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  His words offered a different reality to millions of people, and his fame blossomed across the nation. Ralph Waldo Emerson became a beloved figure for a people struggling to find a purpose, not just for themselves but for a fledgling country grappling with the dynamics of independence. Emerson inspired a new way of thinking, introducing Americans to an existence of appreciation and enlightenment through individual communion with the divine. His words and his actions are as relevant today as they were over a century and a half ago.   The Early Life of Ralph Waldo Emerson Sculpture of Ralph Waldo Emerson by Frank Duveneck, c. 1905, Cincinnati Art Museum.   Born on May 25, 1803 in Boston Massachusetts to Ruth Haskins and the Reverend William Emerson, Ralph Waldo Emerson was one of eight children, though only five survived to adulthood. His father was one of Boston’s leading figures and as a Unitarian minister, a person with much influence in local society.   Through his mother, Ruth, Ralph was a direct descendant of John Howland and Elizabeth Tilley who traveled to America aboard the Mayflower. Ralph represented the seventh generation of Americans descended from these colonists.   Before Ralph could even speak, his life’s work had been determined for him. It was decided that he would follow in his father’s footsteps and join the ministry.   On May 12, 1811, just before Ralph’s eighth birthday, his father died of stomach cancer, and as a result, Ralph spent the rest of his childhood and young adult life in a fairly matriarchal setting, raised by his mother as well as his aunt, Mary Moody Emerson.   Emerson’s schooling was not particularly unique. It began at the Boston Latin School and then progressed to Harvard College. During his first year at Harvard, Ralph started keeping a journal of his thoughts—a practice he would continue for the rest of his life.   At school he became known for his poetry but was an average student, achieving grades in the middle of his class of 59 students. After his studies, he became a teacher and taught at the School for Young Ladies. During this time he spent two years living in a cabin near Roxbury, Massachusetts. His lifelong passion for the outdoors would come to define his philosophy on life.   Harvard Divinity School, The Harvard Crimson   In 1825, he entered Harvard Divinity School and began his training to become a minister. The following year, he was diagnosed with tuberculosis, a disease that would haunt him throughout his life. He moved south to Charleston, South Carolina, then on to St. Augustine in Florida, where the warmer climate was far more conducive to recovery.   During his time in the South, he met Prince Achille Murat, a nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. The two enjoyed each other’s company and became good friends. The juxtaposition of their differing worldviews was, however, a factor that shaped the future philosophy of Emerson. While Emerson was training to become a minister, Murat was an atheist who lived a life of passion, indulging in the fruits that life had to offer.   A Slave Auction in Virginia, artist unknown, 1861 via Royal Museums Greenwich   It was also in the South that Emerson had his first real brush with something that would significantly define his philosophy later in life—slavery. One morning while sitting in church listening to the pastor’s sermon, his ears were assailed by the noise entering the church from an open window. It was the sound of a slave market next door. Emerson began struggling to reconcile how the two could exist in such close proximity, and he started internally questioning the Christian doctrine.   Marriage and Tragedy The gravesite of Ellen Louisa Tucker.   Emerson met Ellen Louisa Tucker on Christmas Day, 1827. She was 16 at the time, and he was 24. They fell in love, marrying two years later.   Emerson wrote in his diary, “Oh, Ellen, I do dearly love you. I have now been four days engaged to Ellen Louisa Tucker. Will my Father in Heaven regard us with kindness, and as he hath, as we trust, made us for each other, will he be pleased to strengthen and purify and prosper and eternize our affection.”   They moved to Boston and lived with Emerson’s mother, Ruth. By this time, however, Ellen was already showing symptoms of tuberculosis, and at the age of 20, she succumbed to the disease.   Emerson, naturally, was distraught. The love of his life was gone, pushing him to further question his religious beliefs. His prayers had been answered with an unmerciful hand.   Emerson visited his late wife’s grave five miles away from his house on a daily basis. On one occasion he did something startlingly odd, while noting simply in his diary, “I visited Ellen’s tomb & opened the coffin.” Why he did this is subject to academic and philosophical debate. It is usually stated that it was not so uncommon in a time period when people had a more intimate relationship with death.   In 1832, Emerson left the ministry. He believed the methods of commemorating Christ were outdated and antiquated, and he could not accept that unity with God had to come from an outside source.   Historian and essayist Thomas Carlyle, The Wellcome Collection   Seeking answers to life’s questions, he left the shores of America and sailed to Europe. He traveled throughout much of Western Europe and met with several of the continent’s greatest philosophers and thinkers. In Rome, he met with John Stuart Mill. In Switzerland he visited the home of Voltaire, and in France he explored the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. It was at these gardens that he stumbled upon the revelation that everything in the natural world was interconnected, and it was this idea that informed the philosophies he would so ardently expound upon returning to America.   While in Britain, he met with William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Thomas Carlyle. He formed a good relationship with Carlyle, who inspired Emerson to follow through on the thoughts he had while in the Jardin des Plantes. The two men wrote to each other regularly until Carlyle’s death in 1881.   Emerson Returns to America and Creates a Philosophy Ralph Waldo Emerson’s house in Concord, Massachusetts.   After his return to America, Emerson took much interest in the Lyceum Movement, a loose collection of adult education programs. Through this movement, Emerson envisioned himself becoming a lecturer. On November 5, 1833, he gave his debut lecture about his experiences and revelations in the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. This lecture would go on to form the foundation of his first book, simply entitled Nature. Virtually everything he wrote and published later would be connected to this seminal work.   Happy times followed and he fell in love again. On January 24, 1835, he proposed to Lydia Jackson via mail. Her acceptance reached him four days later. In July of that year, he bought a house in Concord, Massachusetts which he named Bush, and in September, he traveled to Plymouth to marry Lydia. After they were wed, they lived together with Emerson’s mother in his house in Concord.  For the rest of their lives, Emerson would refer to his wife as Lidian as he wanted her to have a less common name, though he most often called her “Queenie.”   In 1836, he met with other like-minded individuals and formulated the basis of the philosophy that would characterize his work—Transcendentalism. This movement was philosophical, spiritual, and literary, and at its core was the belief in the inherent goodness of people and nature. It saw beauty in the mundane and believed in achieving unity with God through appreciating the wonder of nature on Earth, rather than focusing on something far away that could not be experienced through the senses.   Henry David Thoreau via the National Portrait Gallery   During this time Emerson met Henry David Thoreau, and the two formed a strong friendship. Thoreau was enthusiastic about the Transcendentalism movement, and the two went on regular hikes through nature, bouncing philosophical ideas off each other. The subsequent works of both men were influenced by and bore the hallmarks of the other’s way of thinking.   Naturally, his work was not without its detractors. In 1838, he gave a speech challenging the notion of salvation through Jesus. He was lambasted with harsh criticism from the public who were staunchly Protestant. Nevertheless, he made no attempt to reply or defend himself, and his work continued to gain popularity. In 1841, he published his second book, Essays.   Ralph and Lidian had four children together—Waldo, Ellen, Edith, and Edward. In 1842, tragedy struck, and Waldo, only five at the time, died of scarlet fever. Unsurprisingly, Emerson struggled to come to terms with the loss of Waldo, a child who held a central place in Emerson’s life.   Margaret Fuller. Johnson Fry & Co, after Alonzo Chappel, 1872. National Portrait Gallery   Emerson’s career, however, went on. He continued publishing and giving lectures. His lectures were immensely popular, and he went on tour, giving as many as 80 lectures per year. During this time, he also influenced the work of fellow transcendentalist Margaret Fuller who developed a dangerous affection for Emerson. The relationship, however, didn’t develop into anything physical.   Emerson and Abolition of Slavery Battle of Franklin by Kurz & Allison (creator/publisher), 1891. Emerson was a vocal supporter of fighting to abolish slavery in the United States and supported the war effort against the Confederates. Image: Library of Congress   Emerson had long been an opponent of slavery, but the realities of it were far removed from his life in New England, where he rarely encountered a Black person, let alone one treated as slaves were in the South. Emerson was also wary of getting into politics and attracting attention in the abolitionist context. He viewed many outspoken abolitionists as more concerned with extolling their own virtues than in helping enslaved people.   Encouraged by his friends and his wife, Emerson slowly warmed to the idea of giving speeches on the matter. By this time, he had become one of the most famous men in America, and his voice had the power to influence millions of people.   In 1860, Emerson published his seventh collection of essays, The Conduct of Life. In it he addressed issues of slavery and abolition, stating that going to war over the issue was preferable to peace with slavery.   Such was his influence that he met with Abraham Lincoln and a number of other high-ranking government officials.   Emerson’s Final Years A postcard, c. 1930–1940, featuring Ralph Waldo Emerson’s grave. Boston Public Library.   Despite having a falling out with Henry Thoreau in 1849, Emerson still regarded him as his best friend, and when Thoreau died from tuberculosis in 1862, Emerson delivered the eulogy. Two years later, another prominent friend of his died—Nathanial Hawthorne. Emerson served as a pallbearer at his funeral.   Beginning in 1867, Emerson started losing control of his mental faculties. He suffered from aphasia, a particularly sad condition for one whose life revolved around words. He nevertheless continued to live life to the fullest. In 1871, he took a long journey on the transcontinental railroad, during which he met Brigham Young and the famous mountaineer, explorer, and conservationist John Muir.   In 1872, his house burned down. Emerson decided that this incident was the point at which he should retire, and he gave up public lectures, although he still gave talks to very small groups of people. Later that year he took a trip with his daughter, Ellen, to Europe and Egypt.   As the decade progressed, his aphasia worsened, and he became more reclusive as a result of his embarrassment over his condition. On April 27, 1882, he died of pneumonia. He was buried in Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Concord, Massachusetts.   Legacy and Conclusion Ralph Waldo Emerson. Photograph by Mathew B. Brady, ca. 1856, The Met   Ralph Waldo Emerson was a giant in the field of philosophy. The 1,500 lectures he delivered over his lifetime took him to the heights of fame in his age. He constructed and advanced many of the tenets on which America was built. He championed individualism, but also humanity, and had an irrepressible sense of justice.   The importance of Ralph Waldo Emerson and the impact of his work cannot be overstated.   He created the Transcendentalist movement with its five pillars: nonconformity, free thought, self-reliance, confidence, and importance of nature. These pillars are still evident in the psyche of the American people today, and form a natural and national framework around which America progressed and still progresses.

  Baroque art had a profound influence on the formation of colonial societies in Latin America. From religion to culture and identity, this art form played a pivotal role in shaping colonial societies. Transcending the language barriers that separated indigenous communities from colonizers, Baroque art served a dual political purpose: to create a collective artistic imagination—a shared way of creating and interpreting meaning—while reinforcing social hierarchies and power dynamics among the diverse layers of the society.   The Baroque Travels to the New World Catedral Metropolitana de la Ciudad de México, Retablo de los Reyes (Cathedral of Mexico City, Altar of the Kings) by Jerónimo de Balbás, 1718-1737. Source: Fordham University   Baroque: a term synonymous with all things complex, intricate, excessive, or spectacular, is often overused in contemporary contexts. The word “Baroque,” which most scholars believe originated with the Portuguese barroco, meaning “irregular pearl,” has come to embody many concepts. The eponymous art movement, which originated in 17th-century Europe, is characterized by grandeur and theatricality, the use of illusion and contradiction, excessive detail, and complexity of form.   Following the conquest, this European art form transcended boundaries and traveled to the new world with settlers, missionaries, artists, theologians, and church authorities. European monarchs, aristocrats, and church officials often commissioned works of art and architecture in the Baroque style in their colonies. From art and architecture to music, literature, and religious imagery, the Baroque became the dominant form of artistic expression throughout the colonial epoch.   This new world Baroque was not merely an imitation of European styles, however. As the Baroque intersected with the customs of local cultures, significant alterations occurred. Colonial artists adapted the European Baroque to the local context by incorporating elements, traditions, symbols, and beliefs of indigenous origins. The blending of European and native imagery contributed to the development of a distinct colonial visual aesthetic in the Americas. Ultimately, the Baroque became a transcultural art style subject to all forms of syncretism. At the same time, it served as a tool for religious and political domination in the hands of the European monarchies.   Baroque’s Evangelizing Purpose Virgin of Guadalupe by Sebastián Salcedo, 1779. Source: Denver Art Museum   First and foremost, the Baroque served an evangelizing purpose, enabling the Catholic Church to communicate a specific message through the compelling language of visual arts. Biblical scenes and figures are omnipresent in Baroque art. According to historian Serge Gruzinski, the Baroque artistry helped create a hybrid colonial society that would share a common artistic imagination. In his book Images at War, Gruzinski delves into the cult of the Virgin Guadalupe, the most venerated apparition of the Virgin Mary in New Spain (present-day Mexico), and its relation to the colonial Baroque image. According to the author, the proliferation of the image of Our Lady of Guadalupe and the reverence for it in Mexican culture stands as a testament to the enduring influence of religious imagery from the Baroque period.   The Spanish Crown was well aware of the role of visual representation in shaping these collective imaginations and harnessed this power to the fullest. Through compelling religious narratives embedded in Baroque paintings, sculptures, and religious processions, the Catholic Church effectively conveyed religious narratives to the indigenous population, most of whom did not speak Spanish or Portuguese.   The Betrothal of the Virgin by Sebastián López de Arteaga, c. 1640. Source: Google Arts and Culture   Baroque art was omnipresent in churches and religious institutions. Elaborate facades, intricate sculptures, detailed paintings, and adorned churches conveyed a sense of grandeur and divinity. The altarpieces or retablos in Baroque churches displayed scenes from the Bible in a dramatic style.   The Betrothal of the Virgin, a painting by a Seville-born Mexican baroque painter Sebastián López de Arreaga, depicts the wedding of the Virgin Mary to St. Joseph. Arreaga’s work showcases his skill in adapting the Baroque chiaroscuro and tenebrism techniques. The use of vibrant colors, ornate decorations, heightened drama, and contrasting lighting in religious art aimed to elicit strong emotional responses in the viewer.   New World Baroque Architecture Facade of the Iglesia de San Lorenzo de Carangas (Church of Saint Lawrence of Carangas), Potosi, Bolivia, 16th century. Source: Antipode Bolivia   The Baroque also influenced the design of colonial structures, including churches, cathedrals, and government buildings. Baroque-influenced architecture stands out with its ornate facades, rich decorative elements, and the ultimate Baroque characteristic reflected in the horror vacui—fear of empty spaces.   What set new world Baroque apart from its Spanish and European counterparts? The indigenous element. Colonial artists were able to craft a unique architectural style that reflected the diversity of the religious and cultural landscape of colonial Latin America. From Mexico to the Andes and Brazil, the Baroque was imbued with locally inspired influences.   This “Americanization” of the Baroque led the Cuban author José Lezama Lima to characterize it as an “art of the counter-conquest,” embodying the spirit of resistance exhibited by indigenous artists toward cultural erasure and colonization. As an example, he offers Iglesia de San Lorenzo de Carangas in Potosi, Bolivia, where an Inca princess graces the facade of the door. The cathedral exemplifies a fusion of styles through elaborate carvings imbued with indigenous influences, making it a prime illustration of the Andean Baroque.   Catedral Basílica de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción (Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of the Assumption), Zacatecas, Mexico, 16th-18th century. Source: Ciudades Mexicanas Patrimonio Mundial   In Mexico, the Churrigueresque style—which originated in Spain and is known for its elaborate ornamentation and intricate details—became the dominant direction in Baroque architecture. The Mexican Churrigueresque cathedrals feature dramatic and lavishly decorated retablos. Here again, the artists aptly incorporated indigenous figures and symbols, turning these churches into prime examples of Baroque transculturation. The Catedral Basílica de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción in Zacatecas is one of the many examples of the Mexican Churrigueresque Baroque.   Igreja de São Francisco de Assis (Church of Saint Francis of Assisi) by Alejandrinho, 1771. Source: Google Arts and Culture   In Brazil, the town of Ouro Preto in the Minas Gerais region is home to some of the most important architectural examples from the Baroque period. One of the most distinguished representatives of colonial Brazilian art and the colonial Baroque was a sculptor named Aleijadinho (Antônio Francisco Lisboa). Born to a Portuguese man and an African woman, Aleijadinho drew inspiration from both the Baroque and Rococo styles. He is widely recognized as one of the greatest Baroque sculptors in the Americas.   Hybrid Baroque Cultures Igreja de São Francisco de Assis by Alejandrinho, 1771. Source: UNESCO   The new world Baroque was the result of a cultural transformation that reflected the diversity and hybrid nature of the continent and its cultures. Cuban writer Alejo Carpentier asks in an essay, “And why is Latin America the chosen territory of the Baroque? Because all symbiosis, all mestizaje, engenders the Baroque.” Indeed, the Baroque style in colonial Latin America was not a mere replication of European models but a fusion of European, indigenous, and African influences. Local artisans and artists incorporated their own cultural symbols, materials, and techniques into Baroque works, creating a blended visual language that reflected the complex realities of colonial society. Regrettably, on the opposing side of the emerging hybrid and mestizo culture was the erasure of indigenous cultural heritage.   Catalan historian Jorge Luis Marzo argues that the colonial Baroque acted as a system of political tactics driving cultural erasure and the feigned inclusion of indigenous cultures in the dominant society. Examining the colonial history of Latin America, Marzo underscores the prevalence of Baroque politics rather than Baroque culture, highlighting the impossibility of social mobility and inclusion for indigenous populations.   The Baroque in Contemporary and Global Contexts Raúl Ruiz: one of the most notable directors associated with the Neo-baroque cinema. Source: British Film Institute   Neo-baroque: Baroque re-invented for 20th-century Latin America. As a versatile art form, the Baroque penetrated the different layers of contemporary cultural production. Numerous writers and artists behind the literary renewal of the 1960s, commonly associated with the Latin American Boom and Magical Realist fiction, infused their writings with the continent’s Baroque heritage. A number of scholars of the Baroque assert that it is a sensibility particularly pertinent to Latin America, including Carpentier who saw Latin America as “the chosen territory of the Baroque.” Writers such as Jorge Luis Borges, Lézama Lima, Severo Sarduy, Julio Cortázar, and others are known for creating elaborate, labyrinthine, and distinctly Neo-baroque narratives.   The Baroque also left its mark on the cinematic realm. Renowned Latin American directors created experimental and auteur cinema rich in allegories, complex imagery, and subversive narratives that obscure the boundaries between the real and the imagined. The cinematic world of Latin American directors such as Brazilian Glauber Rocha and Chilean Raúl Ruiz has come to be strongly associated with Baroque and Neo-baroque aesthetics. It was Raúl Ruiz who famously said: “I am not an ideologue of the Baroque. I am simply Latin American. I can’t help but be Baroque.” Among female filmmakers, Maria Luisa Bemberg’s 1990 film I, the Worst of All, which tells the story of the Baroque poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, is a perfect representation of how the Baroque reinvented itself in post-dictatorship Latin American cinema.   In the 21st century, the Baroque once again transcends all boundaries. Today, this aesthetic is actively interpreted in global cultural contexts from Hollywood movies and entertainment to amusement parks, computer games, design, and fashion. While we will continue seeing the word “Baroque” in wider cultural contexts, considering its origins and the significance it holds for Latin America affords a deeper understanding of this concept and its relevance in contemporary culture.

  Mary Queen of Scots had a turbulent life that would shake the political stability of England and Scotland and draw major attention to the religious animosity that existed on the Isle of Great Britain.   With her claim to the English throne and her popularity as a political and military figure, Mary Queen of Scots threatened to overturn centuries of tradition, pitting religions against each other and drawing conflict from the lords of Scotland in their bid for power.   Birth & Childhood of Mary Linlithgow Palace, where Mary was born. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mary Stuart was born in Linlithgow Palace to the west of Edinburgh in Scotland on December 8, 1542. Her father was King James V, ruler of the Kingdom of Scotland, and her mother was Mary of Guise, a French noblewoman. Their family was Catholic, as was much of Scotland and a sizable portion of England. This would become a major factor in the future political maneuverings of the two kingdoms.   Mary was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child to survive her father. She was just six days old when this happened. There are various theories of what caused James’ death. It may have been injuries sustained at the Battle of Solway Moss on November 24, 1542 – a defeat for Scotland against England. Another theory is that he died from drinking contaminated water while on campaign. Either way, his untimely death left a power vacuum, as he had no male heir to succeed him. Despite this, Mary was named Queen of Scotland.   Seeing an opportunity, both England and France began plotting to take control of the throne of Scotland. Mary’s great-uncle Henry VIII was the king of England, and he made plans for Mary to marry his eldest son, Edward, when both were of age. This was agreed upon by the Scottish authorities, but it created great consternation within the kingdom, as the Scots had great animosity towards the English.   The Scottish authorities, under pressure from within their kingdom, were forced to break this agreement. Henry VIII responded by sending an English army to attack Scotland. The French seized this opportunity and helped Scotland defend itself. As a result, it was agreed that Mary would marry the Dauphin, the heir to the throne of France.   Portrait of Francis II by François Clouet, 1558. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Mary was still very young, she was sent to live in France, where she spent the rest of her childhood. She was educated in the court of France, learning many languages and spending her time sewing and riding in the countryside, among other things. At some point during her childhood, she contracted smallpox, but she survived, and it did not mark her features.   In 1558, when she was 15 and the Dauphin, Francis, was 14, they were married in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.   One year later, King Henry II of France died from wounds inflicted in a jousting tournament, and Francis inherited the throne. Mary became queen not just of Scotland but of France. Her reign over France, however, would not last long.   One year after their marriage, King Francis II died from the effects of chronic otitis (ear infection), and his younger brother ascended the throne as Charles IX. His mother, Catherine de Medici, ruled France as regent. The same year, Mary’s mother, who was ruling Scotland as regent, had also died, and a grief-stricken Mary Stuart made plans to return to Scotland.   Meanwhile, in England, Queen Mary I, known as “Bloody Mary,” a Catholic as well as the eldest daughter of the late Henry VIII, died, and her sister, Elizabeth, became queen. As Elizabeth was a Protestant, many Catholics in England saw her accession to the throne as illegitimate and backed Mary Stuart as the rightful heir, as she was the great-granddaughter of Henry VII and had the best claim to the English throne from that line.   Return to Scotland Falkland Palace in Fife. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mary Stuart was still in mourning when she returned to the Kingdom of Scotland on August 19, 1561. Upon arrival, she was met with cheering crowds. Like England, Scotland was also suffering from a religious divide between Catholics and Protestants. Many Catholics had hoped that Mary Stuart would suppress Protestantism in Scotland and were disappointed when she did not.   The complexities of this divide would make life difficult for Mary. Her illegitimate half-brother, the Earl of Moray, was a Protestant leader. Mary had serious cause for concern in the form of Protestant reformer John Knox, who publicly spoke out against the Catholic queen, claiming that she dressed and danced too elaborately!   Mary summoned him to court, but Knox defied her remonstration and was charged with treason. He was later acquitted. This event led to a weakening of Mary in the eyes of the public. Mary’s main concern was likely the slander against her character rather than any quarrel she had with religion.   She kept the Earl of Moray as a close advisor, and of her privy council of 16 men, 12 were Protestant and only four were Catholic.   The demands of court were not her only activities, though. She was young and drawn to physical activity. She enjoyed playing tennis and riding through the countryside. It is said that Falkland Palace became her favorite residence as it reminded her of the French palaces where she grew up.   Marriage to Lord Darnley Henry Lord Darnley, plate from Tobias Smollett’s A Complete History of England (1758-60). Source: Royal Collection Trust   One of the pressing matters on Mary Queen of Scots’ hold on power was the issue of her marital status and the need for an heir. When she was introduced to her English-born half-cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, it is said that she immediately fell in love, and the two were married in 1565.   Lord Darnley had many English connections, and with the fact of her acceptance of Protestants in Scotland, it has been suggested that Mary was actively bidding to ingratiate herself into the court of England, where she could press her claim to the English throne.   Many disapproved of the marriage, including Queen Elizabeth of England. She was infuriated that permission from her had not been sought, as Lord Darnley was not only her cousin too, but an English subject. The marriage was to be fraught with hurdles.   For many, it seemed clear that Darnley married Mary primarily to gain access to the Scottish throne. Mary, however, was headstrong and did not allow Darnley to control her. She named him king but kept all the power to herself. This dynamic angered Darnley, who grew resentful and jealous.   The Murder of David Rizzio by Isaac Taylor, Jr. after John Opie, 1791. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Meanwhile, the marriage had also caused a great rift in the Scottish court, and many Protestant lords gathered troops in open rebellion against their queen. They were led by the Earl of Moray. Within a few months, however, it became clear that he could not muster enough troops to win any war against the Scottish monarch, and he fled to England.   Lord Darnley began plotting as well. He grew jealous of Mary’s private secretary, David Rizzio, with whom she spent much time. Darnley formed an alliance with the Protestant Lords who had challenged Mary in rebellion, and when Rizzio began dining with Mary, Darnley, driven by jealousy and seeing an opportunity, stormed into the dining hall with a group of conspirators. It is claimed that Rizzio hid behind Mary for fear of his life, but Mary was unable to save her friend and confidant. He was murdered on the spot and stabbed 56 times.   Three months later, on June 19, 1566, Mary gave birth to her son by Darnley and named him James.   The Death of Darnley Mary Queen of Scots in Edinburgh Castle. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the fatal incident with Rizzio, Mary allowed several rebel lords, including Moray, to retake the seats on her privy council. Meanwhile, Mary and Darnley decided to stay a while at Jedburgh Castle on the border between Scotland and England. While there, Mary became violently ill, vomiting and suffering from a loss of vision. She had bouts of convulsions and also lost the ability to speak. It is unknown what she was suffering from, but thanks to the close attention of her French physicians, she survived.   Drawing of the Kirk o’ Field after the murder of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, by unknown, 1567. Source: National Archives UK   After Mary had recovered, she met with a group of trusted nobles in November 1566 to discuss how she should deal with the breakdown of her marriage. Darnley became fearful for his life and decided to head to his father’s estates to stay there, but at the start of his journey, he fell ill, possibly poisoned.   His recuperation took place in a house in Edinburgh near Kirk o’ Field, where Mary visited him every day to promote the image that a reconciliation was happening. Before dawn broke on February 10, 1567, an explosion destroyed the building. Darnley was found dead.   It is not known who the murderer was, but at the time, suspicion fell on Mary and a number of supposed conspirators, including Moray and the Earl of Bothwell.   Bothwell was questioned extensively by the Scottish parliament but was acquitted of any wrongdoing.   The Earl of Bothwell James Hepburn, the 4th Earl of Bothwell and Mary Queen of Scots’ third husband. Source: public domain, Picryl   Directly after the murder of Darnley, Mary lost favor with her people. She was not observed to be in mourning and was even seen playing golf a few days later. In April 1567, Mary was abducted by Bothwell. It is unknown exactly what happened next, but rape may have been involved.   Whether she was forced to or not, Mary married Bothwell on May 15, 1567. This was just three months after the murder of Darnley and 12 days after Bothwell divorced his first wife. In addition to this, Bothwell was a Protestant, and they were married according to Protestant rites. Mary completely lost favor with the Scottish people.   Protestant nobles gathered in force against her, and armies were raised. The Battle of Carberry Hill followed, and the army of Mary and Bothwell was defeated. Mary surrendered while Bothwell fled the field and was later captured.   Bothwell was taken to the castle of Dragsholm in Denmark, where he was chained to a pillar half his height so he could not lie down. He spent the next ten years there until he died.   Mary was imprisoned in Lochleven Castle, and while there, she miscarried twins by the Earl of Bothwell. Kept in cramped conditions, Mary had grim prospects. She was forced to abdicate, and her one-year-old son, James, became James VI, King of Scotland, while the Earl of Moray ruled as regent.   With the aid of a servant and George Douglas, brother of William Douglas, who owned Lochleven Castle, Mary managed to escape and raise an army of 6,000 men. Moray’s forces met her on the battlefield on May 13, 1568. Again, her army was defeated at the Battle of Langside. This time, she fled south to England and asked her cousin, Queen Elizabeth, for help.   Mary’s Life in England Portrait Queen Elizabeth I at Wanstead Palace by Mark Gheeraedts. Source: Wellcome Collection   Elizabeth did help keep Mary safe, but by way of imprisonment. Mary was treated well, but for her own safety, she did not have any freedom. Scotland tried to bring evidence against her for the murder of Darnley, but the English had no intention of proceeding with any judicial case against Mary.   Mary was moved from castle to castle, but she lived a lavish life. She was attended to by no less than 16 servants. Nevertheless, she was rarely allowed outside and suffered from a lack of exercise. As time wore on, these demands were relaxed, and Mary was allowed outside more often, although under strict guard.   Mary’s existence was a dire threat to Elizabeth, and numerous plots were uncovered that all hinged on restoring Catholicism to the throne of England by deposing Elizabeth and installing Mary. A law was passed sanctioning the killing of anyone plotting against Elizabeth, and England even came under the threat of invasion as Pope Gregory XIII endorsed a plan to invade England from the Spanish Netherlands. This plan, however, did not materialize. Another plan came to fruition decades later, in 1588, when the Spanish launched their attempted invasion of England.   To rid England of the danger to Elizabeth, a solution had to be found. Mary was banned from sending and receiving letters of any kind, but she had managed to smuggle letters in a barrel. This gave Elizabeth an opportunity to solve her problem. Mary received a letter from Sir Anthony Babington in which he suggested Elizabeth be killed, Catholicism be restored to the throne of England, and Mary be crowned queen. Mary wrote back, accepting the idea.   This was the fuel Elizabeth needed, as the letter was actually written by Sir Francis Walsingham, a master spy employed by Queen Elizabeth.   Trial & Execution The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots by William Nelson Gardiner after John Francis Rigaud, 1790. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The letters were proof that Mary had sanctioned the murder of Elizabeth. She was put on trial and defended herself fiercely, claiming that she was denied many legal avenues of recourse and that as she was not a subject of England, she could not be tried for treason.   The trial, however, was a foregone conclusion. She was found guilty on October 15, 1586, and on February 8 of the following year, she was led to the executioner’s block.   As was customary, the executioner asked his victim for forgiveness, which Mary gave freely. She knelt on the cushion provided for her and put her head on the block.   The first blow from the executioner’s axe missed the neck and hit the back of Mary’s head. The second blow severed the neck aside from a bit of sinew, which the executioner then cut through with the blade. When it was done, he held the head up, only to have it drop to the ground with him left holding her wig.   Her items were burned so that no relics would be left behind, and her body was encased in a lead coffin.   Mary’s death mask. Source: University of St. Andrews Library   Queen Elizabeth left no heirs when she died. The strongest claim to the English throne came from Mary’s son, James VI of Scotland. As such, the English crown passed to him, and he became James I of England as well.   Mary was a tragic figure. Her life was full of mistrust and misfortune, and it was indicative of the rift between Catholicism and Protestantism. Today, Mary is considered to be a hero as well as a victim. Her defiance and suffering evoke memories of the struggle of Scotland, and as such, she is a figure of national pride among the Scots who know and love their history.

One of the most reliable maxims in life is “Follow the Money”. It works for just about anything. And now that the money is drying up for Joe Biden, you can count on Joe Biden shriveling up soon as well. Because that’s exactly what just happened, with up to $90 million of pledged donations to Biden suddenly being frozen and/or rescinded. WOW. Top Democrat donors to the largest Biden Super PAC are withholding $90 million until he drops out of the race. pic.twitter.com/R6BA7aRSux — Libs of TikTok (@libsoftiktok) July 12, 2024 Major Democratic donors have reportedly frozen $90 million in pledged donations for Joe Biden’s 2024 campaign until he withdraws from the election, citing concerns over his performance in a debate with Donald Trump. Despite this, Biden has dismissed rumors of quitting the race and remains focused on his campaign, with some supporters continuing to back him. Speculation is also growing about potential replacements for Biden, with names like Kamala Harris and Gretchen Whitmer being discussed. Here’s more from Fox News: BREAKING: Major Democrat donors to the largest pro-Biden super PAC have frozen $90 million in pledged donations, per the NYT, until Joe Biden steps down. Reports say a “coordinated Democrat rebellion” will be underway over the next 48 hours. pic.twitter.com/4e4aWmaHOj — Charlie Kirk (@charliekirk11) July 12, 2024 Full video player here: BREAKING: Biden’s donors are freezing $90 million in pledges to the campaign pic.twitter.com/FGct8oHtfR — Benny Johnson (@bennyjohnson) July 12, 2024 RELATED REPORT: EXPLAINED: What Happens To Biden’s Campaign Donations If He Drops Out? With Joe Biden almost surely set to drop out of the race soon (or be removed, or die) you may be wondering like I was: what will happen to all his campaign contributions? Millions upon millions…. Remember just a few weeks ago when Barack Obama helped Biden raise $28 million? WATCH: President Barack Obama Has To Guide A Confused Biden Off Stage As He FREEZES Again So what happens to all that money if Biden drops out, dies or is removed? Does it all go to Kamala? Is it just transferred to whoever replaces him? Not exactly. Allow me to explain how it would be dealt with.... If Joe Biden were to drop out of the presidential race, the handling of the campaign donations would follow the Federal Election Commission (FEC) regulations. Here is how it would work in order of what would happen first to last (I've included citations to my sources and legal authorities): Debt Repayment: Campaign funds can be used to pay off any outstanding debts or obligations incurred during the campaign. This includes costs associated with winding down the campaign, such as office space rental, staff salaries, and office supplies​ (FactCheck.org)​​ (FEC.gov)​. Refunds: Contributions made for the general election must be refunded to the donors if the candidate drops out before the general election. This refund must occur within 60 days unless the donor gives permission to use the funds for other purposes​ (Investopedia)​. Donations to Charities or Political Parties: Leftover funds can be donated to charitable organizations or transferred to other political committees, including national, state, or local party committees​ (Investopedia)​​ (Mental Floss)​. Transfers to Other Candidates: The campaign can make contributions to other federal candidates, subject to limits (e.g., $2000 per election per candidate)​ (Mental Floss)​. Future Campaign Use: Funds can be saved for a future election campaign by the same candidate. If Biden decided to run for another office in the future, he could use the remaining funds for that campaign​ (Investopedia)​. Prohibited Personal Use: The funds cannot be used for personal expenses. Personal use includes expenses that would exist irrespective of the candidate’s campaign or duties as a federal officeholder, such as household items, personal mortgage or rent, and personal travel​ (Investopedia)​​ (Mental Floss)​. Ok, so let's dig into #4 a bit.... So let's just say that The Rock ends up replacing Joe Biden. It's true that only $2,000 of the Biden Campaign Funds can be transferred directly to The Rock's campaign, which of course is basically nothing. But that's not really the end of the story. There are many loopholes and workarounds. Here are the three biggest ones: Donations to Charities: Donate an unlimited amount to charitable organizations, provided the donation does not benefit Biden personally​ (Investopedia)​​ (FEC.gov)​. Transfers to Party Committees: Transfer unlimited amounts to national, state, or local political party committees​(Mental Floss)​​ (FEC.gov)​. Leadership PACs: Establish a leadership PAC, which can be used to support other candidates and political activities. This is more flexible but still subject to restrictions on personal use​ (Mental Floss)​. So that's probably where we'd see the bulk of it go....to places like the DNC or other PACs. Forbes recently published a similar analysis that lines up very nicely with what I've just posted above: KEY FACTS If a presidential candidate dropped out of the race, they would first need to repay all of their campaign vendors, and if the campaign ended before their parties’ respective conventions, where they officially select a nominee, they would have to refund all contributions designated to be used in the general election, elections lawyer Brett Kappel told Forbes. After that, Biden or Trump could try to use any leftover money to support their party’s new candidate—but campaign finance laws only allow them to transfer $2,000 directly to another federal campaign, so the vast majority of their eight-figure war chests would need to be given to other groups like political parties or PACs, a complicated process. The funds could seamlessly be transferred, without limits, to national, state or local party committees, such as the Democratic or Republican National Committees, which could use the money to support a replacement nominee or other Democratic candidates in federal down-ballot races—a scenario that would make the party largely responsible for funding a candidate’s presidential run, representing a break from most modern campaigns. FEC rules also permit limitless transfers to political action committees and to nonprofits, which can support candidates that align with their broader mission statement, though engaging in political campaigns cannot be their primary activity. Political action committees and super PACs supporting presidential candidates could seamlessly begin spending their money to support replacement candidates, but super PACs are legally prohibited from coordinating directly with campaigns. A presidential candidate who drops out of the race could also create what’s known as a leadership PAC, which are controlled by federal office holders and used to help other candidates for office, but leadership PACs have a $5,000 limit on donations to and from the organization, Kappel said, noting “it would be more efficient to just give [unspent campaign money] to the party committees.” CNN also had an interesting analysis more generally exploring what happens in several key things if Biden is replaced: Who could replace Biden? You can assume, for instance, that Vice President Kamala Harris would be a top contender to be on the ballot in such a scenario. But there would be other potential candidates who previously argued they could run a more effective campaign against former President Donald Trump. Would someone like California Gov. Gavin Newsom – who offered unqualified support for Biden in the wake of Thursday’s debate – challenge Harris at the convention? Settling on a replacement could be divisive and ugly. It would be up to the delegates to decide, in a series of votes after frantic lobbying, who to pick. On the Democratic side, there is also another group to consider: the “superdelegates,” a group of about 700 senior party leaders and elected officials who are automatically delegates to the convention based on their position. Under normal party rules, they can’t vote on the first ballot if they could swing the nomination, but they’re free to vote on subsequent ballots. What if a candidate left the race after the convention? It would take a drastic event for a candidate to leave the race in the few months between a party’s nominating convention in the summer and the general election in November. Democrats and Republicans have slightly different methods of dealing with this possibility. You can imagine the end result would probably be that the running mate stepped up to be on the general election ballot, but that is not necessarily guaranteed. Democrats – The Democratic National Committee is empowered to fill a vacancy on the national ticket after the convention under party rules, after the party chair consults with Democratic governors and congressional leadership. Republicans – If a vacancy occurs on the Republican side, the Republican National Committee can either reconvene the national convention or select a new candidate itself. Would the running mate automatically become the nominee? An in-depth Congressional Research Service memo also notes that if an incumbent president becomes incapacitated after winning the party’s nomination, the 25th Amendment would elevate the vice president to the presidency, but party rules would determine who rises to become the party’s nominee. Neither party, according to the CRS, requires that the presidential candidate’s running mate be elevated to the top of the ticket, though that would obviously be the most likely scenario. Has a candidate ever left the race after the convention? In modern times, per the CRS, the Democrat running for vice president in 1972, Sen. Thomas Eagleton, was forced to step aside after the convention after it was discovered that he was treated for mental illness. (1972 was a very different time! Today, thankfully, there is not nearly the stigma attached to mental health.) The DNC actually needed to convene a meeting to affirm Sargent Shriver as Democratic nominee George McGovern’s second-choice running mate. What if a president-elect was incapacitated after the election? If a president-elect was to die, timing is again important. Under the Constitution, it is electors meeting in state capitols who technically cast votes for the presidency. While some states require that they vote for the winner of the election in their state, in others they have leeway. The CRS memo, which cites several congressional hearings on the subject, suggests it would clearly make sense for a vice president-elect to simply assume the role of president-elect, but the law itself is murky. Under the 20th Amendment, if a president-elect dies, his or her running mate, the vice president-elect, becomes president. There could be some question, for instance, about when exactly a person becomes president-elect. Is it after the electors meet in December, or after Congress meets to count Electoral College votes on January 6?

Headlining over Van Halen, hanging with Bon Scott, out-partying Mötley Crüe – Y&T deserve way more love than they get

With their fifth album, 2011’s Ritual, The Black Dahlia Murder peered into the darkest recesses of the human pysche