasty Reestablished Control Over the Silk Road Emperor Tang Xuanzong and Yang Guifei Playing Flute Together by Yashima Gakutei, 1603–1867, via Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   The revival brought renewed stability and a vibrant cosmopolitan culture. In the new era, the military strength of the Tang helped to secure the Tarim Basin from the Eastern and Western Turks. A few years later, the Tang dynasty established the Protectorate General to Pacify the West around 640 CE in order to enhance control over the Silk Road. While it was a military-led administration, it marked a new era of secure trade. Around 702 CE, the Protectorate General of Beiting was established to oversee the Silk Road’s northern route.   The dynasty reduced taxes on merchants while consolidating control over the oasis kingdoms of Kucha, Khotan and Kashgar. The strategy was initially successful and the stability greatly favored the Sogdian merchants – an Eastern Iranian-speaking people who transported goods between the interconnected regions, while acting as translators. In the late 8th century, however, the An Lushan Rebellion spanning from 755 CE to 763 CE weakened the dynasty’s control over the routes due to the withdrawal of troops. The interruption resulted in the Tang dynasty losing significant territories to the Tibetans.   How the Tang Dynasty Influenced Silk Road Culture Present-day Xi’an, via Belt and Road News   Despite losing territories, the Tang Dynasty still maintained cultural influence for some time, and places such as Chang’an (modern-day Xi’an) became bustling international metropolises. This was because the Tang had turned such cities into inclusive, vibrant hubs to attract traders and inhabitants from across Asia. As many as 1 million people lived in the city of Chang’an and its suburbs. As such, it was widely referred to as the million-man city in Chinese records.   The Tang Dynasty officially ended in 907 CE. The decline marked the close of the Silk Road’s Golden Age. The next era saw the routes fragmented. Subsequent empires such as the Mongols would later revive the routes but the foundational work of the Han and Tang was complete.

  Cinematic samurai have long been depicted as sword-fighting, philosophy-spouting, honor-bound warriors of feudal Japan, but some movies thankfully go deeper and explore more nuanced and historically accurate truths about this social class. Everything from dealing with poverty in a myriad of ways to cruelty fueled by unearned privilege have all made their way to big-screen productions that today serve as valuable educational tools. The following five movies cast a light on many real yet often overlooked aspects of samurai life and expose the humanity (or lack thereof) behind their legend.   1. Harakiri (1962): The Theater and Tragedy of Ritual Suicide Still from the Movie “Harakiri” directed by Masaki Kobayashi, 1962. Source: Harakiri original trailer   Masaki Kobayashi’s Harakiri cuts deep into the myth of samurai honor and the Japanese warriors’ supposed embrace of death while revealing the blood-soaked reality beneath. Set in 17th-century Edo (modern-day Tokyo), the movie follows Tsugumo Hanshiro (Tatsuya Nakadai), a ronin who arrives at the estate of the powerful Ii clan and requests to commit seppuku in their courtyard to escape his life of poverty in a dignified way. What follows next is a powerful showcase of samurai as human beings, with all their fears, arrogance, and cruelty, as well as a lesson in ritual suicide in Japan.   The film contrasts two key practices: Seppuku, a ritual of self-disemboweling that typically ends with beheading by a second (kaishaku), and harakiri, the physical act of cutting open the stomach, which is certainly a part of formal seppuku but which by the Edo Period (1603-1868) had mostly been turned into a symbolic gesture.   Traditionally, a samurai choosing death on their own terms bathed, dressed in white (the color of the dead), and then cut open their belly, which showed they were not afraid of pain and which, most importantly, was believed to release their spirit through the stomach wound. However, starting in the 17th century, many samurai would instead simply touch their abdomens with a sword or fan before being decapitated. The reality is that the samurai, as human beings, did not really want to needlessly suffer unimaginable pain in their final hours, even at the supposed cost of their souls becoming trapped.   Tousei buyuuden: Takasaki Saichirou, Ukiyo-e woodblock print of warrior about to perform seppuku. Kunikazu Utagawa, 1850s. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Harakiri acknowledges these trends among Edo-period samurai and then additionally criticizes the practice of seppuku when a young ronin is forced to actually slice open his belly before receiving the kaishaku’s mercy. Worse yet, he has to do it with a bamboo sword. It was a gruesome act that was driven by practicality and cruelty masquerading as honor. The people behind it, the men of the Ii clan, wanted to discourage other ronin from pretending to want to commit suicide in the courtyards of great houses in the hopes of being given some money to go away, which was apparently common at the start of the Edo Period when many former warriors had trouble finding work.   Historical records confirm that by this time, seppuku had changed from the way for a warrior to arrange their death on their own terms into a tool for punishment. What transpires next in the movie is a violent takedown of this way of thinking that, nonetheless, exposes the “honor” of seppuku as little more than a façade.   2. Ran (1985): The Insignificance of Family During a Quest for Power Still from the Movie “Ran” (1985), directed by Akira Kurosawa. Source: Official trailer   Akira Kurosawa’s Ran fuses Shakespeare’s King Lear with Japanese history to show that, when it came to consolidating power during Japan’s Sengoku Period, blood-ties meant very little. In the movie, Lord Hidetora Ichimonji (Tatsuya Nakadai) divides his domain among his two sons while disinheriting a third one. This leads to bloodshed and the titular chaos (the literal meaning of ran) as Ichimonji’s sons betray their father.   The movie captures a sad truth of the period: for samurai, family was expendable when lands, castles, and power were on the line. The famous warlord Oda Nobunaga, who kickstarted the unification of Japan following the decline of the Ashikaga Shogunate, orchestrated the deaths of two of his family members. During the early stages of his career, Nobunaga killed his uncle (by forcing him to commit seppuku) to strengthen his control of the Oda as Nobutomo was unwilling to accept his young nephew as the head of the clan.   Ukiyo-e of Oda Nobunaga, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1830. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Later, Nobunaga’s younger brother Nobuyuki (also known as Nobukatsu) plotted with another family to overthrow Nobunaga. Twice. The second time earned him a death sentence after being lured into a castle in Kiyosu thinking that he was visiting his sick brother.   Nobunaga additionally ordered his retainer, Tokugawa Ieyasu, to sentence his own son and wife to death after the two were alleged to be working with Oda rivals. Ieyasu was not in a position to rebel against Nobunaga but he never made a move against him after rising through the ranks, suggesting that he simply accepted the trade-off of his family for his political ambitions.   In Ran, the eldest sons turn on their father with cold efficiency, echoing the unfortunate yet historic truth of the Sengoku period when samurai honor coexisted with calculated familial murder.   3. The Twilight Samurai (2002): The Rural Samurai’s Late-Stage Farmer-Warrior Duality Still from the Movie “The Twilight Samurai” directed by Yoji Yamada, 2002. Source: Official trailer   Yoji Yamada’s The Twilight Samurai dismantles the myth of the samurai as noble warriors by following Seibei Iguchi (Hiroyuki Sanada), a low-ranking samurai in rural Yamagata (northeastern Japan) during the final days of the Edo Period. The most fascinating thing about Seibei is, ironically, how boring his life is. He is shown to be a capable warrior but he is primarily a clerk and farmer growing his own crops for survival. When he is not “at the office” (shuffling paper around and taking stock of a feudal lord’s provisions), there seems to be little to no outward difference between Seibei and a peasant, up to including his tattered clothes and smell. And that is precisely the point.   Historically, samurai have held many roles. They are best known as warriors, but the high-ranking ones were also administrators of provinces, while everyone else tried their hand at everything from teaching to office work and farming. A samurai primarily made their living by receiving a rice stipend, sometimes in literally rice but oftentimes in its monetary equivalent. Near the mid-19th century, as Japan’s borders were forcibly opened and feudalism was on its way out, those stipends were severely reduced. Rich samurai were not affected by this but low-rank ones like Seibei struggled and were pushed into farming. Rice stipends would also ultimately be one of the main causes behind the famous  last stand of the samurai.   Japanese peasants. Photograph from a Russian book entitled Japan and Japanese, 1902. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In The Twilight Samurai, Seibei is pleased with his lot in life and does not mind the prospect of becoming a full-time farmer once the feudal classes are abolished. But it is important to remember that for him and many others like him, farming was not a hobby; it was first and foremost a means of survival. For centuries, Japan lived by the iron-clad rules of a hierarchical society where peasants were peasants, merchants were merchants, and samurai were samurai. While these groups were supposed to stay out of each other’s way, the prospect of famine caused societal rules to take a backseat.   The juxtaposition of Seibei with his sword and his day-to-day life as a clerk and farmer reveals the reality of late-stage Japanese feudalism when famine blurred class lines and made even the greatest sword masters realize that a man cannot eat honor.   4. Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai (1999): Bushido in a World That Forgot It Still from the Movie “Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai” directed by Jim Jarmusch, 1999. Source: Official trailer   Jim Jarmusch’s Ghost Dog is a tale of the titular, modern-day hitman (Forest Whitaker) who follows the Hagakure, a centuries-old samurai manual written by Yamamoto Tsunetomo. Seemingly the epitome of bushido, the famous samurai code of honor, the book guides Ghost Dog in his quest to be a 20th-century samurai but, in the end, it is the thing that gets him killed because samurai values have no place in a world of the American mob. That is very apt, considering the origin of the book and the very idea of bushido.   Yamamoto Tsunetomo (1659-1719) was a scribe with no combat experience. He lived in a time of peace, having been born long after Tokugawa Ieyasu completed his unification of Japan. Tsunetomo wrote of loyalty, death, and service, but from the safety of a time period where those ideas could never truly be tested. It is not merely a question of the Hagakure being from another time. Trying to live by an unflinching code of honor would have gotten a samurai killed during the vicious Sengoku period when not only retainers rebelled against their lords but whole families went at each other’s throats. Hagakure is ultimately nostalgia for a world that never existed.   Place of Origin and a Stone Monument of “Hagakure”, A Lesson of Samurai Knowledge by Yamamoto Tunetomo, Pekachu, 2016. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Yamamoto’s contemporaries must have felt that way since his book was ignored for centuries. It really only took off in the 20th century when even more people started to romanticize the idea of samurai while ignoring historical reality. Some of them, like author Yukio Mishima, who wrote a famous commentary on Hagakure, did end up losing his life by suicide after a failed coup attempt because he tried to implement made-up samurai rules to real life.   In the movie, Ghost Dog similarly lives by the rules of the Hagakure, being loyal to a mobster who ultimately betrays him for his own selfish needs, and never even considers defending himself from his “master.” In the end, Ghost Dog is the only one who sees honor and glory in his death. To everyone else, he just looks like a man viciously gunned down in the street.   The film dissects Hagakure and ultimately reveals it as a code rooted in a romanticized idea of war, written in peace, and revived only by those longing for meaning and simplicity in a confusing modern world.   5. The Sword of Doom (1966): The Evil That Samurai Do Still from the Movie “The Sword of Doom” (1966), directed by Kihachi Okamoto. Source: Official trailer   Kihachi Okamoto’s The Sword of Doom follows Ryunosuke Tsukue (Tatsuya Nakadai), a samurai whose only purpose in life is killing. He butchers an innocent pilgrim at a remote mountain pass for no reason. He uses any excuse to take a life, like when an opponent comes at him with an illegal move during an exhibition match. He eventually becomes a hired killer, driven only by his bloodlust and his protective status as a samurai. His story, though fictional, is not that out of the ordinary. Samurai, as all people, came from all walks of life. And some of them were psychopathic killers.   Sano Jirozaemon, a samurai, killed a prostitute in Edo’s Yoshiwara red-light district in 1696, and that seems to have broken something in him because he went on to kill anywhere between 12 and 20 people during his spree. Actually, the finale of The Sword of Doom, might have been inspired by the story of Sano Jirozaemon as it also takes place in a pleasure quarter and seems to have been triggered by a courtesan.   The movie takes place near the end of the Edo Period but Japan had seen mentally unstable samurai before like Kani Saizo (1554-1613), who reportedly took 17 heads at the great Battle of Sekigahara, which he marked by stuffing them with bamboo leaves and grass. Hence his nickname: The Bamboo Samurai.   Sano Jirozaemon, Utagawa Kunisada, 1860. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Pop culture tends to have an image of the samurai who did not “kill.” They dueled, or they avenged, or protected. But this portrayal ignores things like kirisute-gomen, the samurai’s right to strike down disrespectful commoners for perceived slights, as seen in the first episode of Shogun. It was not a license to kill but being legally allowed, under the right circumstances, to take the life of a person who had no way of protecting themselves. That is a system that is just asking to be exploited by the worst of humanity.   Sano Jirozaemon was ultimately sentenced to death on account of insanity, but Kani Saizo retired as a celebrated hero. The Sword of Doom comments on these kinds of samurai by using Ryunosuke to ask a question: What happens when you give a sword and unchecked privilege to a monster?

2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1978 Ducati NCR900 Factory Racer (lot R461) Between now and the next Mecum motorcycle auction in Las Vegas, which takes place Jan. 28-31, 2026, at the South Point Hotel & Casino, we’ll be previewing some of the collectible machines that will cross the block. In our previous post, we previewed American motorcycles. This post focuses on racing motorcycles. Many highly desirable motorcycles are already listed on Mecum’s website, and new lots and collections are being added daily. Register to bid at the Mecum Las Vegas Motorcycles 2026 auction 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1978 Ducati NCR900 Factory Racer (lot R461) Let’s kick it off with a truly special racebike, a super rare 1978 Ducati NCR900 Factory Racer (lot R461). This Italian stallion was only ever ridden for parade laps in 2011 in New Zealand by legendary Grand Prix racer Paul Smart, and Mecum says it gets Ian Falloon’s stamp of approval as the real deal. This original NCR factory racebike has a 905cc air-cooled squarecase L-twin engine with bevel-driven camshafts, desmodromic valves, and race-modified Dell’Orto PHM 40 carbs. Wrapped around the engine is a Daspa frame, and the chassis includes Marzocchi suspension and magnesium Campagnolo wheels with original Michelin S41 front and rear TV4 race tires. The whole thing is housed within a hand-laid fiberglass fairing with red and silver livery. Molto bello! 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1972 Ducati 750 Imola Race Replica (lot R479) Another drool-worthy bike from Bologna coming up for auction is a 1972 Ducati 750 Imola Race Replica (lot R479) that was also ridden by Paul Smart for demonstration laps during the New Zealand Classic in 2011. This tribute to the legendary 1972 Ducati Imola 200 racebikes has an air-cooled 748cc roundcase L-twin engine with bevel driven camshafts, desmodromic valves, and twin 40mm Dell’Orto carbs. Its fiberglass bodywork and race petrol tank with clear fuel level stripe are painted silver, and the frame is painted blue. This bike is a runner, and it was displayed in the Museo Ducati on the grounds of the Ducati factory in Italy prior to its current ownership. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1994 BMW R1100RS Battle of the Legends (lot N319) For you Beemerphiles, the 1994 BMW R1100RS that Gary Nixon campaigned in the Battle of the Legends series is up for sale (lot N319). Nixon certainly qualifies as a legend: He was AMA Grand National Champion in 1967 and 1968, winner of 19 AMA Grand National Races, and winner of the 1967 Daytona 200. Nixon came in 1st at Daytona in the BMW Legends Series in 1995 on this bike, and he placed 2nd in overall points for the entire series, 1992-1996. This 1,085cc air-cooled Boxer still has its safety wiring, tech inspection sticker, and Nixon’s number plates, and the bike comes with Nixon’s BMW Legends windbreaker, BMW series race videos, Legends book, and Legends baseball cap. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1926 Moto Guzzi C2V Race Bike (lot R575) 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1934 Rudge JAP Speedway (lot N297) If you like early 20th century European iron, you can bid on a 1926 Moto Guzzi C2V Race Bike (lot R575) that was the 2nd Place winner at the 2024 Quail Motorcycle Gathering, or a 1934 Rudge JAP Speedway racer (lot N297) that comes with a steel hot shoe custom-made by Ken Maely in 1967. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview Like classic Honda GP bikes? How about a 0-mile 2004 Honda CB50R (lot N20), one of only 440 limited-production, race-only replicas of the 1962 RC110, Honda’s first 50cc Grand Prix racer. This silver bullet has a high-performance 49cc single-cylinder DOHC engine rated at 7 hp. It’s bump-start only but has never been fueled, started, or ridden. This featherweight machine has a fuel tank, fenders, and other components made of aluminum, and it even retains factory torque marks on bolts. This CB50R has been part of an indoor static display in a private collection since 2017, so it might look sweet in your office or living room. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 2017 Indian Scout FTR750 Flat Track Racer (lot N409) When the Indian FTR750 was raced in American Flat Track, it dominated the series, winning seven consecutive SuperTwins championships from 2017-2023. It would probably have won an eighth championship in 2024 if not for a rule change that banned the FTR750 from competition. You can bid on one of these legendary factory racebikes, a 2017 Indian Scout FTR750 Flat Track Racer, serial No. 11 (lot N409). It has a 748cc four-stroke V-Twin, a 4-speed gearbox, an ultra-light steel frame, carbon fiber bodywork, Öhlins suspension, and forged Roland Sands Design wheels. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1922 Harley-Davidson 8-Valve Board Track Racer (lot N361) Speaking of Indians, in our American motorcycles post, we highlighted a 1912 Hedstrom 8-Valve Board Track Racer (lot N358), two 1916 Harley-Davidson 8-Valve Board Track Racers (lot N360 and lot R706), and a 1922 Harley 8-Valve Board Track Racer (shown above, lot N361) that will all cross the block in January. Antique bikes like these often command the highest bids at auction, so these will be bikes to watch. 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: 1976 Penton 250 MC5 (lot W143) If knobby tires are your thing, check out a 1976 Penton 250 MC5 (lot W143) built to commemorate the life of John Penton, who passed away in September at the age of 100. Though this MC5 has never been raced, it’s primed and ready for vintage motocross. It has an air-cooled 250cc 2-stroke single-cylinder engine rated at 47 hp, a 6-speed transmission, a chromoly frame, and Works Performance air shocks. Stay tuned for future posts where we’ll highlight more cool motorcycles that could be yours – all you need to do is be the highest bidder! To see the full listing of motorcycles up for auction in January, go to the Mecum website, click on the Buy tab, and select Motorcycles. You can also register to bid at the auction, either in-person, online, or by phone. The post 2026 Mecum Auction Preview: Racing Motorcycles appeared first on Rider Magazine.

Keep up with the latest in motorcycling gear, parts, accessories, and products with Rider’s New and Cool Motorcycle Gear monthly installments. The items in this list are available now. Kriega OS-Base The Kriega OS-Base fits all BMW GS models and offers versatile luggage options. This system is rackless, consisting of a lightweight harness that doesn’t require extra hardware, frames, or brackets. The base fits up to three Kriega OS-Adventure Packs, including the OS-6 (6 liters, $119.99), the OS-12 (12 liters, $139.99), and the OS-18 (18 liters, $159.99). The packs can be mixed and matched according to your needs, and they’re 100% waterproof. Riders can also use the subframe loops to mount a single pack on the seat without the OS-Base. The OS-Base is available for $199.99. Shop for Kriega OS-Base Tracker Accessories for BMW R 12 nineT The Tracker accessories package for the BMW R 12 nineT adds flat-track styling, including a sporty rear section, a cockpit fairing, and number plates. The package includes the short Tracker rear-end trim in Black Storm Metallic, the license plate relocator mount, a black solo seat with cross stitching, the Tracker cockpit fairing in Black Storm Metallic, left- and right-side number plates in Black Storm Metallic, Tracker stickers, and a front fender in Black Storm Metallic. It’s available for $2,595. The accessories in the package can also be bought separately. Shop for Tracker Accessories for BMW R 12 nineT IMTBike 2026 Tours IMTBike offers three new tours on its 2026 calendar, in addition to many returning favorites. The 16-day Best of Southern Spain tour takes riders through Andalucia, including places like Sevilla, Granada, Cordoba, Málaga, and Ronda. The 12-day Mediterranean Mountain tour travels from Málaga in the south of Spain up to Barcelona along the Mediterranean coast. The 11-day Costa Brava Catalunya tour includes diverse natural landscapes and historic, culture-rich towns. Other tours include destinations in Europe plus Morocco, Japan, Thailand, and more. Browse IMTBike Tours eGlide Goodies Engine Guard Bag Mounts Add storage to your Moto Guzzi V85, Stelvio, or V100 with eGlide Goodies’ Engine Guard Bag Mounts. The mounts are compatible with a variety of luggage options in the 5- to 10-liter range. They’re made of lightweight aluminum and finished in matte black powdercoating. They also include four sets of mounting hole positions to allow for adjustment, and the mounts are easily removable when not needed. The mounts are available for $119.99. Mounts with single-hole brackets and hardware are $159.99, and mounts with double-hole brackets and hardware are $219.99. Shop for eGlide Goodies Engine Guard Bag Mounts The post New and Cool Motorcycle Gear: November 2025 appeared first on Rider Magazine.

For riders who want Aprilia’s famous Tuono (Italian for “thunder”) but have a limited budget, the Aprilia Tuono 457 has arrived. Built on the 457cc parallel-Twin platform that debuted last year with the fully faired RS 457, the built-in-India Tuono 457 has a peppy engine, modern tech, plenty of character, and an affordable price ($6,599) – qualities that are likely to draw new customers to the Italian brand. Read our 2026 Aprilia Tuono 457 Review 2026 Aprilia Tuono 457 Specs Base Price: $6,599 Website: Aprilia.com Engine Type: Liquid-cooled, transverse parallel-Twin, DOHC w/ 4 valves Displacement: 457cc Bore X Stroke: 69 x 61.1mm Horsepower: 47.6 hp @ 9,400 rpm Torque: 32.1 lb-ft @ 6,700 rpm Transmission: 6-speed Final Drive: Chain Wheelbase: 53.3 in. Rake/Trail: 24.1 degrees/4 in. Seat Height: 31.5 in. Wet Weight: 385 lb Fuel Capacity: 3.3 gal. Fuel Consumption: 57 mpg Estimated Range: 188 miles Gear Up Helmet: Arai Corsair-X Jacket: Dainese Airframe Airbag Vest: Alpinestars Tech-Air 5 Plasma Gloves: Sedici Chicane 2 Women’s Pants: Alpinestars Daisy V3 Jeans Boots: Sedici Tourisma WP Women’s The post 2026 Aprilia Tuono 457 Video Review appeared first on Rider Magazine.