from InfoWars: …and Right On Time, Sleepy Joe Is Diagnosed with Aggressive Cancer! Alex Jones is LIVE on Air Right Now Breaking Massive News And Covering The Latest Incredible Developments — TUNE IN AND SHARE! TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/ Sunday Live: It’s Official — The 2020 Election Was Stolen, Joe Biden Was Never President! Now, […]

by John Conlin, American Thinker: Apocalyptic cults provide a window on some amazing complex group dynamics. First, of course is the “apocalyptic” part. This is what they are best known for — the world is going to end next Tuesday or the aliens will be arriving the first of the month to take the chosen […]

from Daniel Davis / Deep Dive: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  The Trojan War, famously recounted by 8th century BCE poet Homer in the Iliad, has been a subject of awe and debate among scholars, ancient and modern, for over 2,000 years. While the views of modern scholars differ on whether or not the war happened, they generally agree that Troy was a real city and, if a war between the Greeks and Trojans did occur, it certainly didn’t happen as described in the Iliad. Homer was a poet, not a historian, so taking his poem as fact would be problematic, though it probably contains kernels of truth. To the ancients, the Trojan War was a historical fact and marked the boundary between myth and recorded history. They went to great lengths to determine when the war occurred.   Mythical Context for the Trojan War The Judgement of Paris, attributed to the Judgement Painter, c. 350 BCE. Source: British Museum   In ancient Greek tradition, the Trojan War began because Paris, a prince of Troy and the son of King Priam, was chosen to judge a beauty contest between the goddesses Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. Each goddess offered him a prize if he chose them. Hera offered him dominion over the kingdoms of the world; Athena offered him mastery of the battlefield; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world to be his wife. Paris chose Aphrodite, and the woman he was promised was Helen of Sparta. However, Helen was the wife of Menelaus, the king of Sparta and brother of the Mycenaean king, Agamemnon. While being hosted at Sparta, Paris abducted Helen, along with a sizable amount of treasure, and retreated back to Troy.   Paris’ crime was not simply stealing the Spartan king’s wife. He also broke the laws of xenia, the relationship between host and guest that was an integral part of ancient Greek society. Xenia was a reciprocal relationship between host and guest, roughly translated to “guest friendship.” It didn’t only tie two individuals together but entire groups. A relationship between two kings, or in the case of the Iliad, a king and a prince, essentially allied the kingdoms together. To violate this bond was not only an affront to societal norms but to Zeus himself, who protected these laws. As such, it wasn’t only Paris who was guilty, but his entire kingdom for condoning his crime.   Troy According to the Ancient Historians Bust of Homer, Roman copy of 2nd century BCE Greek original, c. 2nd century CE. Source: British Museum   Ancient Greek historians spilled a lot of ink to provide an accurate chronology of the Trojan War. Some had arrived at what modern scholars consider to be a realistic date, though the way they got to their answers amounted to what were essentially just good guesses. When reading the ancient sources, it is important to note that they didn’t date events in the same manner that we do today. Years were measured according to the changing of seasons and the phases of the moon and recorded based on the rule of kings or the terms of leading magistrates. Even within Greece itself, calendars differed depending on which polis, or city-state, one belonged to.   There was no common numerical value ascribed to years. As such, the ancient sources don’t provide dates; they provide time frames relative to other events. In Herodotus’ Histories, he gave a general time frame for the Trojan War by placing it between the birth of Heracles and the birth of Pan, so 900 years to 800 years before the historian’s own time. Converted into a time period recognizable to us, this placed the war in approximately the 13th or 14th century BCE.   Eratosthenes, a 3rd-century BCE scholar who became the chief librarian at the Library of Alexandria, gave a more precise date for the Trojan War. He calculated that the fall of Troy took place in 1183 BCE. Though all of his works were lost when the Library of Alexandria burned down, his historical work survives in fragments and through references by later authors. It is thought that he dated the Trojan War using various king lists or genealogies, as well as the Olympic victor list. Using a span of 80 years between the fall of Troy and the return of the descendants of Heracles to the Peloponnese, related by Thucydides, Eratosthenes then used the Spartan king list down to the reign of Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver.   Shield Depicting the Siege of Troy, French, c. 1580-1590 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Eratosthenes placed Lycurgus’ rule 108 years before the founding of the Olympic Games, though how he got this number is unknown. There was also a tradition that Lycurgus was a contemporary of the Olympic Games founder, Iphitus. This was reconciled by assuming there were two figures named Lycurgus, or unrecorded games, before the Eleans started recording victors.   Since the games happened every four years, the list of victors was compared to other important events, such as the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE or Xerxes’ invasion of Greece in 480 BCE. Using this method, Eratosthenes dated the first recorded games to 776 BCE, and thus the rule of Lycurgus to 884 BCE. The Spartan king lists assume a generation of 40 years, and Lycurgus was the 6th king after the return of the Heraclids to the Peloponnese, giving an approximate time frame of 240 years from their return to the beginning of his own rule.   Another likely method used was dating the king lists of Sardis after it fell to the Persians. The fall of Sardis was synchronized with the 58th Olympiad, which can be converted to approximately 548 BCE. Herodotus calculated that there were 22 generations of Heraclid kings in Sardis spanning 505 years before they were overthrown by the Mermnadae family, who ruled for the next 170 years. All of these time frames, when added together, give a date for when Heracles lived around 1223 BCE. Assuming Heracles lived a generation before the fall of Troy, which placed the end of the war in 1183 BCE.   Diodorus Siculus, a 1st century BCE historian from Sicily, likely used Eratosthenes’ calculations in his own work. He wrote that the fall of Troy took place 786 years before the Athenian empire’s expedition against Sicily in 415 BCE, placing the destruction of the city to the year 1183 BCE. The traditional length of the war was 10 years, which placed the beginning of the war in 1193 BCE.   The Search for Troy & Heinrich Schliemann Marble fragment depicting a scene from the Trojan War, early Imperial Roman, c. 1st century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The legend of Troy has long been debated by modern scholars. Was Troy a real city, and if so, where was it located? Herodotus believed it was located at Hisarlik in modern-day Turkey, while the Roman geographer Strabo believed it was somewhere between the Scamander and Thymbrios rivers. Later, 17th and 18th century CE scholars believed it was between Alexandria Troas and Sigeum on the west coast of the Troad, but the truth continued to be elusive.   In the 19th century CE, Heinrich Schliemann made what would be considered one of the most important discoveries in the history of Western archaeology. Having amassed a vast fortune from his career as a businessman, he used his wealth to excavate the mound at Hisarlik and discovered nine different occupation levels, each with various sub-levels, spanning a time period of 2,000 years from approximately 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE.   Troy had apparently been discovered. Though there is still skepticism over whether Hisarlik is, in fact, the site of the legendary city, no other alternatives have been seriously considered or as generally accepted as Hisarlik. This left scholars with a question. If this was Troy, which of the occupation levels belonged to the Troy described in the Iliad?   Mask of Agamemnon, a replica of a death mask from Bronze Age Mycenae, by Émile Gilliéron, 1900-1908 CE. Source: British Museum   Heinrich Schliemann believed that the earliest levels must be the site of legendary Troy. He had a trench cut directly through the mound, regrettably destroying much of the site’s later levels. This level, designated as Troy II, was dated to the Early Bronze Age, a full thousand years too early to be Homer’s Troy. It is now generally agreed that the sixth level, sub-level h, designated as Troy VIh, is the most likely candidate for Homer’s Troy.   While much of the level was destroyed during Schliemann’s excavation, enough survived to indicate a prosperous city that flourished for several hundred years in the second millennium BCE. Ceramic evidence from the site shows that it traded heavily with the Mycenaean culture in mainland Greece and that the city fell sometime in the mid-13th century BCE, corresponding closely with Herodotus’ account of when the Trojan War occurred. However, it is not known whether the destruction of the city was due to human action or environmental factors. If this level is the Troy that was described by Homer, more evidence would be needed to prove it.   Bronze Age Greece and Anatolia Stamp seal with Hieroglyphic inscription, Hittite Empire, c. 14th to 13th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   A challenge with determining whether Hisarlik was the Troy that Homer wrote of is the general lack of written evidence from the site. This makes it nearly impossible to determine how the people of Troy VIh perceived themselves and their relationship with their neighbors. The only writing found at the site comes from a seal with two names inscribed on it in the Luwian language. For a better understanding, scholars had to turn their attention to Near Eastern kingdoms contemporary with the site.   The major power of the region at the time was Hatti, the kingdom of the Hittites. Luwian-speaking peoples occupied a wide area of western Anatolia, a region called Luwiya, according to Hittite texts, though the name eventually was replaced with Arzawa. Using Hittite texts, scholars were able to determine that a vassal kingdom called Wilusiya, or Wilusa, was located in the northwestern region of Arzawa, the same location as modern-day Hisarlik. Scholars have claimed that Wilusa is the Hittite way of writing Ilion, another name for Troy.   The Trojans Repulsing the Greeks, by Giovanni Battista Scultori, 1538 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Once Troy had been found in Hittite texts, the next step in determining if the Trojan War ever happened was to find references to the Greeks. If the city of Wilusa was destroyed by a Greek army, surely there would be records of such an event. The Mycenaeans traded extensively with the western Anatolian coast, so scholars, led by Emil Forrer, searched Hittite records and discovered what they believed to be the link between the Greeks and Wilusa.   The Hittite texts reference a place called Ahhiya, or Ahhiyawa. It’s known from the Iliad and Odyssey that the Greeks didn’t refer to themselves as Greeks but as Achaians. Forrer deduced, and later evidence seemed to lend credence to the idea, that Ahhiyawa was the Hittite way of representing Achaia. From these texts we also know that the Greeks were militarily involved in western Anatolia and had come into conflict, either directly or indirectly, with Wilusa. However, the city was neither completely destroyed nor abandoned at this time. It was repopulated and remained under the vassalage of the Hittite kingdom.   Treaty Between Muwattalli II of Hatti and Alakšandu of Wiluša, found in Bogazköy, Turkey, c. 1300 BCE. Source: British Museum   There was a time when Troy was destroyed and abandoned, though this is attributed to the Troy VIIb strata, a smaller and humbler settlement dating to 1100 or 1000 BCE, 150 to 250 years after the prosperous city of Troy VIh. The destruction of this level is likely due to the so-called Sea Peoples, written about in Egyptian records, and coincides with a general collapse of Bronze Age civilizations at this time.   Homer’s Troy Photograph of the remains of Troy, c. 1750 to 1300 BCE. Source: Hood College   So, was there truth in Homer’s Iliad, or was it entirely a work of fiction? The ancient Greeks and Romans certainly believed in the historicity of the event, though that’s not to say that they accepted every detail. Ancient historians and chronographers made great efforts to date the war and considered it the boundary between mythical and historical times. Dates for the war ranged from the 14th century BCE to the 10th century BCE, and some historians, such as Herodotus and Eratosthenes, were remarkably close in their calculations to what modern scholars have come up with.   Today, there is still debate about whether Homer’s Troy actually existed and whether a war between the Greeks and Trojans happened, but there is general acceptance that Troy was located at Hisarlik in Turkey. Through ceramic and archaeological evidence, scholars have been able to determine that the city prospered throughout the Late Bronze Age and was destroyed and resettled several times in its long history.   Whether that destruction came about at the hands of the Greeks is unknown, but there is evidence of military conflict between the two cultures around the mid-13th century BCE, around Herodotus’ estimated date for the Trojan War.   Selected References   Bryce, T. R. (2002) “The Trojan War: Is There Truth behind the Legend?” Near Eastern Archaeology 65(3), 182–195.   KÕIV, M. (2011) “A Note on the Dating of Hesiod,” The Classical Quarterly 61(2), 355–377.   Kokkinos, N. (2009) “Ancient Chronology, Eratosthenes and the Dating of the Fall of Troy,” Ancient West & East 8(0), 37–56.   Möller, A. (2005) “Epoch-Making Eratosthenes,” Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies 45, 245-260.

  According to the legendary epic poem by Homer, the Trojan War was one of the most destructive in Greek history. It involved nearly every Greek state in a unified siege against the walled city of Troy, in Asia Minor, which would last for 10 years. But what started the war? According to Homer, it was when the young Trojan prince Paris abducted the Spartan queen, Helen, the woman with “the face that launched a thousand ships.” More than a personal insult to her husband Menelaus, it was a breach of the laws of hospitality. Was it love that drove him to commit such a crime? Lust? Or was Paris merely a tool to carry out the will of the gods?   What Did the Trojans Do to Offend the Greeks? Paris, by Antonio Canova, 1819. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   While being hosted at Sparta, the prince of Troy, Paris Alexandros, seduced Helen and whisked her away to Troy along with a sizable treasure. This was not simply a crime against the king, Menelaus, but against Zeus, who protected the guest-host relationship. Called xenia, which is roughly translated as “guest friendship,” the relationship was a reciprocal bond between a host and their guest solidified with the giving of gifts and feasting. This relationship was an integral part of life and diplomacy and was sacred to Zeus. It was for this reason that the Greeks went to war against Troy. It wasn’t only Paris who was guilty, but the entire city for condoning his actions. Menelaus himself stated that it was the breach of xenia that instigated the conflict.   “Lord Zeus, grant vengeance for the wrong goodly Alexandros first did to me, and subdue him by my hands so that any later men shudder to do wrong to their host, who would offer him friendship” (Home, The Iliad, 3.351-354).   In Book Three of The Iliad, the Greeks and Trojans made a truce and came to an agreement that Menelaus and Paris would duel in single combat to determine the outcome of the war. If the Greeks won, Troy would return Helen and the treasure taken from Sparta, along with paying reparations. If the Trojans won, then the Greeks would end their siege and return home. The terms were sealed with oaths and prayers to Zeus, and the battle began. But it was brief, as just when Paris was about to be defeated, he vanished in a thick cloud of mist. The Trojans couldn’t find Paris anywhere and the Greeks declared victory. Then, in a breach of the truce that mirrored Paris’ violation of xenia, a Trojan warrior named Pandaros fired an arrow at Menelaus and wounded him.   How Did the Judgment of Paris Lead to the Trojan War? Judgment of Paris, attributed to the Swing Painter, c. 540-530 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   What the Greeks didn’t know was that the gods had intervened. Fearing for Paris’ life, Aphrodite whisked him off the battlefield and back to the palace. Zeus then held a meeting on Olympus to discuss whether the war should end then and there per the terms of the truce. But Hera wouldn’t hear of it. To sate her hatred of the Trojans, she demanded that the war continue. In exchange, she agreed that Zeus could destroy a city dear to her should the urge strike him. So he sent Athena down to the Trojans to make them break the agreement of the duel. In the guise of Laodocos, she convinced the warrior, Pandaros, to fire an arrow at Menelaus, reigniting the conflict.   The Trojans Repulsing the Greeks, by Giovanni Battista Scultori, 1538 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Aphrodite’s love for Paris, as well as Athena and Hera’s hatred of the Trojans, stemmed from an event known as the “Judgment of Paris.” The Trojan prince was asked to pick which of the three goddesses was the most beautiful. They each offered him a prize. Hera offered dominion over the kingdoms of men; Athena offered him mastery of the battlefield; and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world as his bride. Paris preferred Aphrodite’s prize over the others, so he chose her as the most beautiful of the goddesses. The Iliad only briefly references this event, leaving it to other authors to provide the full context.   “All the others were pleased, except for Hera, Poseidon, and the bright-eyed maiden (Athena), but sacred Ilion and Priam and his people had before become hateful to them because of Alexander’s (Paris) folly, who insulted those goddesses when they came to his inner courtyard and he praised the one of them who fulfilled his grievous lust” (Homer, The Iliad, 24.25-30).   What Did Eris Do to Ignite the Trojan Conflict? Feast of the Gods (The Marriage of Peleus and Thetis), by Johann Rottenhammer, 1600 CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St-Petersburg   The beauty contest happened during the wedding of the goddess Thetis and the mortal hero Peleus. The goddess Themis revealed to Zeus that Thetis, who Zeus was in the process of courting, was fated to give birth to a son that would be greater than his father. Fearing being overthrown, Zeus gave Thetis in marriage to Peleus. This union produced Achilles, the greatest warrior of all the Greeks.   All the gods and goddesses were invited to the wedding except for Eris, the goddess of strife. Upset at her mistreatment, Eris took an apple from the garden of the Hesperides and wrote on it “to the fairest,” then threw it into the party. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all claimed it and they argued over who was most deserving of the title of “fairest.” To settle the argument, Zeus told Hermes to bring them to Mount Ida and have Paris judge.   What Did Zeus Do in the Trojan War? Statue of Zeus in the Temple at Olympia, drawing by Alfred Charles Conrade, 1913-1914. Source: British Museum   But above all the others, Zeus can be blamed for starting the Trojan War. His will was absolute. He was both the arbiter of fate and the means by which fate was fulfilled. The opening lines of the epic make clear that all that happened within the narrative was by the will of Zeus.   “Sing, goddess, the destructive wrath of Achilles son of Peleus, which laid countless agonies on the Achaeans, and sent the noble souls of many heroes down to Hades, and made them carrion for the dogs and birds, and fulfilled the will of Zeus” (Homer, The Iliad, 1.1-5).   It is clear in the epic that Zeus had decreed that Troy would be destroyed, and nothing the mortals on either side did could affect the outcome. The fate of Troy was determined long ago, likely before Paris’ transgression against the laws of hospitality. The Greeks seemed to believe that the gods were on their side for this reason, and both Agamemnon and Menelaus were confident that Zeus would punish the Trojans for Paris’ flagrant disregard for xenia.   Yet Zeus himself didn’t seem bothered by it in the slightest. Zeus repeatedly stated his great love for the Trojans. During Menelaus and Paris’ duel, Zeus agreed that the Greeks had won and seemed ready to end the war, allowing Paris to escape the consequences of violating xenia. Then he allowed Hera and Athena to break the terms of the truce, of which he was supposed to be the protector and enforcer.   Shield Depicting the Siege of Troy, French, c. 1580-90 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In The Iliad, except for the singular passage that seems to relate to the Judgment of Paris and his abduction of Helen, there is no definitive reason for why Troy must fall. Yet there was one epic that reconciled this. In The Cypria, a lost epic surviving only in fragments and references that was written after The Iliad and thought to be a prequel to Homer’s poems, Zeus planned with Themis to bring about the Trojan War. Scholars of The Iliad wrote that this plan was formed to reduce the population of humans, and so lessen the burden on the Earth. This is confirmed by Euripides’ plays Orestes and Helen. Given the popularity of Euripides’ plays, it is surprising that virtually no later authors reference this cause for the war.   Why Did the Greeks Attack Troy? Red-Figure Lekythos showing Menelaus chasing Helen, Attica, c. 450-440 BCE. Source: State Hermitage Museum, St-Petersburg   According to 5th century BCE historian, Herodotus, when Paris abducted Helen and a sizable amount of treasure from the Spartans, strong winds blew him off course while he was sailing home and landed him in Egypt. Some of Paris’ men turned on him and fled to the temple of Heracles, where they revealed to a priest what he had done to Helen and Menelaus. Paris was brought before the pharaoh, Proteus, who seized Helen and the treasure, promising to safeguard them until Menelaus came to retrieve them. He then sent the Trojans on their way.   The Greeks, however, never went to Egypt. They sailed directly for Troy, and once there, they demanded the return of Helen and the treasure. The Trojans explained what happened, saying that neither were in their city and were waiting in Egypt. The Greeks didn’t believe them and instead attacked the city.   In the archaeological record, there are texts from the Hittite kingdom of Hatti which detail a correspondence between the king of Hatti and the king of the Ahhiyawans, which scholars believe was the Hittite way of writing Achaeans, the name given to the Greeks in The Iliad. In the texts, the Hittite king discussed a conflict with the Ahhiyawan king over the city of Wilusa, which scholars generally agree was ancient Troy.   In the 13th century BCE, Wilusa was attacked and occupied by a pirate named Piyamaradu, who had close ties with the Ahhiyawan king. The Hittite king considered Piyamaradu an agent of the Ahhiyawan king, and he asked his counterpart to tell the pirate that the two kings had made peace and it would not be right to cause more conflict. It is not clear that this relates to the Trojan War as written by Homer, but it does make clear that the Greeks and the Trojans came into conflict in the 13th century BCE. Plus, it was likely instigated by the Greeks who wanted to expand their sphere of influence in Anatolia.   Relief or a bearded figure holding a staff from a Hieroglyphic inscription, Hittite, c. 1st millennium BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Within The Iliad, the characters are unaware of what happened at Thetis and Peleus’ wedding. Not even Paris nor Helen acknowledged the event. Instead, as far as the mortals knew, it was Paris’ abduction of Helen that incited the war. The Greeks believed that the gods were on their side, yet they could not fathom the true motivations of the gods. Time and again the gods act against the morals that mortal characters have attributed to them. Paris bears personal responsibility for abducting Helen and Menelaus’ fortune since he was not coerced into his actions. Yet the will of Zeus is inevitable. Zeus devised the Trojan War, married Thetis to Peleus, and chose Paris to judge the contest between the goddesses. So while Paris is guilty, he was merely an instrument of Zeus’ will.   Selected References   A. Maria van Erp Taalman Kip. (2000) “The Gods of the “Iliad” and the Fate of Troy,” Mnemosyne, 53(4), 385–402.   Reeves, J. D. (1966) “The Cause of the Trojan War: A Forgotten Myth Revived,” The Classical Journal, 61(5), 211–214.   Bryce, T. R. (2002) “The Trojan War: Is There Truth Behind the Legend?” Near Eastern Archaeology, 65(3), 182–195.

  From grand estates to humble farmhouses, presidential landmarks offer a tangible link to the people who’ve shaped American history from the highest office. These homes, libraries, parks, and sites reflect personal stories, pivotal decisions, and defining moments, from handwritten declarations to Cold War diplomacy. Many lived in long before or after a term in office, giving us more than just political history. They reveal character. Here are 10 presidential landmarks across the US that are truly worth visiting.   1. Mount Vernon, Virginia Mount Vernon, Fairfax County, Virginia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mount Vernon, nestled along the Potomac River in Virginia, was George Washington’s cherished home and the heart of his expansive plantation. Originally built by his father in 1734, Washington inherited the estate in 1761 and transformed it into an 11,000-square-foot mansion featuring Palladian architecture and a distinctive red roof. He lived here until his death in 1799, and the estate now serves as his final resting place, alongside his wife, Martha.   2. Monticello, Virginia Monticello, Virginia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched atop a “little mountain” near Charlottesville, Virginia, Monticello was Thomas Jefferson’s lifelong project, a neoclassical estate that mirrors the mind of its architect, author of the Declaration of Independence, and third U.S. president. Jefferson began designing Monticello at age 26, drawing inspiration from Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio. The estate evolved over decades into a 21-room mansion filled with innovations like a revolving bookstand and a hidden dumbwaiter.   Beyond its architectural brilliance, Monticello was a working plantation powered by the labor of over 600 enslaved individuals. Mulberry Row, the plantation’s industrial hub, housed workshops and dwellings for enslaved artisans and laborers, including members of the Hemings family. Sally Hemings, an enslaved woman of mixed race, bore six of Jefferson’s children.   Today, Monticello is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that offers guided tours exploring Jefferson’s home, gardens, and the lives of those enslaved there. The Smith Education Center features over 200 artifacts, including a rare 1823 engraving of the Declaration of Independence. Visitors can also explore the meticulously restored vegetable gardens, where Jefferson experimented with diverse crops, reflecting his passion for horticulture.   3. Theodore Roosevelt National Park, North Dakota The view from the Oxbow Overlook in the North Unit of Theodore Roosevelt National Park. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the rugged heart of North Dakota’s Badlands lies Theodore Roosevelt National Park, a living tribute to the 26th president’s deep bond with the American wilderness. After the tragic loss of his wife and mother on the same day in 1884, a grieving Roosevelt sought solace in this untamed landscape. His time ranching at the Maltese Cross Cabin and later at the remote Elkhorn Ranch reshaped his worldview, igniting a passion for conservation that would define his presidency.   Today, the park spans over 70,000 acres across three units: the South Unit near Medora, the North Unit near Watford City, and the secluded Elkhorn Ranch site. Visitors can explore scenic drives, hike over 100 miles of trails, and encounter wildlife such as bison, wild horses, elk, and prairie dogs. The Maltese Cross Cabin, preserved at the South Unit Visitor Center, offers a glimpse into Roosevelt’s frontier life.   The park reflects Roosevelt’s enduring legacy as the “conservation president,” who established five national parks and signed the Antiquities Act of 1906.   4. Lincoln Home National Historic Site, Illinois Lincoln Home National Historic Site, Springfield, Illinois. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the quiet heart of Springfield, Illinois, stands the only home Abraham Lincoln ever owned. The Lincoln Home National Historic Site preserves the house where Lincoln lived with his wife, Mary, and their children from 1844 until 1861, when he left to become the 16th president of the United States.   Restored to its 1860 appearance, the modest two-story house offers an intimate look at Lincoln’s family life and the environment where he sharpened his political values. Surrounding the home is a preserved four-block historic neighborhood, offering a rare chance to walk the same streets Lincoln once did and see the world through his eyes.   Free guided tours begin at the Visitor Center, which also features engaging exhibits on Lincoln’s domestic life, his neighbors, and the social issues of the time. From the humble details inside the home to the broader story it represents, this site connects visitors with the personal side of a leader who would go on to change the nation.   5. The Hermitage, Tennessee Etching of Jackson’s home, The Hermitage, by James W. Steel after Thomas Birch. Source: Library of Congress   Nestled just east of Nashville, Tennessee, The Hermitage offers a profound journey into the life and legacy of Andrew Jackson, the seventh President of the United States. Established in 1804, this 1,120-acre estate evolved from a modest log cabin into a grand Greek Revival mansion, reflecting Jackson’s rise from humble beginnings to national prominence.   Visitors can explore the meticulously preserved mansion, adorned with original furnishings, intricate wallpaper, and Jackson’s personal artifacts, providing an intimate glimpse into 19th-century plantation life. The estate’s grounds feature formal gardens designed by English gardener William Frost, a smokehouse, and several outbuildings, including restored slave cabins that shed light on the lives of the over 100 enslaved individuals who worked the plantation.   A recent discovery of a burial site believed to contain the remains of at least 28 enslaved people has deepened The Hermitage’s commitment to presenting a comprehensive and inclusive historical narrative. The estate also includes the tomb of Andrew and Rachel Jackson, situated in the serene garden Rachel cherished.   6. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Hyde Park Home, New York Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, Hyde Park, New York. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nestled in New York’s Hudson Valley, the Home of Franklin D. Roosevelt National Historic Site, known as Springwood, offers an intimate glimpse into the life of America’s 32nd president. Born here in 1882, FDR maintained a lifelong connection to this estate, using it as a personal retreat and a political hub throughout his unprecedented four-term presidency.   Visitors can tour the 21,000-square-foot mansion, which retains its original furnishings and artifacts, including Roosevelt’s vast collections of books, naval prints, and personal memorabilia. The estate also encompasses the nation’s first presidential library and museum, conceived and designed by FDR himself, housing extensive archives and exhibits detailing his leadership during the Great Depression and World War II.   The grounds feature the Rose Garden, where both Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt are buried, and scenic trails that reflect FDR’s conservation efforts. Nearby, Top Cottage, designed by Roosevelt as a wheelchair-accessible retreat, stands as a testament to his resilience and innovation.   7. Eisenhower National Historic Site, Pennsylvania Eisenhower National Historic Site, Pennsylvania. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tucked beside the historic Gettysburg battlefield, the Eisenhower National Historic Site offers a unique window into the personal life of Dwight D. Eisenhower, the 34th President of the United States. This 690-acre farm was the only home ever owned by Eisenhower and his wife, Mamie. Purchased in 1950, it served as both a weekend retreat during his presidency and their residence in retirement.   You can tour the meticulously preserved home, which retains approximately 98% of its original furnishings, providing an authentic glimpse into the Eisenhowers’ domestic life. The estate also features a skeet range, putting green, and barns that once housed Eisenhower’s prized herd of black Angus cattle.   Beyond its pastoral charm, the site holds historical significance as a venue where Eisenhower hosted world leaders, including Winston Churchill and Nikita Khrushchev, amidst Cold War tensions. Today, the Eisenhower National Historic Site invites visitors to explore the multifaceted legacy of a leader who balanced global responsibilities with the tranquility of farm life.   8. Harry S. Truman’s Home, Missouri Harry S Truman Birthplace State Historic Site in Lamar, Missouri. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the heart of Independence, Missouri, the modest white Victorian at 219 North Delaware Street tells the story of an “uncommon common man” who rose to the presidency. This house, originally built by Bess Truman’s grandfather between 1867 and 1885, became the lifelong residence of Harry and Bess Truman after their marriage in 1919.   Visitors to the Harry S. Truman National Historic Site can embark on guided tours of the home, which remains much as the Trumans left it. The interior showcases original furnishings and personal artifacts, including the Steinway piano gifted to their daughter Margaret and the fireplace adorned with tiles depicting a Middle Eastern landscape.   Across the street, the Noland Home offers insights into the couple’s courtship and family life, while the nearby Truman Farm in Grandview provides a glimpse into Truman’s formative years working the land.   9. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Massachusetts John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum, Boston. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perched on Boston’s Columbia Point, the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum stands as a striking tribute to the 35th president’s life, leadership, and enduring legacy. Designed by architect I.M. Pei, the building’s bold geometry and soaring glass pavilion overlook the harbor, symbolizing Kennedy’s forward-looking vision and connection to the sea.   Inside, visitors journey through immersive exhibits that chronicle JFK’s early life, his 1960 presidential campaign, and pivotal moments of his administration, including the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Space Race. The museum also features personal artifacts, such as Kennedy’s sailboat, Victura, displayed seasonally on the grounds, and a replica of the Oval Office, providing intimate glimpses into his personal and political life.   A notable highlight is the Legacy Gallery, a recently refurbished space that bridges historical exhibits with contemporary reflections on Kennedy’s impact. This gallery underscores themes of innovation, public service, and global citizenship, inviting visitors to consider how JFK’s ideals continue to resonate today.   10. The White House, Washington, D.C. The White House in Washington DC. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, the construction of The White House began in 1792 and was completed in 1800. President John Adams was the first to reside here, moving in before its completion.   Over the centuries, the White House has undergone numerous renovations and expansions. Notably, it was set ablaze by British forces during the War of 1812 and subsequently rebuilt. In the early 20th century, President Theodore Roosevelt initiated significant structural changes, including the addition of the West Wing. Later, President Harry S. Truman oversaw a complete interior reconstruction due to structural concerns.   Today, the White House complex encompasses the Executive Residence, the West Wing, the East Wing, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, and Blair House. It contains 132 rooms, 35 bathrooms, and spans approximately 55,000 square feet.   Public tours of the White House are available and include visits to the East Room, Blue Room, Green Room, and State Dining Room, among others. These tours offer insights into the nation’s history and the functioning of its executive branch. To arrange a tour, U.S. citizens must submit a request through a Member of Congress, while international visitors should contact their embassy.   Adjacent to the White House, the White House Visitor Center provides an in-depth look at the building’s history through interactive exhibits, artifacts, and a 14-minute film titled “White House: Reflections From Within.”

  A calendar is an important tool for organizing daily life, scheduling events, and observing public ceremonies. Today, it is an invaluable instrument when it comes to record-keeping and marking historical events. The term calendar originates from the Latin word calendarium, meaning “debt register”, itself a derivative of the term kalendae, which was the first day of the month in the Roman republican calendar. The day was used to settle accounts and debts. Important upcoming events were also announced on that day.   When Was the First Calendar Invented? An Aztec pictorial calendar wheel, commonly known as the Boban calendar wheel, is printed on amatl (fig bark) paper, 1545-46 CE. Source: The John Carter Brown Library   According to historical evidence, the ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians started to measure time over 5000 years ago. They based their calendars on natural cycles. Their solar calendars were denoted by the periods of days and nights, and their lunar calendars based on the phases of the moon. On the other hand, solar years were predicated upon changing seasons and astronomical events.    An illustration of the modern calendar. Source: Pixabay   That said, the modern calendar (The Gregorian calendar) borrows influences from a collective of early calendars such as the Jewish, the Babylonian, the Roman, and the Egyptian calendars.   How Did the Egyptian Calendar Contribute to the Modern Calendar? Egyptian calendar on astronomical ceiling from the Tomb of Senenmut   While some earlier civilizations had created calendars, the Egyptian calendar contributed heavily to the modern calendar. The ancient Egyptians first based their calendar on the Moon phases. They also used the stars to help them keep track of their calendar like many other civilizations around the world. They specifically relied on the Sirius star (sothic cycle) which appeared once a year to mark a solar year which was 365.25 days.    However, over time, they sought a more practical calendar system and so they developed a civil calendar with 365 days. The new system divided a year into three parts called seasons. Each season had four months composed of 30 days each. They then added five extra days at the end of the year to make the total days add up. Essentially, they had a calendar made up of 12 months with 360 days plus five days. The new civil calendar borrowed from the Moon calendar and the Nile River‘s yearly changes that denoted seasons.    Sirius (bottom) and the constellation Orion (right).   However, it wasn’t directly linked to either anymore. The Egyptians used the new civilian calendar for governance purposes while the Moon calendar continued to be used for religious events. Over time, it became clear that the civil calendar and the solar year didn’t quite correlate as the civil calendar would be behind by a full day after 4 years (due to the difference in 365.25 days of the sothic cycle and 365 days of the civil calendar). Subsequently, the Egyptians made attempts to calibrate the civil calendar and came up with a new one.    The new calendar was based on the simple 365-day year. They added an extra month whenever the first day of the Moon year came before the first day of the simple year to allow it to line up with the year on the civilian calendar. Later, they started to add an extra month every 25 years to fix discrepancies. However, they didn’t stop using the original Moon calendar.  They kept it mainly for farming because it tracked the Nile’s flooding, planting, and harvesting seasons, and religious events.    The River Nile in Egypt.   A more advanced system emerged during the Ptolemaic era when Ptolemy III introduced leap years in 238 BCE. It proposed a leap year every four years. However, the leap year concept was never widely implemented until later after the creation of the Roman Julian calendar in 45 BC following a directive by Julius Caesar.   What Calendars Are Still Observed Today? In 1582 when Roman Catholic countries such as Spain adopted the Gregorian calendar, ten days were omitted from the month of October.   Some calendars still in use today include the Gregorian calendar. Pope Gregory XIII officially established the Gregorian calendar in 1582. It is a solar calendar that is used by most of the world today. Great Britain and its American colonies started using it in 1752. The system was derived from the Julian calendar which Julius Caesar introduced in 45 BC. The main difference is that the Gregorian calendar skips leap days in years that can be divided by 100 but not by 400.   The Jewish calendar is another calendar that is still in use today. It was finalized in the fourth century AD. Some populations still also follow the Chinese calendar which is mostly used to observe traditional festivals. It is used concurrently with the Western (Gregorian) calendar in regions that observe it.

  The place: Tenochtitlan, a metropolis built in the middle of a lake, with floating islands supported by piles. The date: November 1519. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men must have been astonished. Tenochtitlan had more inhabitants than London or Paris and, in many ways, was better organized. Standing before Cortés, a 34-year-old university dropout, was the most powerful emperor in the Americas, Moctezuma II. “Gazing on such wonderful sights, we did not know what to say, or whether what appeared before us was real,” wrote Bernal Díaz, one of Cortés’s companions.   The Most Consequential Meeting in History The Meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma, unknown artist, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This moment was remarkable—an entire, advanced civilization had flourished without the rest of the world knowing. But none of those present had any idea of its true implications. When Cortés met Moctezuma—and no, they didn’t hold or shake hands as some images suggest; no one was allowed to touch the emperor—the descendants of those who, at the dawn of history, migrated eastward from the Fertile Crescent and those who moved to the other side of the world were finally reunited. Globalization had begun. It was “the most astonishing encounter in our history,” as semiotician Tzvetan Todorov put it.   Did Cortés, the failed law student, the farmer, the adventurer, kneel in reverence before the divine monarch, awestruck by the almost supernatural scene of the floating city with snow-capped volcanoes in the background, accompanied by his 500 Spaniards but surrounded by more than a quarter of a million of Moctezuma’s warriors? Not at all. In less than two years, the great Tenochtitlan, its temples and causeways, were in ruins, its inhabitants on their knees, and Cortés was the master of it all.   To paraphrase historian and geographer Jared Diamond, guns, germs, and the Indigenous allies who helped Cortés played a role in the success of the Spaniards. But it’s also true that, more than once, the conquistador and his men were just a hair’s breadth away from defeat—and from being dragged up the nearest pyramid to have their hearts ripped out and offered to the god Huitzilopochtli. Maybe if the Mexica had reacted more quickly, more brutally, maybe if they hadn’t been so cautious, things would have turned out differently. And world history would have, to put it mildly, taken an abrupt turn.   What if Moctezuma had not just defeated the Spaniards, but annihilated them, wiping out any trace of their presence from the continent?   The Sad Night The Sad Night, unknown artist, 17th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It may have all started on June 30, 1520, a moment etched into the memory of every Mexican child as the infamous Noche Triste, or “Night of Sorrows.” For the first and only time, Spanish forces faced total defeat—almost annihilation. The Mexica had every reason to be furious: in the absence of Hernán Cortés, who, though ruthless, wielded diplomatic tact, one of his captains, Pedro de Alvarado, a blond Spaniard the Mexica nicknamed “the Sun,” committed a massacre in the heart of Tenochtitlan. The Mexicas had been peacefully celebrating the Toxcatl Festival at the Templo Mayor when the bloodshed began.   A survivor later described the horrific scene to Bernardino de Sahagún:   “Suddenly, they began to slash and stab the people. They cut them down with swords, wounding them deeply. Some were attacked from behind, immediately falling to the ground with their entrails scattered. Others had their heads severed, cleaved right off. Some were struck in the shoulders, their bodies ripped open. They cut others in the thighs, or the calves, or straight through the abdomen. Intestines spilled everywhere. Some, in vain, tried to flee, dragging their guts behind them, tripping over their own entrails.”   When Cortés returned to the city, he ordered his men to flee under the cover of darkness, but they were discovered, and a brutal battle followed. By dawn, hundreds of Spanish and Indigenous bodies floated in the waters of Lake Texcoco. Cortés had lost his treasured city, and the defeat was near total. Legend says that, crushed by his misfortune, he sat beneath a towering ahuehuete tree and wept bitterly—the origin of the name “Noche Triste.”   Árbol de la Noche Victoriosa (Tree of Victory), Gobierno de la Ciudad de México, 2021. Source: Mexico City Government   Interestingly, this so-called “Tree of the Sad Night” could still be seen in Mexico City until recently, along the Calzada México-Tacuba roadway. What remained of it was destroyed in a fire in 1980. Today, only a colossal, charred stump stands. In 2021, the Mexican government renamed it the “Tree of Victory.” The avenue is now called Calzada México-Tenochtitlán.   This renaming—from “Sad Night” to “Night of Victory”—reflects Mexico’s way of reinterpreting its past. It’s a clear sign that the collective subconscious still holds onto the notion of an Aztec victory, even in retrospect. And that possibility was more real than ever on that fateful night, as Cortés, battered and defeated, gathered his forces to ultimately make another, this time successful, attempt to besiege the powerful Aztec capital.   The Defeat of Hernán Cortés Artist’s rendering of the Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan, unknown artist, 1900. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Now, instead, imagine this: that symbolic tree standing tall today in 2024, in a city still called Tenochtitlan—a name many now wish to restore—at a square that has always been known as the Victory Square. Imagine history books pointing to it as the place where European colonization was checked. Imagine that in 1520, Cortés was captured and sacrificed atop the tallest pyramid the morning after Noche Triste. The history of modern Mexico—and indeed the entire world—would have unfolded completely differently.   Would Cuitláhuac, the new Aztec emperor, have been content knowing Cortés had fled, making the painful journey back to Veracruz, only to sail back to the Caribbean for a second chance? Hardly. Cuitláhuac was already organizing an army of half a million warriors, far greater than all the Spanish forces stationed in Cuba. (Tragically, Cuitláhuac died of smallpox weeks later.)   Revenge would have come swiftly. The Mexica were far from ignorant. They would have adapted to the new mechanics of warfare, adopting Spanish swords and forming a powerful Indigenous cavalry just as North American tribes later mastered horseback warfare. They might not have forged European-style firearms, but they could have easily incorporated remaining Spanish arms into their arsenal. In fact, their Empire already had the necessary materials to make gunpowder and forge metals—more than one Spanish defector could have taught them how.   The Aztecs Retaliate Cortés’s escape route, 1520, by Yavidaxiu, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Could a strengthened Aztec empire have commandeered Cortés’s thirteen brigantines, armed with cannons, left behind on Lake Texcoco? Could they have used them not only to destroy the colonizers in the Gulf of Mexico, but to invade Cuba and wipe out Spanish settlements? It’s plausible. The Mexica were no strangers to water; after all, they built a magnificent city on a lake. A Caribbean naval war, akin to Mediterranean conflicts, might have unfolded.   However, based on their culture, a more likely outcome would have been a fortification of defenses and the embrace of isolationism. This could have delayed European presence for at least a century, perhaps, reducing the spread of disease and limiting Christianity’s influence.   Meanwhile, the news of the Inca Empire’s fall at the hands of Pizarro would have eventually reached the Mexica, fostering a stronger pan-Mexican unity and a more determined defense of their borders. Europe, upon learning of Cortés’s destruction, would have reeled in shock. Spain’s conquest efforts might have been halted entirely, and the Aztec Empire would have gained a newfound respectability.   No empire, however, could escape globalization forever. But perhaps the Mexica—and all of the Americas—might have resisted longer, on their own terms. Would this have led to more equitable relations—robust trade instead of subjugation? Perhaps. More importantly, without the immense wealth of Mexico flowing into Spain for centuries, capitalism might have been restrained, and Europe would be less advanced today. Without a continent to evangelize, Catholicism might have remained confined to the Mediterranean, while an Indigenous religion continued to thrive in the Americas, with millions still speaking Nahuatl, the language of the ancient Mexica.   Beyond Heroes and Villains “Serpent Head, remains of old Tenochtitlan, Mexico City,” by Juan Carlos Fonseca-Mata, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mexico would exist today in a similar, yet vastly different form—a militarily powerful, even territorially expansive state, from Oregon to Panama. And certainly, a strong Aztec empire would have led to a smaller United States with less room for expansion.   Spain and Europe, no doubt, would have lost much without the conquest. Consider that the Americas might have lost out as well. As brutal as the clash between these two worlds was—personified in the meeting of Cortés and Moctezuma on the shimmering waters of Tenochtitlán—the result might ultimately be considered a step forward for humanity. It enriched the cultures, economies, art, and gastronomy of both continents.   It’s impossible to know how history might have unfolded had it followed a different path. But in considering the possibilities, it remains essential to resist the simplistic view of the Indigenous as inherently noble and the Spaniards as inherently evil. The Spanish Conquest, or Indigenous Resistance, as it’s now referred to by the Mexican government, was driven by forces far greater than its players.