by G2mil, The Duran: The FBI often allows violent attacks on Americans “to keep fear alive” like the 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York. A truck bomb exploded in the underground parking garage killing 6 Americans and injuring over a thousand. In this case, the FBI and its CIA ally had allowed known […]

  According to Chinese tradition, Chinese civilization is 5,000 years old, though the ancient China of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties was far smaller than modern China and largely confined to the Yellow River basin. Over time, its peoples expanded further afield and incorporated other cultures. While there is no archeological evidence for the Xia, there is plenty of evidence for the Shang. The Zhou kings, who ruled from around 1000 BCE, were respected for their observance of rituals, and over time, they were reduced to the puppets of powerful warlords.   The Xia Dynasty Turquoise-inlaid Bronze Plaque, Erlitou Culture, c. 1900-1600 BCE. Source: Christies   The traditional Chinese historiographical tradition, as related in Sima Qian’s Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, begins with the Yellow Emperor, the first of the legendary Five Emperors. The last of these, Emperor Shun, decided to pass his throne to Yu the Great, who had prevented flooding in the Yellow River by building draining channels. Yu is therefore credited with founding the Xia Dynasty, as upon his death, he was succeeded by his son Qi, the first time that the kingship passed from father to son.   Both Chinese tradition and archeological evidence dating back to 5000 BCE indicate that there may have been hundreds and thousands of small communities who lived in settlements protected by rammed earth walls. In the Shiji, only the Xia is mentioned, together with genealogical tables of kings, its various capital cities, and accounts of major political developments, suggesting that the Xia was the most powerful state in the Yellow River basin.   According to Sima Qian, 17 kings over 14 generations ruled the Xia for around 470 years. In their quest to find archaeological evidence for the Xia, many modern Chinese scholars believe that the Xia can be identified with the Erlitou culture, named after an archaeological site to the east of Luoyang discovered by Xu Xusheng in 1959. However, there is no definite proof, as so far, no inscriptions have been uncovered that correspond to Sima Qian’s list of kings.   The Shang Dynasty Shang Dynasty Oracle Bone. Source: Cambridge University Library   According to Sima Qian, the Xia was overthrown when its 17th ruler, the tyrannical King Jie, was defeated in battle by Cheng Tang, ruler of the state of Shang (which Sima Qian calls Yin, after its capital city), who founded the dynasty of the same name. Sima Qian gives the names of 29 kings of Shang over 23 generations. While the chronology of the Shang Dynasty is uncertain, most estimates place it between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE.   The Shang was the first Chinese civilization to leave behind a written record in the form of oracle bones used by diviners to tell the future for the king and other members of the royal family. Over 200,000 oracle bone fragments have been recovered from a site near Anyang in northern Henan province. Dating from around 1250 BC to 1050 BCE, the kings named in the inscriptions match with the last nine kings mentioned by Sima Qian.   Over 500 Shang sites have been identified, covering a large territory spanning Liaoning in the northeast and Sichuan in the southwest. However, while these sites are associated with Shang culture, the territory under the direct control of the Shang king is likely to have been far smaller. A common theme in the oracle bones involves kings, princes, and non-royal military leaders wanting to know whether they would be victorious in battle against their enemies.   The Western Zhou King Wen of Zhou, painting by Kano Sansetsu, 1632. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Tokyo National Museum)   By the 1100s BCE, the Shang Dynasty was facing encroachments from several states to the west, the most formidable of which was the State of Zhou. The initiator of the Zhou conquest of Shang was Ji Chang, better known as King Wen (the Cultured King), who ruled between 1100 BCE and his death in 1050 BCE.   King Wen did not live to see the final conquest of Shang in around 1046 BCE, when his son King Wu (the Martial King) defeated the Shang army at Muye, a short distance to the southwest of the Shang capital, founding the Zhou Dynasty in the process. According to the traditional account, the Zhou victory owed much to Jiang Ziya, a talented military officer who served Kings Wen and Wu and led the initial charge.   King Wu died a few years later, in 1043 BCE, and was succeeded by his young son, King Cheng. One of King Wu’s younger brothers, the Duke of Zhou (personal name Ji Dan), declared the king too young to rule and assumed a regency. This presumptuous act provoked a rebellion against King Cheng, led by his other uncles. While several of his advisors counseled against going to war against his uncles, the young king claimed that he enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven as the results of his divination were favorable and could not defy the will of Heaven.   Duke of Zhou, painting by Kano Sansetsu, 1632. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Tokyo National Museum)   After defeating the rebels, the Duke of Zhou’s forces continued to march east and conquered much of eastern China, establishing a number of fiefdoms under royal princes and senior officials. Jiang Ziya, the mastermind of the Battle of Muye, would become the founder of the State of Qi in modern-day Shandong province.   The king of Zhou ruled from his capitals of Fengjing and Haojing, situated on opposite banks of the Feng River near modern-day Xi’an and collectively known as Fenghao. In order to consolidate his eastern conquests, the Duke of Zhou established a stronghold at Chengzhou on the site of modern-day Luoyang, which would effectively become an eastern capital of the kingdom.   The Duke of Zhou established many of the principles of government for posterity, and some of his political philosophy was recorded in the Shang shu (Venerated Documents). He was the first to formulate the idea that the Mandate of Heaven had been passed from the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty, and he believed that a successful government depended on effective ministers rather than the king himself.   After restoring order to the state, the Duke of Zhou has been praised by posterity for laying down his power and remaining at Chengzhou rather than accompanying the king back to Fenghao. However, this may not have been a voluntary act, and King Cheng may have asserted his authority and sidelined his uncle.   The Spring and Autumn Period Statue of Confucius, Qufu, China, 2018. Source: South China Morning Post   Over time, the colonies established during the early Zhou became increasingly independent from the king in Fenghao. At the same time, the Zhou faced threats from groups of barbarians, including the Quan Rong to the northwest. In 771 BCE, the Quan Rong attacked Fenghao and killed King You of Zhou. His son was forced to abandon the capital and re-establish his capital at Chengzhou, where he was installed as King Ping. The move marked the end of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.   The first half of the Eastern Zhou, approximately 770 to 481 BCE, is commonly referred to as the Spring and Autumn Period, named after The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical record of the State of Lu spanning 722 to 481 BCE, attributed to the conservative philosopher Confucius, who served as a minister in the State of Lu during the 6th century BCE.   During the Spring and Autumn Period, the power of the King of Zhou continued to decline at the expense of its vassal states. While there were initially more than a hundred, the system consolidated over time until there were around a dozen major states left standing. While most of these states had been established by the Zhou and continued to treat the king in Luoyang as their feudal overlord, several states from the south and east, including the Chu, Wu, and Yue, originated from outside the Zhou political system and were subsequently incorporated into the existing feudal structure.   Sword of King Helü of Wu, 6th century BCE. Source: Shanghai Museum via Wikimedia Commons   The Eastern Zhou had survived in large part due to assistance from the state of Zheng near Luoyang. By the 7th century BCE, Zheng was in decline, paving the way for the state of Qi to become the hegemonic power. Duke Huan of Qi and his advisor Guan Zhong reformed the state administration to enable Qi to mobilize its resources more effectively than other Zhou states.   In 671 BCE, after Qi armies intervened to support King Hui of Zhou in a power struggle, Duke Huan was awarded the title of ba, a term usually translated as hegemon or protector. Through military and diplomatic efforts, Duke Huan’s status was gradually recognized throughout the realm, and he frequently convened interstate meetings to confirm the feudal authority of the King of Zhou.   Duke Huan and the Zhou faced a major challenge from the state of Chu in the south, based around the Yangtze River valley, whose ruler had assumed the title of king in 706 BCE in defiance of the Zhou kingdom. Duke Huan’s defeat of Chu in 656 BCE further strengthened his power, but Qi hegemony proved ephemeral when civil war broke out after Duke Huan’s death in 643 BCE. Within a decade, Duke Wen of Jin to the north of the Zhou royal domain assumed leadership of the Zhou states. After defeating a resurgent Chu army at the Battle of Chengpu in 632 BCE, Duke Wen was given the title of ba, and Jin retained its hegemony for 80 years.   Qing dynasty rubbing of stone relief from Wu family shrine in Shandong depicting Duke Huan of Qi and Guan Zhong, 147 CE. Source: Palace Museum, Beijing   The power struggle between Jin and Chu continued throughout the 6th century BCE, but by the end of the century, the states of Wu and Yue emerged around the Yangtze River delta to challenge the status quo.   In 506 BCE, King Helü of Wu’s armies defeated Chu in five major battles and sacked its capital of Ying, but he had to return home after a rebellion by his brother. After restoring order, Helü turned his attention to Yue and died from wounds sustained in battle in 496 BCE. His son and successor, King Fuchai, captured Yue and enslaved its king, Goujian, before leading his armies north, forcing Qi and Jin into recognizing Wu as the hegemonic power in 482 BCE.   In the meantime, he had released King Goujian from captivity for good behavior and allowed him to return to Yue. Goujian was determined to take revenge on Wu, and in 476 BCE, he took advantage of Fuchai’s absence in the north to attack the Wu capital, present-day Suzhou. The Yue armies captured the city, and Fuchai hurried home to make peace. Three years later, Goujian led a campaign that ended with Fuchai’s death and the Yue conquest of Wu. Goujian’s defeat of his bitter rival enabled him to assume the title of ba at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period.   The Warring States Period Swords and spearhead, Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BCE). Source: Wikimedia Commons (Shanghai Museum)   The end of the Spring and Autumn Period corresponded with the collapse of the State of Jin, from which the three states of Zhao, Wei, and Ha emerged. These three states were among the seven major powers of the Warring States period, including Yan in the northeast, around present-day Beijing, Qi in the east, Chu in the south, and Qin in the west. Although other minor states continued to survive for some time, they were gradually extinguished by their larger rivals.   The Warring States Period witnessed the centralization of political authority, a development catalyzed either by the victors of civil wars to consolidate their power or by rulers who had to face off external threats. The expansion of state capacity meant that wars could be fought on a larger scale, and commanders could keep their armies on the field for longer. The crossbow became the favored infantry weapon, while the State of Zhao in the north pioneered the use of cavalry.   Each of the seven warring states enjoyed various strategic advantages and disadvantages as they struggled for supremacy. As the most powerful successor state to the Jin, Wei initially enjoyed the upper hand, but its central position meant that it was threatened from all sides, and it struggled to hold on to any conquests. Wei’s decline came about following defeats to Qi at Guiling in 353 BCE and Maling in 341 BCE. The Qi victories were masterminded by military strategist Sun Bin, who claimed descent from the author of Sun Tzu’s Art of War.   Portrait of Sun Bin, Ming Dynasty (14th-17th centuries CE). Source: Wikimedia Commons   The State of Qin in the west enjoyed the greatest strategic advantage. Located in what is now Shaanxi province, the Qin heartland was surrounded by mountains, and Qin rulers protected their domain by fortifying the Hangu and Wu passes, which led into the region. Over the course of the 4th century BCE, the Qin conquered the regions of Shu and Ba to the southwest, and in 312, Qin armies conquered the region of Hanzhong from Chu to connect these territories into a single unit. Qin remained a constant threat to Chu’s western flank, severely undermining Chu’s ability to expand elsewhere.   Qin’s success owed much to Shang Yang, who served as minister to Duke Xiao of Qin in the mid-4th century BCE. Shang Yang’s political philosophy, known as Legalism, is usually associated with an expansion of state power and the application of draconian punishments to maintain political order. However, Shang Yang’s policies were also characterized by a pragmatic desire to improve state efficiency by promoting men by ability rather than birth, strengthening the army, and promoting economic development.   As a result of Qin’s expansion in the 4th century BC, the foreign policy of the other warring states came to be defined in relation to their attitude towards the Qin. At various times, the warring states formed pro-Qin “horizontal alliances” along an east-west axis, or anti-Qin “vertical alliances,” along a north-south axis.   Portrait of Bai Qi, Ming Dynasty (14th-17th centuries CE). Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the early 3rd century BCE, the State of Qi enjoyed a brief period of dominance after taking advantage of Qin internal turmoil and allying with Wei and Han to conquer Qin territories east of the Hangu Pass. In 294 BCE, Qi abandoned its allies, enabling Qin to reconquer the lost territories, and by 288, Qin and Qi made an agreement to partition China into western and eastern halves.   Within a few years, Qi resumed hostilities against Qin and was opposed by a “horizontal alliance” of Qin, Zhao, Han, Wei, and Yan. In 284, the Yan general Yue Yi inflicted a decisive defeat on the Qi army. Not long afterward, Yue Yi fell victim to court intrigue and was forced to flee to Zhao, where he helped King Huiwen of Zhao to expand his territories at the expense of Wei and Qi, while Zhao general Lian Po successfully resisted Qin invasion and inflicted heavy casualties on the invaders.   The decisive encounter between Qin and Zhao took place at Changping, where, after a three-year siege, Qin general Bai Qi crushed the Zhao forces in 260 BCE. Sima Qian claims that over 400,000 Zhao troops were killed during the battle. Although Zhao was not completely beaten, the Qin victory at Changping paved the way for the Qin conquest of China. In 249, King Zhuangxiang of Qin occupied Luoyang and extinguished the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. His son, King Ying Zheng of Qin, completed the unification of China between 230 and 221 BCE, culminating in the foundation of the Qin Dynasty.

  When US citizens vote in presidential elections every four years, it’s the controversial Electoral College that determines the winner, not the popular vote. This unique and somewhat convoluted system devised by the Founding Fathers impacts everything from where candidates campaign and how they spend their funds to voter turnout and the viability of third-party candidates. If you don’t live in a swing state, does your vote really matter?   Origins of the Electoral College Washington as Statesman at the Constitutional Convention by Junius Brutus Stearns, 1856. Source: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts   The Electoral College was established in 1787 during the Constitutional Convention, and most history books describe its birth as a compromise between those Founding Fathers who supported a true popular vote and those who preferred that Congress choose the president.   The reality is more complex. A number of considerations went into the decision-making process, including whether a president selected by Congress could function as an independent executive and the wisdom of relying on the common voter at a time when information about presidential candidates and their policies was much more difficult to disseminate. Prominent among these considerations was slavery. Or, more precisely, that many southern states had large populations of enslaved people who could not vote, but, despite their number of eligible voters being smaller than their northern counterparts, those states still expected equal say in choosing the president.   James Madison noted, “There was one difficulty however of a serious nature attending an immediate choice by the people. The right of suffrage was much more diffusive in the Northern than the Southern States; and the latter could have no influence in the election on the score of the Negroes. The substitution of electors obviated this difficulty and seemed on the whole to be liable to fewest objections.”   Ultimately, unable to agree on a true popular vote, the delegates to the Convention devised a system whereby each state was awarded a number of electors, originally chosen by the state legislatures, who would vote for the president. Piggybacking on the concept behind the three-fifths compromise, which allowed southern states to count three out of every five enslaved people for the purposes of Congressional representation, the Electoral College awarded those same states more electoral votes than their eligible voting population merited, matching their number of Congressional representatives, in an attempt to ensure all states had equal influence.   Presidential Campaigns and the Electoral College Distribution of electoral votes by state as of 2024. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the Electoral College system has evolved over time, it is still implemented for every presidential race. To win the presidency, a candidate must collect a majority of the electoral votes, 270. Since these votes are awarded on a state-by-state basis, almost always to the slate of electors for the candidate who wins the popular vote in each state, presidential campaigns largely focus on specific states with the potential to boost their electoral vote totals. States with the largest number of electoral votes seem like one obvious target. However, over time, the majority of states have come to reliably vote either Republican or Democrat, and each party can expect a relatively stable number of electoral votes from their respective red or blue states. This has made states with large numbers of votes, like reliably blue California, for example, less relevant.   States that switched between parties over the last eight presidential elections. Source: USA Facts   States that might swing either way are, of course, “swing states.” And because, in nearly every state, all of the electoral votes are awarded to the state’s popular vote winner, the majority of presidential campaigning is focused on these few “purple” states where the winner is truly in question. Eligible voters in these states are wooed by the candidates, who often speak to the specific issues impacting them—auto manufacturing jobs in Michigan, for example—while voters in states that consistently vote Democrat or Republican feel largely ignored. While this is perhaps of less concern in an age where information is so easily accessible and voters can research candidates’ policy positions on their own, it has long been a source of consternation for voters, who feel unheard.   Would this still be the case without the Electoral College? Proponents of the system argue that it prevents candidates from focusing solely on high-population urban areas and promotes a more national, rather than regional, approach to presidential elections. The data, however, supports the argument that the EC doesn’t deter regional focus; it simply changes which regions are emphasized. According to National Popular Vote, 96% of campaign events during the 2020 election were held in just 12 states, while 33 states and the District of Columbia garnered no campaign events at all. Spending on TV ads was similarly concentrated, with the key swing states of Pennsylvania and Florida receiving the most attention.   Impact of the Electoral College on the Political Landscape Voter turnout by state in the 2020 presidential race. Source: MIT   Beyond the presidential campaigns themselves, the Electoral College also shapes the wider political system and the way voters participate in it.   Research suggests the Electoral College system hinders a robust, participatory democracy by essentially disincentivizing voting in states that always vote with one or the other party because voters perceive their votes as irrelevant. Not only do presidential campaigns largely focus on swing states, but voter turnout drives and other efforts to encourage voters to be active participants in their democracy also reinforce the idea that what matters is not how you vote but where.   While the impact this has on presidential election results is unclear because state and local races are decided on the same ballot, it almost certainly affects Congressional contests and other local races. It’s important to note, however, that correlation does not equal causation. While data shows higher voter turnout in swing states, other factors also play a role in overall voter participation, particularly measures that make voting easier, such as mail-in ballots and same-day voter registration, as well as measures critics say hinder turnout, like restrictive voter ID laws.   Dr. Cornel West, a third-party presidential candidate for 2024. Source: Cornelwest2024.com   The Electoral College also helps to maintain the largely moderate, two-party system in the United States, which some favor while others oppose. It is rare for a third-party candidate to earn any electoral votes in the winner-take-all system, with the result that their primary impact is as a spoiler that draws votes away from one of the major candidates.   Proponents argue that, by essentially forcing candidates into one of just two parties, extremists will be pushed to the margins, candidates winning elections with less than a majority of the vote can be avoided, and both parties will need to adopt a more centrist approach to win voters, thereby appealing to the broadest number of Americans.   Critics argue that if the Electoral College were necessary for that outcome, successful extremist candidates and candidates winning with a plurality rather than a majority should be prevalent in races that rely on the popular vote, like state governors, and are not. They also note that while most voters see voting for a third-party candidate as a waste because of the current system, there is steady support among voters for a viable third party.   Alternatives to the Electoral College Hillary Clinton at the 2016 Democratic National Convention, photographed by Ruth Fremson. Clinton won 3 million more votes than Donald Trump but lost the presidency. Source: The New York Times   As of 2024, 63% of Americans support abolishing the EC in favor of the national popular vote, skewing largely along party lines. Declining support for the EC is perhaps driven by the fact that, while the candidate who lost the popular vote has won the election just five times in the nearly 250 years since the Electoral College was created, it has happened twice already in the 21st century.   Because the Electoral College is enshrined in the Constitution, eliminating it is not so simple; it requires an amendment. Such an amendment passed the House in 1969 but was defeated in the Senate and has not come close to approval since.   However, while the Constitution mandates the use of the EC, it does not dictate how states award their electoral votes. While the majority of states currently award all their electoral votes to the state’s popular vote winner, two, Maine and Nebraska, divide them between the state-wide winner and Congressional district winners. Researchers note that awarding electoral votes on the basis of Congressional districts brings contentious issues like gerrymandering into play, while awarding them proportionally, another potential option, could create disproportionate representation for states with rapidly growing or shrinking populations since the number of electoral votes allocated per state is only revised once per decade.   Notably, 17 states have enacted laws that would award their electoral votes to the national popular vote winner if and when a sufficient number of states sign the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact. Once 270 electoral votes, enough to win the election, fall under this compact, these laws would go into effect, essentially preventing the candidate who loses the popular vote from winning the election while circumventing the difficulties of a Constitutional Amendment.   So, Does Your Vote Count? US and Puerto Rican flags hang on a building in Puerto Rico, 2018. Source: Lori Shaull, Flickr   Whatever the founders’ intentions, the Electoral College has shaped presidential elections in a number of ways that critics say are profoundly undemocratic—because, ultimately, the number of people who vote for a presidential candidate is less important than where those voters live. For example, in 2020, Joe Biden led the popular vote by 7 million nationwide; but, had just a few thousand voters in swing states voted differently, he would have lost the presidency. The sense that “your vote doesn’t matter” is understandable when the will of 20,000 voters holds more sway than 7 million because of which state they reside in.   As it currently stands, it is challenging to argue that all votes count equally in the presidential race. Even without considering the swing states issues, critics argue that lower-populated states continue to be overrepresented: “According to 2023 population estimates, one electoral vote in Wyoming accounts for around 194,000 people, while a vote in Texas, Florida or California accounts for over 700,000.” Although electoral votes are redistributed after each census, the total number of electoral votes has been unchanged since 1961—though the US population has nearly doubled since then. And no electoral votes are awarded to US territories like Puerto Rico, which has a population of over 3 million US citizens—more populous than 21 states.   Campaign signs outside Maryland polling place for the 2022 midterm elections. Source: Marylandmatters.org   However, while voting for the top executive looms large for most Americans, presidential elections aren’t held in a vacuum. Regardless of where voters live, their votes for congressional candidates and in local races are not caught up in the intricacies of the Electoral College. Which party controls Congress is arguably just as important as who controls the Executive Branch, and state-level leaders also have a great deal of influence over the political system as a whole, given the relatively broad authority granted to states under the federal system.   That is not to say that equal representation is guaranteed in these races, either. Gerrymandering and voter suppression continue to impact elections at all levels across the nation. The 245-year-long project to enshrine free and fair elections under US democracy remains a work in progress.

  UNESCO World Heritage Sites are globally recognized landmarks celebrated for their cultural, historical, artistic, or environmental significance. From ancient cities and architectural wonders to biodiversity hotspots, these sites are legally protected to preserve their legacy for future generations. Some of the most renowned include the Pyramids of Egypt, Machu Picchu, and the Great Barrier Reef, which is one of the largest national parks in the world. India, with its deep-rooted history and diverse landscapes, is home to 43 UNESCO-listed sites, making it one of the richest heritage destinations in the world. Here are ten must-see UNESCO sites in India that showcase its extraordinary past and natural beauty.   1. Taj Mahal The Taj Mahal in Agra, India. Source: Pexels   The Taj Mahal in Agra is a symbol of timeless love and a masterpiece of architectural excellence. Built in 1632 by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, it was created in memory of his cherished wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who passed away during childbirth. This magnificent mausoleum, completed in 1648, showcases a harmonious blend of Persian, Islamic, and Indian architectural styles.   Made from pure white marble, the Taj Mahal features detailed carvings and delicate inlays of semi-precious gems. Its central dome rises majestically, flanked by four slender minarets. The surrounding complex features lush gardens, a reflecting pool, a mosque, and a guesthouse, all contributing to its symmetrical beauty.   Visiting the Taj Mahal offers a glimpse into India’s rich history and cultural heritage. The site is open daily from one hour before sunrise to 45 minutes before sunset, except on Fridays. Night viewings are available on full moon nights and two days before and after, providing a unique perspective of the monument under moonlight.   To fully appreciate the Taj Mahal, plan to spend approximately three hours exploring its grounds and marveling at its intricate details. Early morning visits are recommended to experience the serene ambiance and capture stunning photographs in the soft light.   2. Jaipur City Jaipur City as seen from Nahargarh Fort’s walls, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Founded in 1727 by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, Jaipur is India’s first planned city, designed with precise grid patterns and wide avenues. It is famously known as the “Pink City” because of its rose-hued buildings, a tradition that dates back to 1876 when the entire city was painted pink to welcome the Prince of Wales.   The city’s historical significance is evident in its grand forts and palaces. Amber Fort, perched on a hill, showcases a blend of Hindu and Mughal architecture with intricate carvings and mirrored halls. The City Palace, located in the heart of Jaipur, houses museums displaying royal costumes, weaponry, and artifacts that offer insight into Rajput history. Hawa Mahal, or the Palace of Winds, is an architectural marvel with 953 windows designed to allow royal women to observe the bustling streets without being seen. Jantar Mantar, a UNESCO World Heritage site, features the world’s largest stone sundial and other astronomical instruments.   Beyond its architectural wonders, Jaipur is a cultural treasure trove. The city’s bustling bazaars, such as Johari Bazaar and Bapu Bazaar, offer exquisite jewelry, vibrant textiles, and handcrafted souvenirs. Traditional Rajasthani cuisine is another highlight, with dishes like Dal Baati Churma, Gatte ki Sabzi, and the spicy Laal Maas providing a taste of the region’s rich culinary heritage.   3. Khajuraho Group of Monuments Khajuraho Group of Monuments, Madhya Pradesh, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Khajuraho Group of Monuments in Madhya Pradesh is one of India’s most remarkable UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Built between the 9th and 12th centuries by the Chandela dynasty, these temples are known for their detailed carvings that depict deities, mythological scenes, and aspects of daily life. The site originally had over 80 temples, but today, only about 25 remain, each showcasing fine craftsmanship and intricate stonework.   The temples are divided into three groups: Western, Eastern, and Southern. The Western Group is the most famous, home to the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, which stands as the largest and most elaborate structure. Its towering spires and thousands of sculptures highlight the artistic and architectural brilliance of the period. The Eastern Group includes Jain temples, featuring delicate carvings of Tirthankaras, while the Southern Group houses lesser-known but equally impressive shrines.   Khajuraho is often associated with its erotic sculptures, but these carvings make up only a small portion of the site. The temples primarily celebrate divine figures, celestial beings, and the essence of human life in all its forms. The precision of the carvings, the balance in architectural design, and the durability of these structures after centuries of exposure make Khajuraho an extraordinary example of Indian heritage.   4. Sun Temple, Konark Sun Temple at Konark, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Sun Temple in Konark, Odisha, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of India’s most significant architectural achievements. Built in the 13th century by King Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, the temple was designed as a massive chariot dedicated to Surya, the Sun God. It features 24 intricately carved stone wheels and seven life-sized horses, symbolizing the movement of the sun across the sky.   The temple’s detailed carvings depict various aspects of life, including deities, celestial beings, military processions, and scenes from daily life. The wheels, in addition to their artistic value, also function as sundials, reflecting the advanced knowledge of astronomy at the time. While the main sanctum has collapsed, the remaining structures continue to showcase the exceptional craftsmanship of the period.   5. Ajanta and Ellora Caves Inside the Ajanta-Ellora caves in Maharashtra, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Ajanta and Ellora Caves in Maharashtra are two of India’s most significant historical sites, yet they serve distinct purposes and belong to different time periods. Ajanta, dating back to the 2nd century BCE, is a set of 30 Buddhist caves carved into a steep rock face. These caves were used as monasteries and prayer halls, featuring murals and sculptures that depict scenes from Buddha’s life and teachings. The paintings, created with natural pigments, provide insight into early Indian art techniques and Buddhist culture.   Ellora, built between the 6th and 10th centuries, is larger and more diverse, consisting of 34 caves dedicated to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. The most famous structure here is the Kailasa Temple, a massive rock-cut temple dedicated to Lord Shiva. Unlike Ajanta, which is known for its intricate paintings, Ellora is recognized for its large-scale sculptures and architectural complexity.   6. Hampi Virupaksha, a 7th century Hindu temple in Hampi, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Hampi is unlike any other heritage site in India. Sprawled across the rugged landscape of Karnataka, this former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire was once one of the richest cities in the world. Today, its vast ruins stretch over 4,000 hectares, offering a glimpse into a time of immense wealth, trade, and architectural grandeur.   Unlike single-structure heritage sites, Hampi is an open-air museum of over 1,600 surviving monuments. The Virupaksha Temple remains an active place of worship, standing tall with its intricate carvings and towering gopuram. The Vittala Temple, famous for its iconic stone chariot and musical pillars, showcases the empire’s craftsmanship. The Royal Enclosure, with its stepwell and elephant stables, reveals the scale of urban planning in the 14th century.   Hampi’s landscape is just as remarkable as its ruins. Massive boulders dot the terrain, creating a natural setting that enhances the grandeur of the site. The Tungabhadra River, once a lifeline for the empire, still flows through the region, adding to its timeless appeal.   7. Fatehpur Sikri Fatehpur-Sikri, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Fatehpur Sikri stands as one of the most well-preserved examples of Mughal architecture in India. Built by Emperor Akbar in the late 16th century, this planned city served as the Mughal capital for approximately 15 years before being abandoned due to water scarcity. Despite its short-lived prominence, Fatehpur Sikri remains an architectural and historical landmark that reflects Akbar’s vision of governance, religious inclusivity, and artistic excellence.   Designed with a blend of Persian, Indian, and Central Asian influences, the city includes palaces, mosques, administrative buildings, and audience halls, all constructed from red sandstone. The Jama Masjid remains one of the largest and most significant mosques in India, while the Buland Darwaza, a 54-meter-high victory gate, symbolizes Mughal power and ambition. The Diwan-i-Khas, with its central pillar and intricate carvings, was a space for private discussions, highlighting Akbar’s engagement with scholars of various faiths.   The site’s layout demonstrates advanced urban planning, featuring courtyards, stepwells, and interconnected palaces that reflect both function and grandeur. The Panch Mahal, a five-tiered structure, served as a retreat for the royal family, designed to capture natural ventilation and provide panoramic views.   8. Kaziranga National Park Kaziranga National Park, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kaziranga National Park, located in Assam, is one of India’s most important wildlife conservation areas and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Spanning over 1,000 square kilometers, it is home to the world’s largest population of Indian one-horned rhinoceroses, a species that was once on the brink of extinction. The park also supports significant populations of tigers, elephants, wild water buffalo, and swamp deer, making it one of India’s most successful wildlife reserves.   Recognized for its diverse ecosystem, Kaziranga consists of grasslands, wetlands, and dense forests, creating an ideal habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna. The park is also a designated Important Bird Area (IBA), with migratory species such as pelicans, storks, and river terns frequently spotted in its wetlands. Its strategic location along the Brahmaputra River contributes to its rich biodiversity but also makes it susceptible to seasonal flooding, which plays a crucial role in maintaining the region’s ecological balance.   Kaziranga’s conservation success is largely due to strict protection measures and anti-poaching efforts, which have helped increase the rhinoceros population over the years. Visitors can explore the park through jeep and elephant safaris, providing opportunities to observe wildlife in their natural habitat. The best time to visit is between November and April when the weather is favorable and wildlife sightings are at their peak.   9. Mahabalipuram Monuments Mahabalipuram Shore Temple, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Mahabalipuram, also known as Mamallapuram, is one of India’s most significant ancient coastal heritage sites. Located in Tamil Nadu, this UNESCO World Heritage Site is renowned for its monolithic rock-cut structures, intricate cave temples, and impressive relief sculptures carved directly into granite. Built by the Pallava dynasty between the 7th and 8th centuries, the site showcases a unique blend of Dravidian architectural styles and artistic mastery.   Unlike many heritage sites that focus on a single monument, Mahabalipuram is an entire complex of interconnected structures. The Shore Temple, one of the oldest structural stone temples in South India, stands against the backdrop of the Bay of Bengal, symbolizing the region’s maritime history. The Five Rathas, carved from single granite boulders, are remarkable for their detailed depictions of Hindu deities and architectural diversity, representing different styles of Dravidian temple design.   One of the most famous attractions is Arjuna’s Penance, a massive open-air bas-relief that depicts scenes from Hindu mythology with extraordinary detail and depth. Nearby, the Krishna Butter Ball, a massive boulder precariously balanced on a slope, defies gravity and continues to be a geological and architectural curiosity.   10. Western Ghats Western Ghats, Kerala, India. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Western Ghats are not just a UNESCO World Heritage Site but one of the world’s eight “hottest” biodiversity hotspots, stretching across six Indian states from Gujarat to Kerala. Unlike heritage sites that focus on historical monuments, the Western Ghats are a vast mountain range that plays a critical role in India’s climate, ecology, and water systems. Covering approximately 160,000 square kilometers, they are home to some of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet, supporting thousands of endemic plant and animal species.   This region is the source of many of India’s major rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri, making it essential for agriculture and water supply in peninsular India. Its dense forests, tropical rainforests, and montane grasslands serve as habitats for rare species such as the Malabar civet, Nilgiri tahr, and lion-tailed macaque. The Ghats are also a haven for birdwatchers, with species like the Malabar pied hornbill and the endangered Nilgiri pipit thriving in this environment.   Beyond its ecological significance, the Western Ghats have a rich cultural and spiritual history. The region is dotted with ancient temples, forts, and colonial-era hill stations such as Munnar, Ooty, and Mahabaleshwar, which continue to attract visitors. National parks like Periyar, Silent Valley, and Anshi-Dandeli offer some of India’s best wildlife experiences, while trekking routes such as Kudremukh, Agasthyarkoodam, and Chembra Peak challenge adventure seekers.

  Of the many scandals associated with the notorious French Queen Marie Antoniette in the buildup to her catastrophic downfall, the Diamond Necklace Affair was one of the more insidious and toxic, embroiling the queen in a sordid tale of theft, deception and corruption. We take a closer look at how the affair unfolded, and whether or not there was actually any truth to the tale.   Why Was Marie Antoinette So Susceptible to Rumor? Marie Antoinette’s Versailles quarters are reopening to the public, including the Gold Room. Photo: T. Garnier. Source: Château de Versailles   Marie Antoinette was one of France’s most notorious queens, although much of that reputation was the result of a lack of education that would be necessary for a monarch, her unnecessary spending, the fact that she was not originally from France, and the overall state of the country.    While women didn’t have the same education or expectation of their male counterparts many noble women, especially those who were going to marry royalty, were highly educated. Unfortunately, Marie Antoinette was not – instead she enjoyed more pleasurable activities like gambling and spending, which were at odd with much of French society mired by recession.   Neither she or her husband were in a position to rule a country where the court life was such a lavish contrast to real life. Their spending was astronomical and rumors swirled about them, including the infamous and untrue statement that Marie Antoinette said “let them eat cake.”    People also disliked the fact that she was originally from Austria – as the daughter of Marie Theresa, the Habsburg Empress. While it had been hoped the union between the French king and Austrian bride would help solve some of the contentious border issues and land holdings between Austria and France, many in France remained suspicious.   With her relative unpopularity, it therefore makes sense that she could be embroiled in a scandalous con.    How Did the Diamond Necklace Affair Begin? The (reconstruction of) diamond necklace that is at the center of the scam. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Diamond Affair started as many great cons do, as an idea to make money. But it all truly began with the necklace. Bohmer and Bassenge were jewelers in France that are still around today. They had a necklace that had 650 diamonds and was 2,800 carets. The sparkly necklace was expensive, even with a price cut as they tried to sell it, but no one wanted to purchase it. It had originally been created for the mistress of Louis XV, but he died before it was finished. Enter Cardinal Rohan.   The Queen didn’t do herself any favors with who she sought out as friends, and who she decided to shun. She took a lot of advice from her mother and brother which didn’t help the suspicions that the French people had with Austria meddling in their affairs.   Cardinal Rohan was one of the people that the Queen had shunned due to his previous behavior on the advice of her mother. Of course, he wanted to gain back her favor and get a better foot hold in the courts, making him a great mark in a scheme to buy the necklace “on behalf of Marie Antoinette”. So how was he approached to buy this jewelry and how did he get conned into thinking that this whole thing was somehow connected to the Queen? That would be thanks to his friend/mistress Jeanne de Valois-Saint-Remy, aka Jeanne de la Motte.   How Did Jeanne Scam Cardinal Rohan? La Comtesse de La Motte (Jeanne de la Motte). Source: Wikimedia Commons   Jeanne de la Motte was a rather average woman. Her husband was an officer but she herself was the granddaughter of Henry II of France through an illegitimate son. She had some money and court privileges, and was the French ambassador to Vienna.    Jeanne also involved another man named Retaux de Villette in this mess. Jeanne told Cardinal Rohan that the Queen was a close friend and confidant, making him believe the route to making up with Queen Antoinette lay with him. So, he agreed to meet the Queen secretly at night on August 11, 1784 in the Queen’s Grove. Only, he of course did not meet the actual Queen. She was lady-of-the-night Nicole Le Guay d’Oliva, who had a very slight passing resemblance to Marie Antoinette. This is why they chose to meet at night, to help deceive Rohan about who she was.   Between the fake Antoinette meetings and forged letters given to him, it was arranged to give money for her charity causes and eventually arrange the purchase of the necklace—the “Queen” claimed she didn’t want it to be made public that she was buying such an expensive piece. Rohan ended up going to the jewelers and buying the necklace on his own credit, and agreeing to pay the jewelers back in installments, with what he thought was money he would be given by the monarch.     What Was the Fallout from the Diamond Necklace Affair? The Storming of the Bastille, author unknown. Source: Wikimedia commons   The jewelers did think that the necklace was being purchased for the Queen. So, when Rohan failed to pay them in the beginning, because of course the people involved in the con weren’t giving him any actual money for the purchase, they went straight to the Queen, who had no idea what they were talking about.   For Cardinal Rohan, the situation pretty much ruined him. King Louis XVI had Rohan arrested as part of the conspiracy with his “accomplices.” He was imprisoned in Bastille, and although eventually found innocent he was exiled to La Chaise-Dieu abbey in Auvergne. As De La Motte was a well-known figure in the court, she was caught, flogged, branded and given a life sentence in prison, although she later escaped to England, where she continued to help spread vicious rumors about Marie Antoinette.   Even though the impostors were discovered, the necklace was already sold off as single diamonds. Marie Antoinette’s reputation was also in tatters – she was already a controversial figure and people who heard about the scandal believed it had actually been her in the garden that night, and that she simply wanted to get out of paying Rohan.

  According to Chinese tradition, Chinese civilization is 5,000 years old, though the ancient China of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties was far smaller than modern China and largely confined to the Yellow River basin. Over time, its peoples expanded further afield and incorporated other cultures. While there is no archeological evidence for the Xia, there is plenty of evidence for the Shang. The Zhou kings, who ruled from around 1000 BCE, were respected for their observance of rituals, and over time, they were reduced to the puppets of powerful warlords.   The Xia Dynasty Turquoise-inlaid Bronze Plaque, Erlitou Culture, c. 1900-1600 BCE. Source: Christies   The traditional Chinese historiographical tradition, as related in Sima Qian’s Shiji or Records of the Grand Historian, begins with the Yellow Emperor, the first of the legendary Five Emperors. The last of these, Emperor Shun, decided to pass his throne to Yu the Great, who had prevented flooding in the Yellow River by building draining channels. Yu is therefore credited with founding the Xia Dynasty, as upon his death, he was succeeded by his son Qi, the first time that the kingship passed from father to son.   Both Chinese tradition and archeological evidence dating back to 5000 BCE indicate that there may have been hundreds and thousands of small communities who lived in settlements protected by rammed earth walls. In the Shiji, only the Xia is mentioned, together with genealogical tables of kings, its various capital cities, and accounts of major political developments, suggesting that the Xia was the most powerful state in the Yellow River basin.   According to Sima Qian, 17 kings over 14 generations ruled the Xia for around 470 years. In their quest to find archaeological evidence for the Xia, many modern Chinese scholars believe that the Xia can be identified with the Erlitou culture, named after an archaeological site to the east of Luoyang discovered by Xu Xusheng in 1959. However, there is no definite proof, as so far, no inscriptions have been uncovered that correspond to Sima Qian’s list of kings.   The Shang Dynasty Shang Dynasty Oracle Bone. Source: Cambridge University Library   According to Sima Qian, the Xia was overthrown when its 17th ruler, the tyrannical King Jie, was defeated in battle by Cheng Tang, ruler of the state of Shang (which Sima Qian calls Yin, after its capital city), who founded the dynasty of the same name. Sima Qian gives the names of 29 kings of Shang over 23 generations. While the chronology of the Shang Dynasty is uncertain, most estimates place it between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE.   The Shang was the first Chinese civilization to leave behind a written record in the form of oracle bones used by diviners to tell the future for the king and other members of the royal family. Over 200,000 oracle bone fragments have been recovered from a site near Anyang in northern Henan province. Dating from around 1250 BC to 1050 BCE, the kings named in the inscriptions match with the last nine kings mentioned by Sima Qian.   Over 500 Shang sites have been identified, covering a large territory spanning Liaoning in the northeast and Sichuan in the southwest. However, while these sites are associated with Shang culture, the territory under the direct control of the Shang king is likely to have been far smaller. A common theme in the oracle bones involves kings, princes, and non-royal military leaders wanting to know whether they would be victorious in battle against their enemies.   The Western Zhou King Wen of Zhou, painting by Kano Sansetsu, 1632. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Tokyo National Museum)   By the 1100s BCE, the Shang Dynasty was facing encroachments from several states to the west, the most formidable of which was the State of Zhou. The initiator of the Zhou conquest of Shang was Ji Chang, better known as King Wen (the Cultured King), who ruled between 1100 BCE and his death in 1050 BCE.   King Wen did not live to see the final conquest of Shang in around 1046 BCE, when his son King Wu (the Martial King) defeated the Shang army at Muye, a short distance to the southwest of the Shang capital, founding the Zhou Dynasty in the process. According to the traditional account, the Zhou victory owed much to Jiang Ziya, a talented military officer who served Kings Wen and Wu and led the initial charge.   King Wu died a few years later, in 1043 BCE, and was succeeded by his young son, King Cheng. One of King Wu’s younger brothers, the Duke of Zhou (personal name Ji Dan), declared the king too young to rule and assumed a regency. This presumptuous act provoked a rebellion against King Cheng, led by his other uncles. While several of his advisors counseled against going to war against his uncles, the young king claimed that he enjoyed the Mandate of Heaven as the results of his divination were favorable and could not defy the will of Heaven.   Duke of Zhou, painting by Kano Sansetsu, 1632. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Tokyo National Museum)   After defeating the rebels, the Duke of Zhou’s forces continued to march east and conquered much of eastern China, establishing a number of fiefdoms under royal princes and senior officials. Jiang Ziya, the mastermind of the Battle of Muye, would become the founder of the State of Qi in modern-day Shandong province.   The king of Zhou ruled from his capitals of Fengjing and Haojing, situated on opposite banks of the Feng River near modern-day Xi’an and collectively known as Fenghao. In order to consolidate his eastern conquests, the Duke of Zhou established a stronghold at Chengzhou on the site of modern-day Luoyang, which would effectively become an eastern capital of the kingdom.   The Duke of Zhou established many of the principles of government for posterity, and some of his political philosophy was recorded in the Shang shu (Venerated Documents). He was the first to formulate the idea that the Mandate of Heaven had been passed from the Shang Dynasty to the Zhou Dynasty, and he believed that a successful government depended on effective ministers rather than the king himself.   After restoring order to the state, the Duke of Zhou has been praised by posterity for laying down his power and remaining at Chengzhou rather than accompanying the king back to Fenghao. However, this may not have been a voluntary act, and King Cheng may have asserted his authority and sidelined his uncle.   The Spring and Autumn Period Statue of Confucius, Qufu, China, 2018. Source: South China Morning Post   Over time, the colonies established during the early Zhou became increasingly independent from the king in Fenghao. At the same time, the Zhou faced threats from groups of barbarians, including the Quan Rong to the northwest. In 771 BCE, the Quan Rong attacked Fenghao and killed King You of Zhou. His son was forced to abandon the capital and re-establish his capital at Chengzhou, where he was installed as King Ping. The move marked the end of the Western Zhou Dynasty and the beginning of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.   The first half of the Eastern Zhou, approximately 770 to 481 BCE, is commonly referred to as the Spring and Autumn Period, named after The Spring and Autumn Annals, a historical record of the State of Lu spanning 722 to 481 BCE, attributed to the conservative philosopher Confucius, who served as a minister in the State of Lu during the 6th century BCE.   During the Spring and Autumn Period, the power of the King of Zhou continued to decline at the expense of its vassal states. While there were initially more than a hundred, the system consolidated over time until there were around a dozen major states left standing. While most of these states had been established by the Zhou and continued to treat the king in Luoyang as their feudal overlord, several states from the south and east, including the Chu, Wu, and Yue, originated from outside the Zhou political system and were subsequently incorporated into the existing feudal structure.   Sword of King Helü of Wu, 6th century BCE. Source: Shanghai Museum via Wikimedia Commons   The Eastern Zhou had survived in large part due to assistance from the state of Zheng near Luoyang. By the 7th century BCE, Zheng was in decline, paving the way for the state of Qi to become the hegemonic power. Duke Huan of Qi and his advisor Guan Zhong reformed the state administration to enable Qi to mobilize its resources more effectively than other Zhou states.   In 671 BCE, after Qi armies intervened to support King Hui of Zhou in a power struggle, Duke Huan was awarded the title of ba, a term usually translated as hegemon or protector. Through military and diplomatic efforts, Duke Huan’s status was gradually recognized throughout the realm, and he frequently convened interstate meetings to confirm the feudal authority of the King of Zhou.   Duke Huan and the Zhou faced a major challenge from the state of Chu in the south, based around the Yangtze River valley, whose ruler had assumed the title of king in 706 BCE in defiance of the Zhou kingdom. Duke Huan’s defeat of Chu in 656 BCE further strengthened his power, but Qi hegemony proved ephemeral when civil war broke out after Duke Huan’s death in 643 BCE. Within a decade, Duke Wen of Jin to the north of the Zhou royal domain assumed leadership of the Zhou states. After defeating a resurgent Chu army at the Battle of Chengpu in 632 BCE, Duke Wen was given the title of ba, and Jin retained its hegemony for 80 years.   Qing dynasty rubbing of stone relief from Wu family shrine in Shandong depicting Duke Huan of Qi and Guan Zhong, 147 CE. Source: Palace Museum, Beijing   The power struggle between Jin and Chu continued throughout the 6th century BCE, but by the end of the century, the states of Wu and Yue emerged around the Yangtze River delta to challenge the status quo.   In 506 BCE, King Helü of Wu’s armies defeated Chu in five major battles and sacked its capital of Ying, but he had to return home after a rebellion by his brother. After restoring order, Helü turned his attention to Yue and died from wounds sustained in battle in 496 BCE. His son and successor, King Fuchai, captured Yue and enslaved its king, Goujian, before leading his armies north, forcing Qi and Jin into recognizing Wu as the hegemonic power in 482 BCE.   In the meantime, he had released King Goujian from captivity for good behavior and allowed him to return to Yue. Goujian was determined to take revenge on Wu, and in 476 BCE, he took advantage of Fuchai’s absence in the north to attack the Wu capital, present-day Suzhou. The Yue armies captured the city, and Fuchai hurried home to make peace. Three years later, Goujian led a campaign that ended with Fuchai’s death and the Yue conquest of Wu. Goujian’s defeat of his bitter rival enabled him to assume the title of ba at the end of the Spring and Autumn Period.   The Warring States Period Swords and spearhead, Warring States Period (5th-3rd centuries BCE). Source: Wikimedia Commons (Shanghai Museum)   The end of the Spring and Autumn Period corresponded with the collapse of the State of Jin, from which the three states of Zhao, Wei, and Ha emerged. These three states were among the seven major powers of the Warring States period, including Yan in the northeast, around present-day Beijing, Qi in the east, Chu in the south, and Qin in the west. Although other minor states continued to survive for some time, they were gradually extinguished by their larger rivals.   The Warring States Period witnessed the centralization of political authority, a development catalyzed either by the victors of civil wars to consolidate their power or by rulers who had to face off external threats. The expansion of state capacity meant that wars could be fought on a larger scale, and commanders could keep their armies on the field for longer. The crossbow became the favored infantry weapon, while the State of Zhao in the north pioneered the use of cavalry.   Each of the seven warring states enjoyed various strategic advantages and disadvantages as they struggled for supremacy. As the most powerful successor state to the Jin, Wei initially enjoyed the upper hand, but its central position meant that it was threatened from all sides, and it struggled to hold on to any conquests. Wei’s decline came about following defeats to Qi at Guiling in 353 BCE and Maling in 341 BCE. The Qi victories were masterminded by military strategist Sun Bin, who claimed descent from the author of Sun Tzu’s Art of War.   Portrait of Sun Bin, Ming Dynasty (14th-17th centuries CE). Source: Wikimedia Commons   The State of Qin in the west enjoyed the greatest strategic advantage. Located in what is now Shaanxi province, the Qin heartland was surrounded by mountains, and Qin rulers protected their domain by fortifying the Hangu and Wu passes, which led into the region. Over the course of the 4th century BCE, the Qin conquered the regions of Shu and Ba to the southwest, and in 312, Qin armies conquered the region of Hanzhong from Chu to connect these territories into a single unit. Qin remained a constant threat to Chu’s western flank, severely undermining Chu’s ability to expand elsewhere.   Qin’s success owed much to Shang Yang, who served as minister to Duke Xiao of Qin in the mid-4th century BCE. Shang Yang’s political philosophy, known as Legalism, is usually associated with an expansion of state power and the application of draconian punishments to maintain political order. However, Shang Yang’s policies were also characterized by a pragmatic desire to improve state efficiency by promoting men by ability rather than birth, strengthening the army, and promoting economic development.   As a result of Qin’s expansion in the 4th century BC, the foreign policy of the other warring states came to be defined in relation to their attitude towards the Qin. At various times, the warring states formed pro-Qin “horizontal alliances” along an east-west axis, or anti-Qin “vertical alliances,” along a north-south axis.   Portrait of Bai Qi, Ming Dynasty (14th-17th centuries CE). Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the early 3rd century BCE, the State of Qi enjoyed a brief period of dominance after taking advantage of Qin internal turmoil and allying with Wei and Han to conquer Qin territories east of the Hangu Pass. In 294 BCE, Qi abandoned its allies, enabling Qin to reconquer the lost territories, and by 288, Qin and Qi made an agreement to partition China into western and eastern halves.   Within a few years, Qi resumed hostilities against Qin and was opposed by a “horizontal alliance” of Qin, Zhao, Han, Wei, and Yan. In 284, the Yan general Yue Yi inflicted a decisive defeat on the Qi army. Not long afterward, Yue Yi fell victim to court intrigue and was forced to flee to Zhao, where he helped King Huiwen of Zhao to expand his territories at the expense of Wei and Qi, while Zhao general Lian Po successfully resisted Qin invasion and inflicted heavy casualties on the invaders.   The decisive encounter between Qin and Zhao took place at Changping, where, after a three-year siege, Qin general Bai Qi crushed the Zhao forces in 260 BCE. Sima Qian claims that over 400,000 Zhao troops were killed during the battle. Although Zhao was not completely beaten, the Qin victory at Changping paved the way for the Qin conquest of China. In 249, King Zhuangxiang of Qin occupied Luoyang and extinguished the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. His son, King Ying Zheng of Qin, completed the unification of China between 230 and 221 BCE, culminating in the foundation of the Qin Dynasty.

  Five centuries ago, Italy was a dangerous and brutal place for the nobility and the general populace. Political machinations resulted in swift changes, with assassinations and war commonplace.   Born into this dynamic was Lucrezia Borgia, one of the most complex and intriguing figures of the Italian Renaissance. She was a woman subject to the political games played around her and the victim of propaganda spread by the enemies of the Borgia family. The truth is often obscured by popular belief.   Was she a Machiavellian femme fatale or simply a pawn in the machinations of others?   Lucrezia Borgia’s Background Lucrezia Borgia, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1860-1. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Tate Britain, London   The Borgia family was not an old and established line like many of its peers. Established around 1455, it was young but had risen to prominence very quickly. Lucrezia was born on April 18, 1480, and by then, the family was already feared and respected. In fact, by the time she was born, her great uncle, Alonso, had served as Pope Calixtus III (d. 1458).   Lucrezia’s life was controversial from the moment she was born. Her father, Rodrigo Borgia, was a cardinal, and her mother, Giovanna “Vannozza” dei Cattanei, a landlady of several inns, is believed to have been married to Domenico d’Arignano, an officer of the Church at the time she started the affair with Rodrigo. This, however, was not particularly strange for the time, as many cardinals had mistresses. The relationship resulted in four children, of which Lucrezia was the third, that Rodrigo publicly acknowledged.   Lucrezia received an excellent education, and her father planned to use her hand in marriage to increase the power of the Borgia family.   Incestuous Relationships Idealized Portrait of a Courtesan as Flora by Bartolomeo Veneto, painted around 1520, is traditionally assumed to be an image of Lucrezia Borgia. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Städel Museum, Frankfurt   One of the most vicious rumors spread about Lucrezia was that she was engaged in an incestuous relationship with her older brother, Cesare, who was a cardinal. Not only did Lucrezia have to suffer this allegation, but she was also accused of paternal incest.   The source of these accusations was a slighted Giovanni Sforza, Lucrezia’s first husband. The two were married on June 12, 1493. Lucrezia was just 13 at the time, while Giovanni was 26. After a short time, however, Rodrigo, who was by then Pope Alexander VI, no longer needed or wanted the Sforza family of Milan as allies.   The pope desired more powerful and valuable allies and thus sought an annulment of his daughter’s marriage so he could marry her off to someone else. Thus, he claimed that the marriage had never been consummated on the grounds that Giovanni was impotent. The truth of the matter is that this charge was most likely nonsense. Several sources mention that Giovanni had fathered children by a previous marriage.   Giovanni initially refused but was eventually forced to sign a confession of impotence and an annulment to the marriage in 1497. Insulted by this turn of events, he accused the pope of wanting to annul the marriage so he could sleep with Lucrezia instead. In a short space of time, these rumors would spread and evolve. The accusation of paternal incest grew to involve that of fraternal incest.   Cesare Borgia in Capua (or the Valentino), by Gaetano Previati, 1880, photograph by Nicola Quirico. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Cassa dei riparmi di Forlì art collection   The incidents that followed did not lend themselves to dispelling these rumors. While the marriage to Giovanni Sforza was in the process of being dissolved, Lucrezia is purported to have had an affair with a young Spanish servant, perhaps Pedro ”Perotto” Calderón, Alexander’s chamberlain. His body was later found in the Tiber River along with a maid named Pantasilea. Following this, a child was born into the Borgia household, whose parentage remains a mystery, but it is widely believed that Lucrezia was the mother.   Sometime after the child, Giovanni, was born, Alexander VI publicly issued a bull stating that the boy was born to a Roman woman and that the father was Cesare. This was done to protect the infant as well as Lucrezia’s reputation. However, in not naming the Roman woman, rumors began to circulate that Lucrezia was, in fact, the woman in question. Rumors of incest spread like wildfire and were recorded as fact by respected historians Francesco Guicciardini and Niccolo Machiavelli.   Lucrezia the Poisoner A poison ring or pillbox ring is a ring with a container used for the storage of powdered or liquid poison. Source: Hermitage Museum   Among the political intrigues of the Italian Renaissance, assassinations were commonplace. The Borgias were not exempt from accusations, nor were they exempt from having to navigate their way through the murky and immoral waters of the political scene. It can be said with certainty that the Borgias had some of their enemies murdered.   Lucrezia’s second husband, Alfonso of Aragon, was assassinated on Cesare’s orders, likely to strengthen ties with France, as Alfonso was the illegitimate son of King Alfonso II of Naples and Cesare had recently married into French nobility. The French King Louis XII had designs on Naples and Milan, so the Borgias found themselves in a difficult position.   Therefore, Cesare acted to sever ties with Naples. As Cesare was close to his sister, this assassination added fuel to the fires of jealousy and incest. In truth, Lucrezia had no hand in this murder. It is widely believed that she was madly in love with her husband. Nevertheless, Cesare and Lucrezia remained close, although how Lucrezia managed to forgive her brother and how long it took is unknown.   Being so close to the political intrigue and the plotting of murders, Lucrezia was naturally a target for accusations. She was said to have used a ring that contained poison to dispose of her family’s political rivals. The poison of choice for the Borgias, according to legend, was cantarella. It is unknown what this substance was or even if it existed at all, but it was supposed to have been a white powder with a pleasant taste. It may have been arsenic, but the lack of evidence for its existence is echoed by its omission in contemporary works. As for Lucrezia poisoning her enemies, there is no conclusive evidence she was involved in such activities. The only evidence comes in the form of rumors from her enemies.   The Carnal Exploits of Lucrezia Borgia Poster for Lucrezia (1968) with Olga Schoberová playing the eponymous role. Source: IMDb   As with the rumors of poisonings and incest, there is little evidence that Lucrezia was the seductress she has been made out to be. It is true she had multiple husbands, and it is possible she had more than one affair while married. At the same time, it is also true that her marriages were disasters as a result of the political scheming of her family. Her first husband was accused of impotence and forced to sign an annulment, and her second husband was murdered.   By the time she married her third husband, rumors had tainted Lucrezia’s reputation so much so that a hard bargain had to be struck for her to marry Alfonso d’Este, heir to the dukedom of Ferrara. One such damaging rumor was her presence at the so-called Banquet of Chestnuts, alleged to have been an orgy held at the Papal Palace in Rome, attested to by Johann Burchard in his Liber Notarum. According to the Protonotary Apostolic, Cesare Borgia held a banquet in his apartments in the Apostolic Palace, wherein guests entertained themselves with courtesans, all watched over by the pope, Cesare, and Lucrezia. There is strong evidence to suggest some sort of event happened, but the details are debated by modern historians.   Detail of Lucrezia as St. Catherine, from Disputation of St. Catherine of Alexandria by Bernardino di Betto (Pinturicchio), 1492-94. Source: Vatican Museums   Despite the rumors and the lies, Lucrezia was not faithful to her third husband, nor was he to her. In 1503, she began a relationship with her brother-in-law, Francesco II Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua. The two wrote sexually charged love letters to one another. It is possible that this relationship was more sexual than emotional, but nothing can be confirmed with any serious degree of certainty.   During her third marriage, Lucrezia also had an affair with the Venetian poet and scholar Pietro Bembo. The two exchanged love letters that Lord Byron claimed were “the prettiest and fairest imaginable.”   The Fall of the Borgias and a Different Life for Lucrezia Borgia Estense Castle in Ferrara, where Lucrezia lived with her husband Alfonso I d’Este for 17 years, photograph by Nicola Jannucci, 2012. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Lucrezia’s third marriage was not a faithful one, with both partners having extra-marital affairs, after the fall of Rodrigo and Cesare, the public attention on the Borgias was averted, and Lucrezia gained a new reputation as an honorable noblewoman. Away from the intrigues of Rome and her manipulative family, Lucrezia was afforded the freedom to thrive.  Her intellect and education served her well during this time, and Lucrezia became a great patron of the arts. Her father died in 1503, possibly from malaria, and Cesare died in 1507 while fighting in Navarre (now part of Spain).   After her husband became the Duke of Ferrara in 1505, Lucrezia took the title of Duchess of the Duchy of Ferrara and gained much respect from her subjects. In 1510, the Duchy of Ferrara was endangered by Pope Julius II, who wanted to add it to the Papal States. Lucrezia is said to have pawned her jewelry to pay for the city’s defense. She also won a great deal of respect by refusing her husband’s orders to have arrested men tortured.   Lucrezia had eight children with Alfonso d’Este, four of which survived to adulthood. In 1512, Lucrezia heard news of the death of Rodrigo, her only child from the marriage to Alfonso of Aragon. She had been obliged to abandon her child to marry Alfonso d’Este, and despite repeated attempts to bring him to the court at Ferrara, she never saw him again. After he died, Lucrezia spent time in the Convent of Saint Bernardino in mourning. On June 24, 1519, Lucrezia died at the age of 39, allegedly due to complications with childbirth.   Lucrezia Borgia’s Image in the Media Film poster for The Nights of Lucretia Borgia (1959) starring Belinda Lee as a sexually aggressive Lucrezia. Source: IMDb   Lucrezia Borgia and the myths and legends surrounding her have been catapulted into the modern imagination through works—largely of fiction—that portray the woman in different lights. Of great importance is her legacy in films.   In Lucrezia Borgia (1922), she is depicted in a more sympathetic light, being the object of Cesare’s ambitions rather than the femme fatale of popular imagination. In the erotic period drama Young Lucrezia (1974), Lucrezia is portrayed as having a relationship with her brother Juan and having to deal with Cesare’s jealous anger. The Nights of Lucretia Borgia (1959) portrays Lucrezia as being sexually aggressive, while the 2011 series The Borgias depicts her as struggling to have agency while being used as a pawn by those she loves.   In-game render of Lucrezia Borgia. Source: Assassin’s Creed: Brotherhood / Ubisoft; with Lucrezia Borgia from Assassin’s Creed: Brotherhood. Concept art of Lucrezia Borgia, by Vincent Gaigneux/Ubisoft. Source: arludik.com   Of course, the silver screen has not been the only medium in which Lucrezia Borgia has been portrayed. She has appeared in books, paintings, plays, an opera by Italian composer Gaetano Donizetti, and even video games. In Assassin’s Creed: Brotherhood (Ubisoft, 2010), Lucrezia is displayed as being in an incestuous relationship with Cesare. No matter the medium, Lucrezia has almost always been portrayed as an object of desire, alluding to her reputation as a sexualized figure from history.   Le Monde pour rire. Source: Musée Carnavalet, Histoire de Paris   Throughout much of history, society has been especially restrictive toward women. Expected to be subservient to the men around them, women often lacked agency and were manipulated for political gain. This is certainly true of Lucrezia Borgia. This is not to say, however, that she did not have a certain amount of power or that she did not command a significant amount of respect.   While she was not the salacious femme fatale of popular imagination, her affairs later in life showed that she certainly had the courage to buck the societal expectations of her station and gender.   Interpreting Lucrezia Borgia’s legacy is difficult, especially because there were so many rumors and later visions of who the woman actually was. Ultimately, however, it seems most likely that Lucrezia was a victim of being guilty by association rather than an active agent in the legal and moral crimes committed by her family.

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