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But what kind of brimstone is the real MVP?

A cutting classic. The post ‘Entertainment!’: Gang of Four’s tale of a revolutionary debut album first appeared on Far Out Magazine.

  The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimean Conference, was a wartime meeting of the leaders of the Allied Powers—the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union. It took place from February 4 to 11, 1945, at Yalta, a resort town in the Soviet Union’s Crimea (today a part of Ukraine). Joseph Stalin, Winston Churchill, and Franklin D. Roosevelt led the delegations from their respective nations. The key outcome of the conference was demilitarizing and establishing Germany as a democratic state after the war, outlawing the Nazi Party, and establishing an international organization, the United Nations.   Prerequisites for the Yalta Conference The Big Three–Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Joseph Stalin—at the Yalta Conference by T. Lelkov, 1945. Source: Art UK   By the time the Yalta Conference was held from February 4 to February 11, 1945, the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II was already apparent. The Red Army of the Soviet Union succeeded in pushing back Nazi forces from Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria in March 1945, as well as breaking through the Eastern Front and taking control of the Silesian regions in Germany. American and British soldiers managed to liberate France and Belgium by February 1945 and continued to succeed on the Western Front. For the most part, the military confrontation was redirected to German territory, and the Allied forces would soon reach Berlin.   As World War II was coming to an end, a number of controversial political, economic, military, ethnic, and other concerns emerged. The immediate concerns were what to do with Germany after the war to prevent another recurrence of its fascist and imperialist ambitions, as happened after World War I; negotiating the conditions under which the Soviet Union would attack Japan; the fate of Poland after the war; and the establishment of the United Nations.   But while the success of the Allies over Nazi Germany appeared all but certain, the Pacific War against Japan was far from over. The Soviet Union’s involvement against Japan was seen by British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and US President Franklin D. Roosevelt as being crucial for winning World War II.   The idea of holding a high-level meeting to address these challenges was born in the late summer of 1944. It would be the second conference among the Big Three, the first held in Tehran from November 28 to December 1, 1943, at the Soviet Union’s Embassy in Tehran, Iran.   Yalta by Harold Maples. Source: Mary Couts Burnett Library   However, President Roosevelt requested that the meeting be postponed twice: once due to his presidential election campaigns and again in January 1945 due to his inauguration ceremony. The strategic climate and extended time frame of holding the meeting were effectively exploited by Joseph Stalin, and by February 1945—when the Yalta Conference was set to take place—the Red Army had taken control of most of Eastern Europe. Stalin became more confident in his power and influence.   Each of the three leaders had their own agendas and priorities for the next Big Three meeting at Yalta.   Franklin D. Roosevelt, the president of the United States, anticipated persuading the Soviet Union’s leader to support the United States against Japan and join the works to establish the UN. Winston Churchill, the Prime Minister of Great Britain, envisioned free elections and democratic governments being established throughout Eastern and Central Europe following World War II.   Joseph Stalin envisioned Poland as a buffer zone between East and West, which would require the installation of a pro-Soviet government.   Hopes for coming up with a new, peaceful international order were high at Yalta. As Roosevelt outlined,   “Yalta ought to spell the end of the system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that had been tried for centuries and had always failed.”   Why Yalta? British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin pose outside on the grounds of the Livadia Palace during the Yalta Conference, 1945. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington DC   Initially, the meeting was supposed to take place in Scotland. However, Joseph Stalin refused to leave the territory of the Soviet Union, claiming to be in poor health. As an alternative, he suggested the meeting be held at the Soviet Black Sea resort, Yalta, located in Crimea. Besides acquiring psychological leverage, the Soviet Union would have the possibility to bug the meeting venues with surveillance equipment. In this way, Joseph Stalin would remain informed about the discussions behind closed doors.   The situation’s urgency forced the Western leaders to eventually accept Yalta as a conference venue.  Heavily ill Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill, aged 70, traveled the long distance to Crimea. This marked Stalin’s first gain during the negotiating process, symbolizing the shift in the balance of power in Stalin’s favor. Former British prime minister Anthony Eden described Stalin’s position at Yalta as “a bear who would certainly know his own mind.”   The United States delegation was accommodated in the Russian tsar’s former palace, President Roosevelt stayed at the Livadia Palace, where the conference took place, and the British delegation was in Prince Vorontsov’s castle of Alupka. The atmosphere was tense but full of optimism about establishing a new order that would affect millions of people in Europe and Asia.   The Agenda of the Yalta Conference Livadiya, Crimea, Russian Empire. Emperor Nicolas II getting out of a car by the Livadia Palace. Source: Russia Beyond   The agenda of the conference was strictly predetermined:   On February 4, the initial discussions began, and the meeting formally started. The participants outlined the structure, objectives, and issues to be discussed during the following days. February 5 was dedicated to the question of Poland and other Eastern European countries. The focus was on the countries considered to fall under the influence of the Soviet Union: Czechoslovakia (split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia after the collapse of the Soviet Union), Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungary. From February 6 to February 10, the three leaders would actively discuss the future shape of post-World War II Germany and its administration, the structure and framework of the new international organization, the United Nations, and how the Soviet Union could participate in the war against Japan. On February 11, the three leaders would finalize their discussions and sign the Yalta Agreement.   The Question of Poland  British map showing Soviet territorial gains 1939-1947. Source: The National Archives UK   The participants decided that the Soviet Union would acquire Eastern Poland, which comprised 70,000 square miles of territory, almost a third of the pre-1945 Polish state. Poland would be compensated by gaining parts of German territories: Pomerania, Upper Silesia, part of eastern Brandenburg, and a small area of Saxony. The decision caused massive population exchange and socio-cultural challenges in the Polish-German populations from respective territories and cemented population-wide resentment towards the Yalta Conference.   The Soviet Union also acquired the northern part of East Prussia, around the city of Königsberg, which it later renamed Kaliningrad. Neither Roosevelt nor Churchill were in a position to oppose Stalin. The Red Army was already stationed in Poland, Slovakia, Hungary, and Austria and was moving toward Berlin. Joseph Stalin believed that these nations belonged to the Soviet sphere of influence.   Extract from the Yalta Protocol, 1945. Source: The National Archives UK   Stalin stated, “Whoever occupies a territory imposes on it his own social system,” and the Soviet Union was simply too powerful to resist. Roosevelt and Churchill had no other choice but to actively bargain for including Western democratic values in a re-ordered Eastern European order.   Recognizing the difficult destiny that Yalta had just assigned the Polish people, Winston Churchill enquired of his British military commanders how much it would cost to use force to convince Joseph Stalin to free Poland from Soviet control. The response was 45 Anglo-American divisions, several Polish divisions, and 100,000 rearmed German troops. The idea of entering the war against the Soviet Union was referred to as “Operation Unthinkable.” However, the operation never materialized.   The Declaration on Poland, created as part of the Yalta Agreement, outlined:   “A new situation has been created in Poland as a result of her complete liberation by the Red Army. This calls for the establishment of a Polish Provisional Government, which can be more broadly based than was possible before the recent liberation of the Western part of Poland. The Provisional Government, which is now functioning in Poland, should therefore be reorganized on a broader democratic basis with the inclusion of democratic leaders from Poland itself and from Poles abroad. This Polish Provisional Government of National Unity shall pledge to hold free and unfettered elections as soon as possible on the basis of universal suffrage and a secret ballot. In these elections, all democratic and anti-Nazi parties shall have the right to take part and to put forward candidates.”   The Spread of the Western Values & Establishment of the United Nations United Nations Declaration. Source: National Museum Australia   On the other hand, Franklin Delano Roosevelt managed to secure a Declaration on Liberated Europe as part of his aspiration to spread Western democratic values in post-World War II Europe. The declaration dictated free elections and freedom of choice in the form of government in formerly Nazi-occupied territories.   The American president also obtained consent from the international organization, the United Nations. The United Nations would act as a platform among members of international society to maintain peace and support the economic, cultural, and social development of nations through cooperation. It was to be created on April 25, 1945.   The Question of Post-World War II Germany  Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and others at Livadia Palace in Yalta, USSR, 1945. Source: National Archives Catalog US   The Big Three also outlined the framework for administering post-war Germany. Germany would be fully disarmed and demilitarized, minimizing the risk of future military confrontation and expansionism.   The leaders decided to divide German territories into four occupation zones: British, American, French, and Soviet zones. The capital city of Berlin, located within the Soviet zone, would also be divided into four zones accordingly. France was not present at the Yalta Conference because the Allied Powers liberated France from the Nazi invasion in August 1944. Thus, France was no longer seen as a major power.   However, during the Yalta Conference, Winston Churchill stated that France was acknowledged as the “fourth liberating power.” He believed this would ensure the stability and balance of power in Europe following World War II. Joseph Stalin was reluctant, but an agreement was eventually achieved. The right to administer post-war Germany was then awarded to France by receiving the fourth occupation zone from American and British territory. France also would become a provisional member of the United Nations.   Upon the conference’s completion, the three leaders publicly announced the achievement of “closer coordination of the military effort of the three allies than ever before,” while Winston Churchill confidently concluded that “Nazi Germany is doomed,” calling for its complete surrender.   Soviet Involvement in the Pacific War The US pursued a two-pronged offensive across the central and southwest Pacific to roll back the Japanese advance. Source: The National WWII Museum, New Orleans   However, the public statement of the Big Three did not mention their decisions regarding the situation in the Pacific region. In reality, the Soviet Union’s pledge to enter the war against Japan was a key motivating factor for Roosevelt and Churchill to make concessions on other issues, particularly in agreeing to cement Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Stalin secured the promise to allow the Soviet Union to annex Manchuria, which was held by Japan at the time; in exchange, the Soviet troops would fight against Japan.   At first glance, the decisions reached at Yalta instilled hope for peace and stability in the war-torn society, but in reality, they set the stage for a much longer Cold War.   Results & Legacy of the Yalta Conference At the Crimean Conference by D. A. Nalbandyan, 1945. Source: The Virtual Russian Museum   Just three months later, soon after Roosevelt’s death, Churchill spoke to the new American president, Harry Truman, about “an iron curtain” descending on Europe, signaling the growing influence of the Soviet Union and the confrontation between East and West. The outcomes of Yalta marked the Soviet Union’s emergence as a global superpower, and he successfully secured Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe. For these societies, Yalta represents the western nations’ weakness and their willingness to compromise democratic principles in order to achieve political gains.   Photograph of Churchill, Truman, and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, 1945. Source: The National Archives UK   The outcomes of the Yalta Conference continued to cast a shadow over Franklin D. Roosevelt’s political career. He himself was aware of its shortcomings. Admiral William Leahy, Chief of Staff, expressed unease to Franklin Roosevelt about Yalta’s results, stating:   “This [agreement on Poland] is so elastic that the Russians can stretch it all the way from Yalta to Washington without ever technically breaking it,” “I know, Bill, but it is the best I can do for Poland at this time,” Roosevelt responded.   Because the Cold War began so soon after, Yalta was widely associated with the Western failure to safeguard peace and security. In 2005, President George W. Bush referred to Yalta as “one of the greatest wrongs of history… Once again, when powerful governments negotiated, the freedom of small nations was somehow expendable.”

  Italy’s history is unmatched, leaving behind examples of its vast legacy, such as the Colosseum in Rome, a symbol of the Roman Empire’s engineering brilliance, and Florence’s Palazzo Pitti, a hallmark of Renaissance grandeur. Medieval heritage thrives in landmarks like Castel del Monte in Puglia, which showcases centuries of architectural and cultural milestones.   Also, the hills of Italy, stretching across regions like Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, have shaped the country’s identity. These rolling landscapes are blanketed with vineyards, olive groves, and dense forests. They provide the perfect backdrop for centuries-old settlements. Many of these hills are crowned with fortified towns, originally built for protection but now celebrated for their beauty and history.   For those who appreciate both scenic vistas and historic sites, Italy’s hill towns are captivating destinations. Their ancient streets, preserved traditions, and iconic landmarks offer visitors a chance to connect with Italy’s storied past. Here are ten must-visit historic hill towns in Italy.   1. San Gimignano, Tuscany San Gimignano, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Pexels   San Gimignano, a captivating hill town in Tuscany, Italy, stands proudly atop a 324-meter hill overlooking the picturesque Elsa Valley. Its history dates back to the 3rd century BC when it began as an Etruscan settlement. Named after Saint Geminianus, who is believed to have saved the town from invaders in the 10th century AD, San Gimignano flourished during the Middle Ages as an essential stop along the Via Francigena, the pilgrimage route to Rome.   Known as the “Town of Fine Towers,” its skyline was once dotted with 72 soaring structures built by noble families vying for prestige. Today, 14 of these towers remain, preserving the town’s distinctive medieval character. You will be drawn to its cobbled streets and landmarks, including the Romanesque Collegiate Church adorned with frescoes and the Torre Grossa, the tallest tower offering sweeping views of the countryside.   2. Civita di Bagnoregio, Lazio Civita di Bagnoregio, Lazio, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Often referred to as “La città che muore” or “The Dying City,” Civita di Bagnoregio is a remarkable hilltop village in Italy’s Lazio region. Founded by the Etruscans over 2,500 years ago, it has endured centuries of natural erosion and seismic activity, which have gradually isolated it from neighboring areas.   Perched atop a fragile tuff hill, Civita di Bagnoregio is accessible only via a pedestrian bridge. The village’s medieval architecture, narrow alleys, and flower-adorned balconies exude a timeless charm. Notable sites include the Church of San Donato, dating back to the 5th century, and the Porta Santa Maria, an ancient gateway carved by the Etruscans.   Despite its precarious position, efforts have been made to preserve Civita’s unique heritage. In 2013, a toll was introduced for visitors crossing the footbridge, with proceeds dedicated to conservation.   3. Volterra, Tuscany Volterra Duomo, Volterra, Pisa, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Established by the Etruscans as Velathri, Volterra was among the twelve cities of the Etruscan League. Today, you can explore remnants of its storied past, including the well-preserved Porta all’Arco, a monumental gate from the 4th century BC.   The town’s rich heritage is showcased in the Guarnacci Etruscan Museum, one of Europe’s oldest public museums, housing an extensive collection of Etruscan artifacts. Among its treasures is the “Shadow of the Evening,” a slender bronze figure that captivates with its elongated form.   Volterra’s medieval charm is evident in landmarks like the Palazzo dei Priori, Tuscany’s oldest town hall, and the imposing Medici Fortress, which, intriguingly, now functions as a prison.   The town is also renowned for its alabaster craftsmanship, with artisans creating exquisite pieces from this translucent stone, a tradition that has earned Volterra the nickname “City of Alabaster.”   Cultural events enliven Volterra throughout the year. Notably, the Volterra AD 1398 festival in August transports visitors back to medieval times with reenactments, markets, and performances. Additionally, the town’s picturesque streets and panoramic vistas have made it a favored location for filmmakers.   4. Montepulciano, Tuscany Montepulciano, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Montepulciano, a medieval and Renaissance hill town in southern Tuscany, is perched atop a 605-meter limestone ridge, where it offers commanding views of the surrounding Val d’Orcia and Val di Chiana valleys. According to tradition, Montepulciano was founded by the Etruscan King Porsenna in the 6th century BC.   The town’s strategic location made it a coveted prize during the medieval power struggles between Florence and Siena.   The town is also famous for its wine, particularly Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, a red wine made primarily from Sangiovese grapes. You will be happy to see the town’s historic center, which is full of elegant Renaissance palaces, ancient churches, charming squares, and hidden corners.   5. Assisi, Umbria Assisi town, Umbria, Italy. Source: Flickr   Nestled on the western slopes of Monte Subasio in Umbria, Assisi is renowned as the birthplace of St. Francis, the founder of the Franciscan Order in 1208.   A visit to Assisi is incomplete without exploring the Basilica of San Francesco d’Assisi, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This awe-inspiring structure consists of two churches, the Upper and Lower Basilicas, both adorned with frescoes by masters like Giotto and Cimabue. Beneath the Lower Basilica lies the crypt where St. Francis is interred.   Another significant site is the Basilica of Santa Chiara, dedicated to St. Clare, a follower of St. Francis and founder of the Poor Clares. This Gothic church houses her remains and the famous Cross of San Damiano. The Romanesque Cathedral of San Rufino, where both St. Francis and St. Clare were baptized, stands as a testament to Assisi’s deep spiritual roots.   For a glimpse into the town’s ancient past, the Temple of Minerva, now the Church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, reveals its Roman origins.   Meanwhile, the medieval Rocca Maggiore fortress offers breathtaking views of the Umbrian valley and insights into Assisi’s strategic importance during the Middle Ages.   Assisi’s cultural heritage is further highlighted by the annual Calendimaggio Festival, a vibrant celebration held in early May that reenacts medieval and Renaissance life through processions, theatrical presentations, and traditional contests.   6. Orvieto, Umbria Orvieto, Umbria, Italy. Source: Pexels   Orvieto, perched atop a volcanic tuff cliff in Umbria, is a town rich in history and architectural marvels. Its origins trace back to the Etruscans, with remnants like the Crocifisso del Tufo necropolis, a testament to its ancient past.   The town’s skyline is dominated by the Orvieto Cathedral, a masterpiece of Italian Gothic architecture. Initiated in 1290, the cathedral boasts a façade adorned with intricate bas-reliefs and golden mosaics, while its interior houses frescoes by Luca Signorelli.   Beneath the surface, Orvieto reveals a labyrinth of underground tunnels and caves carved from the soft volcanic rock over millennia. These subterranean passages, once used for various purposes, including as bomb shelters during World War II, offer a fascinating glimpse into the town’s multifaceted history.   A remarkable feat of engineering is the Pozzo di San Patrizio or St. Patrick’s Well. Constructed between 1527 and 1537, this 53-meter-deep well features a double helix staircase, allowing for efficient access to water during times of siege.   The medieval Torre del Moro stands as a sentinel in the town’s center. Climbing its 47 meters rewards visitors with panoramic views of Orvieto and the surrounding Umbrian countryside.   7. Cortona, Tuscany View of the Duomo di Cortona from Porta Montanina, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Cortona’s origins trace back to the Etruscan civilization, evident from the ancient city walls dating to the 5th century BC and the renowned Tabula Cortonensis, one of the longest Etruscan inscriptions ever discovered.   Art and history lovers will be thrilled by the Museo dell’Accademia Etrusca, which houses extraordinary relics, including an ornate bronze Etruscan chandelier and the famous Tabula Cortonensis, an inscription that unlocks pieces of Italy’s ancient past. Just a few steps away, the Diocesan Museum dazzles with Fra Angelico’s ethereal Annunciation, a painting so luminous it feels as if it were blessed by Tuscany’s golden light.   Spiritual seekers find solace in the Basilica of Santa Margherita, standing proud at the town’s highest point. Its serene interior, dedicated to Cortona’s patron saint, rewards both pilgrims and curious wanderers. The Church of San Francesco, modest yet magnetic, quietly guards relics of St. Francis of Assisi, offering a soulful pause.   Winding cobbled streets, lined with rustic trattorias and artisan boutiques, lead to views that will stop you in your tracks: a sweeping vista of olive groves, vineyards, and the shimmering blue of Lake Trasimeno in the distance. Every turn feels like a reward, every step an invitation to linger. For those lucky enough to visit during the “Cortona On The Move” festival, the town buzzes with creativity as photography transforms ancient piazzas into vibrant canvases.   8. Montalcino, Tuscany View from Montalcino, Siena, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Montalcino, a picturesque hilltop town in Tuscany, is renowned for its medieval charm and exceptional wine production. Dominating the town’s skyline is the 14th-century fortress, La Fortezza di Montalcino, which offers panoramic views of the surrounding Val d’Orcia countryside. Visitors can explore its ancient walls and even enjoy wine tastings within its historic enoteca.   You will enjoy visiting historic landmarks such as the Palazzo dei Priori, located in the central Piazza del Popolo. Dating back to the late 13th century, this building showcases the coats of arms of past rulers and features a medieval tower with battlements and a clock.   Montalcino is perhaps best known for its production of Brunello di Montalcino, one of Italy’s most prestigious wines. Wine enthusiasts can visit numerous local wineries to sample this renowned red wine, made exclusively from Sangiovese grapes.   Just outside the town lies the Abbey of Sant’Antimo, a stunning Romanesque church believed to date back to the 8th century. Surrounded by olive groves and vineyards, the abbey provides a serene retreat and a glimpse into the region’s spiritual heritage.   9. Todi, Umbria Todi, Umbria, Italy. Source: Flickr   This Italian hill town’s origins date back to the Etruscan era, with the town’s layout reflecting its ancient roots. The central Piazza del Popolo, one of Italy’s most picturesque squares, is surrounded by medieval and Renaissance architecture, including the Palazzo del Popolo and the Palazzo del Capitano. These historic buildings stand as testaments to Todi’s rich past.   If you want to explore the religious heritage of Todi, you’ll be happy to visit the Cathedral of Santa Maria Annunziata, a Romanesque Gothic structure that houses impressive artwork.   The town is also renowned for its vibrant cultural scene, hosting events such as the Todi Festival, which celebrates performing arts and attracts visitors from around the world. Additionally, the surrounding Umbrian countryside, with its rolling hills and vineyards, provides a serene backdrop for those seeking a tranquil escape.   Exploring Todi’s narrow streets, you can discover artisan shops, traditional trattorias, and panoramic viewpoints that offer breathtaking vistas of the Tiber Valley.   10. Pitigliano, Tuscany Pitigliano, Tuscany, Italy. Source: Flickr   Pitigliano, often referred to as “Little Jerusalem,” is a captivating town in southern Tuscany. Perched atop a dramatic tuff cliff, the town’s origins trace back to the Etruscan era, with ancient cave dwellings and necropolises carved into the volcanic rock.   If you want to explore the town’s medieval and Renaissance architecture, then you need to head to the Orsini Fortress. Additionally, the 16th-century aqueduct, with its series of arches, showcases the engineering prowess of the era.   Pitigliano’s rich Jewish heritage is a significant aspect of its identity. In the 16th century, it became a refuge for Jews fleeing persecution, leading to the establishment of a thriving Jewish community. The Synagogue, built in 1598, stands as a symbol of this enduring legacy. Visitors can explore the Jewish Quarter, which includes the Synagogue, a ritual bath (mikveh), and the kosher butcher.   The town is also known for its distinctive white wine, Bianco di Pitigliano, which has been produced in the region for centuries. This crisp and refreshing wine is made primarily from Trebbiano Toscano grapes, reflecting the area’s viticultural traditions.   While exploring Pitigliano’s narrow alleys,  you’ll discover artisan workshops, traditional trattorias, and panoramic viewpoints offering breathtaking vistas of the surrounding Tuscan landscape.

  Nazi soldiers launched a simulated attack on the German-run Gleiwitz radio station on the evening of August 31, 1939. The action, which is widely referred to as the Gleiwitz Incident, was designed to give the impression that Poland was attacking Nazi Germany. Part of Operation Himmler, the incident to justify Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, can be seen as marking the start of World War II.   Background to the Gleiwitz Incident Poland At War, 1939. Source: Time   The Third Reich was founded on inherently violent and race-based beliefs. Adolf Hitler believed that the World War I-ending Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany and shrank its borders. Germany had lost its strategic territories, including upper Silesia and parts of West Prussia and Posen (today Poznań). Additionally, East Prussia was cut from the remaining Germany following the creation of the Polish Corridor, a strip of land that provided the Second Republic of Poland access to the Baltic Sea and divided the province of East Prussia from the majority of Weimar Germany.   Apart from the strategically important lands, Germany lost up to five million people, including those of German origin, who resided in these territories.   Hitler promoted the idea of Lebensraum, or living space in English. The term implied that Germans, as a master race, were in need of land and material resources; thus, the Third Reich should expand eastward in Europe, laying the basis for Nazi Germany’s expansionist foreign policy.   Adolf Hitler succeeded in implementing part of his plan to bring together the primarily German-populated regions of Nazi Germany by 1939. Without resorting to armed conflict, he had already absorbed Austria, Sudetenland (the western, southern, and northern parts of the former Czechoslovakia, inhabited mainly by Sudeten Germans), and eventually the entirety of Czechoslovakia before the start of World War II. Hitler’s expansionist ambitions required Poland to become part of the Third Reich. Hitler’s decision was clear regarding Poland’s occupation.   He outlined:   “Expanding our living space in the east and making our food supply secure, to have sufficient food, you must have sparsely settled areas. There is therefore no question of sparing Poland, and the decision is to attack Poland at the first opportunity. We cannot expect a repetition of Czechoslovakia. There will be fighting.”   Gleiwitz Radio Station, 1939. Source: Historia   However, the invasion of Poland was challenging. In March 1939, the Anglo-Polish Alliance was formed. According to the agreement, Poland would get military support from the British government in case of foreign aggression. The French government also supported the alliance. Furthermore, Adolf Hitler feared losing control of public support due to the traumatic experience of World War I, the chaotic years that followed, and the terrifying prospect of another war.   He came up with the idea to justify the invasion as Germany defending itself from the aggressor, in this case, from Poland. The strategic calculation was twofold: first, the idea of a foreign aggressor invading Germany would strongly resonate with the German population. Secondly, international support for Poland might loosen if it were portrayed as an aggressor state.   In a meeting with military representatives held on August 22, 1939, Hitler clearly expressed his approach:   “I shall give a propagandist reason for starting the war, no matter whether it is plausible or not. The victor will not be asked afterward whether he told the truth.”   Another carefully thought-out scheme prior to the invasion of Poland was the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with the Soviet Union on August 23, 1939. Adolf Hitler viewed the pact as an opportunity to do the following:   annex Poland without opening the second front with the West; avoid the interference of the Soviet Union in the process of Poland’s annexation; and secure the Soviet guarantee not to aid Great Britain or France in case of war.   The secret protocol of the pact played a decisive role. It completely reshaped Eastern Europe by granting Bessarabia (a region today residing primarily in Moldova), Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and eastern Poland to the Soviet Union. Nazi Germany acquired control over West Poland.   Bulletin cartoon published on August 30, 1939 from the National Library of Australia’s Trove. Source: Robert Menzies Institute   American historian Timothy Snyder described the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact as follows:   “The two regimes immediately found common ground in their mutual aspiration to destroy Poland. Hitler saw Poland as the ‘unreal creation’ of the Treaty of Versailles and Molotov as its ‘ugly offspring.’”   The strategic plan to invade Poland was known as the Fall Weiss (or Case White in English), and propaganda was essential to the plan. Throughout the whole duration of August, Nazi-affiliated press and media outlets published numerous reports indicating the threat of “Polish terror,” “Polish bandits,” “growing nervousness,” and the “frightful suffering” of the German minority.   Adolf Hitler outlined his expectations and reservations about Polish occupation. Speaking to his military leaders on August 22, 1939, Hitler described his vision for Poland’s annexation, but he also envisaged the physical extermination of Poles and Jews living in Poland “with the greatest brutality and without mercy.” This vision became a reality, resulting in violence in the form of genocide: extermination camps, mass arrests, and murders.   Polish-German border crossing point, 1939. Source: Gazeta Wyborcza Poland   The first step of the well-thought-out Polish invasion was to execute a series of staged attacks along the Polish-German border to portray it as originated as a Polish aggression. The attempts are widely referred to as Operation Himmler. The operation was named after Heinrich Himmler, the well-known high-level Nazi official who was the creator of the plan. Later, it was supervised by Heinrich Müller, the chief of the Gestapo, the secret state police of Nazi Germany, and then by Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Security Main Office.   The false attacks came in the form of Nazi raids, including an attack on a German customs post where Nazi soldiers, shouting in broken Polish, imitated the border intrusion. Six prisoners, mainly Polish, were forcibly taken from the Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp. By this time, Adolf Hitler had successfully established concentration camps in Germany, the Dachau concentration camp being among the first ones. The Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp, located in Brandenburg, opened in 1936. There, Nazi Germany placed their political prisoners, criminals, and socially or ethnically undesirable by the Nazi ideology. The Nazis dressed prisoners in Polish military uniforms, shot them, and left them at the scene. Technically, these inmates can be regarded as the first victims of World War II.   Adolf Hitler himself conceived the plan to stage an attack on the Gleiwitz radio station with the assistance of his chief of the general staff, General Franz Halder, and commander in chief of the campaign, Walter von Brauchitsch. The final result of the attack was meant to portray Polish military personnel having caused the hostilities between the Polish and Nazi forces.   The Gleiwitz Incident The front page of London’s Evening Standard newspaper announcing the German invasion of Poland, 1939. Source: Time   Heinrich Müller, the head of the Gestapo, ordered Alfred Naujocks, a member of the Nazis’s Einsatzgruppen, or “mobile killing squads,” to implement the operation. The scenario of the staged assault was planned as follows:   Müller designated five of his officers and ordered them to disguise themselves in Polish military uniforms. He also informed Naujocks that this team would “receive several cans of meat” to be transported and placed at the radio station. What Müller meant by the “canned meat” was a Polish inmate from the concentration camp (reportedly Dachau), drugged and shot dead to make the Polish aggression more realistic. That man was Franciszek Honiok, an ethnic Pole but a German citizen living on a farm near Gleiwitz. Honiok was reported to be involved in anti-German agitation campaigns, making him a perfect candidate to be used for the staged attack.   Much later, at the Nuremberg Trials during 1945-1946, Alfred Naujocks shed more light on the plan’s details, contributing to the rising awareness of the Gleiwitz Incident. He also mentioned that he had been instructed to write a propaganda message that would be transmitted from the station. The message’s transmission is a nuance that makes the Gleiwitz Incident distinct from other staged attacks. It was the first (and, as it later appeared, the last) time that the officers were ordered to give voice to the operation and broadcast it to the rest of the world.   Alfred Naujocks planned the attack for 8 p.m. when residents were already at home with their radios on.   Portrait of Franciszek Honiok. Source: Historia   The plan was executed successfully, aside from a minor technical problem with the microphone. Just minutes after entering the radio station, a fluent Polish speaker from the designated SS (Schutzstaffel, or Protection Squads) officer’s group pulled a sheet of paper from his pocket and declared, “Attention! This is Gleiwitz! The radio station is in Polish hands!”   Nazi officers left the deceased body of Franciszek Honiok at the scene to be later used as evidence of a Polish attack. The Nazi propaganda machine was quick to portray the death of Franciszek Honiok as “killed in a brazen attack.”   A coded phrase that greenlighted the pseudo-attack was “Grossmutter gestorben” or “Grandmother died” in English. The next morning, the Nazi tanks and artillery were already heading to invade Poland. World War II began on September 1, 1939. Adolf Hitler declared in front of the Reichstag, German parliament: “Polish Army hooligans had finally exhausted our patience.”   Legacy of the Gleiwitz Incident Commemorative plaque at the Gleiwitz Radio Station gate. Source: Internetowy Kurier Proszowski   The information and details regarding the staged attack on the radio station in Germany were not public until the Nuremberg trials. Even after that, the history of Gleiwitz and its victim, Franciszek Honiok, has been overlooked for the most part.   On September 3, 1939, Britain and France declared war on Germany. This speech by British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was broadcast on the radio that day, informing the British people of the war. Source: The Holocaust Explained   The Gleiwitz Incident illustrates how history is shaped by political figures and media outlets, echoing Napoleon Bonaparte’s remark: “What then is, generally speaking, the truth of history? A fable agreed upon.”

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