By May 1945, Hitler’s 1,000-year Third Reich ended with Germany in ruins, millions of dead, and Europe nearly wrecked. The Nazi Blitzkrieg victories, alliances, and occupation throughout World War II left great swathes under German sway. Also, to obtain those alliances, Germany signed pacts like the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact or negotiated conflicts, swapping territories between Axis allies. Germany fought hard, making the Allies re-conquer those lands and their homeland very costly. Her Axis allies fought hard but fell, mostly to the Soviets. These countries, like Hungary, not Germany, signed individual treaties with the Allies to untangle the arrangements with Germany.   Unconditional Surrender German Surrender Document Source: Truman Archive   The Allied demanded the Axis Powers’ “unconditional surrender” to end any conflict.   The call resulted from the 1943 Casablanca Conference; the Soviets agreed to this demand, too. The terms of the surrender meant no negotiations or compromise. So, by May 1945, with Hitler dead and Allied armies closing in, Germany surrendered. Japan surrendered to the Americans later, so their actions fell outside the treaty discussions.   Axis Powers and Consequences Wrecked Italian aircraft 1943 Source: Picryl.com   Besides Germany, other central European countries joined, either pressured or through self-interest. The first to join was Italy, led by Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini in the 1930s. He dreamed of restoring the Roman Empire. Italy went to war in Africa, Albania, Greece, and Russia. By 1943, Italy had fallen, and Mussolini had too.    Hungary joined in 1940, wary of the Soviet Union plus resentful of how the Great War Allies treated the country after World War II. Its armies invaded Russia with Germany in 1941. Hungary fought hard nearly to the end. It fell after Soviet troops overran the country.   Romania became pro-fascist early in the war, led by the Iron Guard. The Soviet Union annexed Romanian territory, fueling resentment. Germany offered security against Russia. Romanian armies invaded Russia with their allies. Like Hungary, the Red Army knocked the country out of the war in 1944. In a dark twist, Romania declared war on Germany, fighting until the war’s end.   Bulgaria joined but became the oddest Axis member. Religiously, Bulgaria was Orthodox, and its ruler was a “Tsar,” so it shared a common heritage with Russia. Bulgaria reluctantly joined the Axis under German pressure. The Germans used Bulgaria to invade Greece, and Bulgaria helped to invade Yugoslavia, taking territory from both. It never declared war on the Soviet Union, surrendering quickly when the Red Army invaded.   Just A Co-Belligerent A Finnish soldier at his post in the snow on the Mannerheim Line, the defensive line against Russia, in Finland, on December 14, 1939. Source: Business Insider   Finland never joined the Axis but still stood as a German ally. It fought a bitter 1939 Winter War, beating the Soviet Union. In 1941, it invaded Russia, too, taking back territory lost previously but would not advance further. In the Continuation War, Finland fought the Soviets until 1944, when an overwhelming Soviet offensive defeated them quickly. Finland asked for an armistice, lost much territory, plus had to kick the German Army out.    Negotiations Begin Italian Territory to France 1947 Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Paris Treaties only dealt with the former Axis partners noted previously. The 1945 Potsdam Conference excluded Germany’s surrender. The Points covered war reparations, land adjustments, minority rights, and prosecuting war criminals. The Peace Conference began on July 29 and went on until October 1946. All parties signed the Treaties on February 10, 1947.   Each Axis country parleyed separately but with the major Allied powers. The Soviet Union’s occupation of Eastern Europe gave it some leverage during the upcoming Cold War. Each country lost differing amounts of territory and paid over different amounts. Of the five powers, Italy paid the most reparations to Russia, Ethiopia, Yugoslavia, Albania, and Greece, totaling $360 million.     The other ex-Axis powers paid, too, with Romania and Finland primarily paying the subsequent highest reparations to Russia. Italy forfeited its African colonies and some islands to Greece and Yugoslavia.    The Treaties ignored agreements signed with the Nazi regime, like the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Romania regained Transylvania from Hungary, part of a German-brokered peace. The Treaty resized Hungary’s borders to a 1920 Great War treaty, leaving lands for countries around it.   Signing and Post War Impact The Paris Peace Conference in 1947. Source: Past Daily   After signing, all five ex-Axis powers became sovereign powers again and offered seats at the United Nations. But peace did come with controversy. The biggest issue was the forced migrations as borders changed, which led to future hard feelings or conflicts. Many, like German minorities, got expelled with loss of life. The Paris Peace Treaties officially ended World War II in Europe but still had later unrealized problems.

  Porto is famous for its wines, its local gastronomy, and Porto University, often ranked among the best 100 universities in Europe. However, with so much to visit and experience, most travelers overlook Porto’s past. Did you know the word “Portugal” actually comes from Porto’s original name — Portus Cale? Porto is a city proud of its past, and locals are not afraid to show it.   Explore the historic old town to admire ancient buildings beside new and contemporary architecture. In Porto, you will unravel a glorious past and old traditions.   Cale, Portus Cale, and Portucale Photograph of Porto Cityscape, by Daniel Seßler, 2019. Source: Unsplash   Porto and its surroundings have been inhabited since Prehistory. The first settlement was a protohistoric hillfort named Cale. Although there are several theories regarding the origin of the word “Cale,” some historians believe it comes from the Greek word Καλλισ (Kallis), meaning “beautiful.” Others believe it comes from the Latin word Cale, meaning “warm.” The third hypothesis is that it was a tribute from the people living here to their goddess, Cailleach.   Regardless of its origins, Cale was a unique location. Standing on the hilltop of Penaventosa, a granite protrusion surrounded by steep slopes that descend to the Douro and Vila rivers, Cale enjoyed perfect defensive conditions. These features were decisive for the hillfort’s growth into present-day Porto.   In the 20th century, excavations at Rua D. Hugo, nº5, an archeological site, revealed several finds. Between the 8th and 5th century BCE, people living in Cale appear to have often contacted people from Brittany and the British Isles.   Around 200 BCE, the Romans dominated the Iberian Peninsula and began conquering Carthaginian trading posts and towns. Cale was one such place and was renamed to Portus Cale (“Portus,” meaning “Port,” and “Cale,” meaning both “warm” and “passage” in Latin). During this period, Portus Cale was a strategic location for controlling the Douro Rivermouth. Archeologists believe the Romans created the urban layout here by reorganizing streets and building rectangular houses.   By the end of the Roman occupation, Portus Cale evolved into an important port city. People traveling between Olissipo (Lisbon) and Braca Augusta (Braga) would stop here to travel across the river, rest, and change horses. At the time both margins of the Douro River near Portus Cale were called Portucale.   Portucale in the Middle Ages Photograph of a replica of Portocale Minted Coins from the Visigothic King Sisebuto. Source: Calico Subastas Numismaticas   In the 5th century, Portucale faced a new challenge. The Suevi, a Germanic tribe, conquered the city, followed by the Visigoths. Despite its political and commercial instability, Portucale again became an important city.   Under Visigothic rule, Portucale issued new coins minted with the toponymic legend of Portucale or Portocale. During this period, a bishop from Portucale also attended the Third Council of Toledo in 589.   While Portucale thrived, the Visigothic kingdom faced several internal divisions that led to its downfall. To make things worse, the Moors entered the Iberian Peninsula in 711 through Gibraltar. All Visigothic efforts to repel the Moors failed, and they captured Portucale in 716. The destruction around the city was devastating.   However, the Moorish occupation of Portucale was brief. In 750, King Afonso I of Asturias recaptured the city. It was left abandoned for almost a century. During this period, Portucale changed rulers several times between the Moors and the Christian armies.   In 868, King Afonso III of Asturias sent his loyal liege Vímara Peres, a Christian warrior and nobleman, to conquer and repopulate the lands between Minho and Douro River. His mission was a success, and King Afonso III designated Vímara Peres Count of Condado de Portucale.   As a result, Portucale was rebuilt and fortified as the capital of Condado de Portucale. As the Reconquista progressed, the city enjoyed prosperous times regardless of the Viking incursions. During this period, Portucale referred not just to the city but also to the new country of Portugal.   Over time, the Condado de Portucale expanded its borders, growing to a considerable size, which included the Condado de Coimbra and the Trás-os-Montes region in present-day Northeast Portugal. Eventually, the Condado de Portucale was renamed Condado Portucalense since its territories were more than the city and its surroundings.   Photograph of Vimara Peres Statue in Porto, by Diego Delso, 2012. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 1096, King Afonso VI of Leon used the Condado Portucalense, with Portucale as its capital, as a wedding dowry for his daughter D. Teresa, who married Count Henrique of Burgundy. A few years later, they would become parents of Afonso Henriques, the first Portuguese king.   In 1114, Porto’s diocese was restored under the rule of Bishop D. Hugo. Later, Countess D. Teresa awarded the bishop the lands in the Portucale area, making him Lord of Portucale. In 1123, Bishop D. Hugo granted the city a charter, hoping to promote trade.   At the time, the North of Portugal was safe, as Portugal’s borders expanded to the Tagus River near Lisbon. As a result, new people arrived in Portucale, and the city grew beyond its primitive walls to become an important port city.   People settled outside the city walls, building new houses and farming the land. New streets emerged to connect these new settlements. Rua do Souto, Rua da Lada, and Rua da Reboleira are only a few examples of streets from the 12th century that have lasted to this day. During this period, two distinctive residential areas stood out: the high town around the Cathedral and the downtown near the Douro River.   In 1408, negotiations between King João I and Porto’s Bishop Gil Alma led to an agreement in which the city lordship passed from the bishop to the crown, granting the city administrative autonomy.   Porto: The Bourgeois City King Ferdinand I, from Chronique d’ Angleterre, 15th century. Source: The British Library   In the Middle Ages, Porto was an important commercial port city. Over the centuries, growing maritime trade attracted people from all over the kingdom and Europe. As a result, the settlement near the Douro River expanded, and the city needed a new wall.   The Cerca Nova, or Gothic Wall, was ordered by King Afonso IV of Portugal and finished during the reign of King Fernando, around 40 years later. By the time it was finished the new wall was 30 feet high, with a perimeter of 44 acres. Along the wall were several towers and gates to secure the population and allow them in and out of the city.   In the 14th century, medieval Porto was a cluster of labyrinthic streets, dead ends, and narrow alleys. To organize the city’s urban layout, King João I ordered the construction of a new street: Rua Nova (present-day Rua Infante D. Henriques).   The Rua Nova was a straight line parallel to the riverside, connecting Rua dos Mercadores Street to São Francisco Convent. At the time, this was the largest and widest street in Porto. It attracted bourgeois society and the clergy, who built luxurious homes and revived local trade.   In the 15th century, Porto’s street layout shifted from a confusing labyrinthic cluster of narrow streets into a radio-centric configuration. As a result, the main city gates highlighted the access to the city’s suburbs and other distant areas.   Until 1509, nobles weren’t allowed to live in Porto or spend more than three days in the city. That is why there are so few noble houses in the old town.   The New City Charter and Architecture Portrait of King Manuel I of Portugal, by Juan Caramuel y Lobkowitz, 1639. Source: The British Museum   In 1517, King Manuel I granted Porto a new charter, marking new economic and urban developments. Over the years that followed, new streets and bridges were added, creating new pathways between the largest residential and commercial areas.   As the urban layout became more organized and new paths appeared, new buildings emerged. Convento de Santa Clara, Convento dos Lóios, Hospital D. Lopo, and Mosteiro de São Bento da Vitória are just some of them. Around the same time, Companhia de Jesus started building the Colégio de São Lourenço, and the Sé parish was divided into four other smaller parishes.   Between the 17th and the 18th centuries, Porto was the center of Baroque architecture in the North of Portugal. During this period, Italian artist Nicolau Nasoni developed some of the most iconic landmarks in the city. Among them is the Torre dos Clérigos.   Until the first half of the 18th century, Porto city life was confined to the Gothic Wall and the roads connecting the surrounding rural areas. However, in 1763, João de Almada e Melo, a military commander, was responsible for finding a rational approach to the city’s design. To meet his goal, new buildings had to comply with strict rules that considered the city’s structure and not just the buildings themselves.   Roofs of Old Town Porto, by Svetlana Gumerova. Source: Unsplash   João de Almada e Melo’s goal was to renovate the old town and organize the city’s growth outside the Cerca Nova walls. This plan resulted in new streets and squares, façade realignments, and a new city axis connecting Praça da Ribeira to present-day Praça da República.   This new urban layout allowed the construction of new buildings that fitted João de Almada’s regulations. During the second half of the 18th century, British-influenced Neoclassical buildings gave Porto a new life. Some you can visit today include the Bolsa Palace, the Casa da Feitoria Inglesa, and the Cadeia e Tribunal da Relação.   As the city evolved and grew, portions of the Cerca Nova wall were demolished to make way for new buildings and streets.   Porto in the 1800s Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult Duc de Dalmatie, by George Peter Alexander Healy, 1840. Source: English Heritage   The 19th century was particularly important for Porto. Following the French Revolution in 1789, when Napoleon named himself Emperor of France, he also declared the Continental Blockade against the British Empire. Portugal tried to remain neutral for as long as possible but eventually was forced to take a stand. King Regent D. João chose to honor the old British-Portuguese Alliance. As a result, Napoleon decided to invade Portugal.   In the meantime, the Portuguese Court fled to Brazil, and D. João ordered his lieges to welcome the French as friends. When the French Army arrived in Porto, they were accommodated in convents and monasteries, and uninhabited private houses. Even so, the city was pillaged and sacked.   Field Marshal Soult’s French Army invaded Porto in 1809. Without any troops, militias defended the city in trenches and batteries between the Douro River mouth and Freixo. At the same time, the Ponte das Barcas bridge was cut to prevent enemy troops from marching south.   Soult took over Porto and made the Palácio dos Morais e Castro his home. However, when the British general Wellesley arrived, Soult fled the city, leaving more than 4,000 injured people behind. Although the second and third French invasions never reached Porto, between 1812 and 1814, people struggled to find food and shelter.   Village on the Douro River, by Steve Sharp, Source: Unsplash   In 1820, Porto’s inhabitants had had enough. With the King’s absence, Brazil’s transition from colony to kingdom, Portugal’s dependence on the British Crown, and Porto itself in shambles, a group of people were prompted to form the Sinédrio, a secret society. All these events and people’s discontent led to Porto’s Liberal Revolution.   The Sinédrio gathered the opinions of the clergy, the nobility, the Portuguese Army, and the general population on controversial matters. They wanted to write the first Portuguese Constitution, demand the King’s immediate return to Portugal, and restore the Colonial Pact. These ideals spread throughout the country, inducing an independent liberal movement in Lisbon.   Between 1832 and 1834, a civil war broke out between Liberals and Absolutists. The civil war took place mostly in Porto, leading to the Porto Siege. All that the war left behind was a city destroyed by bombs, hunger, and cholera.   Battle of Ferreira Bridge, by A. E. Hoffman, 1835. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Once the siege and the civil war were over, it was time to rebuild. Several urban, social, and political transformations took place during this period. Consequently, old projects gained a new life, and new projects began.   From the second half of the 19th century onward, Porto faced a new era of industrialization. Outside the city walls were new residential areas with houses of all shapes and sizes. New markets, gardens, public gas lighting and sewers, public buildings, and indoor plumbing are some examples of the city’s swift evolution.   In the oldest part of town, insurance companies and banks, with ties to the mercantile and bourgeoisie class, set up their headquarters near the newest streets that provided better accessibility. Additionally, wealthier families moved to more pleasant locations, as people from rural areas came to Porto, attracted by industrialization.   The city’s economy was booming as several factories worked around the clock on Porto’s outskirts. Between 1806 and 1875, Porto inaugurated four bridges over the Douro River, of which you can still visit Ponte D. Maria Pia and Ponte Luís I and the Campanhã railway station. In 1890, the first telephone lines appeared in Porto.   In the 19th century, Porto was a modern city and a cultural and political hotspot in the North of Portugal. Social gatherings allowed people to share ideas, beliefs, and news. Cafés were at the center of it all, where people discussed politics and economics.   The 20th Century in Porto Armazens Cunhas in Porto, famous for its Art Deco exterior, photo by John Samuel. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Republican ideals grew among the elites, concerned with a plague outbreak and the lower classes’ living conditions. During this period, political gatherings were forbidden, and there were new electoral laws to control the growing discontent against the monarchy.   Common people and young urban bourgeois welcomed the establishment of a Republic and the downfall of the monarchy. Yet, the country’s rulers found it difficult to implement some social reforms in a deeply conservative country. This led to several crises that escalated with the First World War.   Due to the austere times in the early 20th century, in Porto, architecture revealed humble façades and Art Deco interiors. The only exceptions were the cafés A Brasileira and Majestic.   The instability and social and economic crises experienced until the Second World War, between 1939 and 1945, led to Estado Novo, a dictatorial regime. Despite being a liberal city, Porto adjusted to this new order, growing in the 1940s and even more so from 1958 onwards.   However, the revolutionary spirit never faded among the urban bourgeoisie minority. In 1927, military and civilian Republicans led the first uprising. They were violently repressed, resulting in deaths, arrests, deportations, and exiles.   Between 1928 and 1946, other strikes and rebellions took place. In 1949, General Norton de Matos ran for President of the Portuguese Republic and gathered a small group of supporters in Porto. The dictatorial regime repelled all these manifestations.   Protests were almost annual and from 1962 onwards, they began to include demands for wages and free politics, as well as protests against colonial wars. After Salazar was ousted in 1968, these protests intensified. Finally, the Carnation Revolution arrived on April 25, 1974, and Porto welcomed it with joy. The revolution was of great importance to the cultural scene in the city.   Porto: A UNESCO World Heritage Site The Ponte Luis I Bridge, Porto, photo by Renan. Source: Unsplash   After several decades of political instability and repression, Porto was reborn. The population continued growing, and the city expanded well beyond its borders. As a consequence, the historical city center was deemed abandoned.   However, in 1974, architect Fernando Távora defended the historic city center. From 1982 onward, Porto City Council ordered the reconstruction of the old town. Later, in 1993, the historic city center applied to be a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Three years later, Porto Historic Center, Luis I Bridge, and Serra do Pilar Monastery were granted this honor. According to UNESCO, these sites testify to the city’s development over the last thousand years, where its integrity and authenticity were well kept.   Historic Sites in Porto You Must Visit   As one of the oldest cities in Portugal, there are several historic sites in Porto you must visit.   1. Cais da Ribeira Photograph of Cais da Ribeira, Porto, by Nick Karvounis, 2019. Source: Unsplash   Cais da Ribeira, in the historic city center, is one of Porto’s UNESCO World Heritage Sites. No one knows when people started living here. However, historians know the Carthaginians used it as a commercial port. Today, it is a trademark image of this stunning city.   Wander the Cais da Ribeira and admire the striking view over the Douro River. From here, you can observe D. Luis I Bridge, Serra do Pilar Monastery, the access to the infamous Ponte das Barcas, and Gaia City overlooking the Douro River.   Walking along the narrow cobbled streets filled with outdoor cafés, you will find Praça da Ribeira. On this square, you can admire the traditional architecture, where some buildings rose over the Cerca Nova walls. Here, you can also see Postigo do Carvão, the only city gate from the 14th century that still stands today.   2. Porto Cathedral Photograph of Porto Cathedral, by Cláudio Luiz Castro, 2023. Source: Unsplash   In the 12th century, Bishop D. Hugo ordered the construction of Porto Cathedral. However, it only reached completion in the early 13th century.   The original construction followed Romanesque-style architecture, which has undergone several changes over the centuries. However, on the façade, you can still admire the beautiful medieval rose window from the Romanesque Period. The Gothic-style cloister was added later, during the 14th century.   Porto Cathedral has always been an icon and King João I and Queen Philippa of Lancaster’s wedding took place at Porto Cathedral. According to the historical records, people wore their best clothes, and the city was covered in flowers for the celebration.   Later, in the 17th and 18th centuries, the cathedral’s façade and interior were altered in the Baroque Style. During this period the main entrance, the cathedral’s north façade and the main chapel were transformed. Today, visitors and worshipers can admire a silver altarpiece made by goldsmiths from Porto.   3. Porto’s Old City Wall Porto city walls and elevator, by Jose M. Rus. Source: Flickr   Porto’s city wall goes by many names. Some people call it Cerca Nova, while others call it Muralha Gótica. However, the name that stuck over time is Muralha Fernandina.   The goal behind the Muralha Fernandina was to replace the old city wall that had become too small for the developing city. Construction work took place between 1368 and 1437 during King Ferdinand’s reign, after whom the city wall was named. Once it was complete, the new city wall was 30 feet high and 3,000 paces long. Throughout its perimeter, the wall was reinforced with battlements and square towers.   Although most of the Muralha Fernandina was demolished over the centuries to accommodate the city’s expansion, today you can still visit the Trecho dos Guindais, near Rua Arnaldo Gama, and the Trecho do Caminho Novo, near Rua de São João Novo. At Trecho dos Guindais, you can walk along the battlements and admire the stunning view over the city.   4. Santa Clara Church Interior of Igreja de Santa Clara (Porto). Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located in the heart of Porto, Santa Clara Church is one of the finest examples of Baroque gilded woodcarving.   The church and the adjoining monastery were built in 1457. It was a special request from the Franciscan Poor Clare nuns, who were hoping to move from a 13th-century monastery in Entre Ambos-os-Rios.   Between the 15th and 16th centuries, several smaller monasteries in towns and villages around Igreja de Santa Clara closed. With nowhere to go, the nuns gathered at Santa Clara and brought their income here.   In the 19th century, when the last nun passed away, the monastery was extinct. As a result, the building was deemed abandoned. A few years later, the Portuguese Government acquired the building and proceeded with much-needed reconstruction work.   When you visit Igreja de Santa Clara, you will be in awe of the intricate details on the altarpiece. A Baroque door from 1697 is the church’s main entrance. In the 18th century, the Igreja de Santa Clara was refurbished with Renaissance elements such as Corinthian capitals.   5. São Francisco Church Photograph of Igreja de São Francisco, by Anita Gould. Source: Flickr   Franciscan monks came to Porto in 1223, when they received a plot of land to build a small church. However, construction works were delayed several times due to disagreements between the Franciscan monks and the bishop, and it was only after Pope Innocent V’s intervention that the land was recognized as property of the Franciscan Order. Shortly after, the construction of a small single-nave church began.   The Igreja de São Francisco, as you see it today, is a 14th-century church built under the orders of King Ferdinand over a small Franciscan church. The new church was significantly larger than the original. When it was complete, it had three naves in five sections, a projecting transept, and a tripartite transept topped by buttresses.   Between the 15th and 17th centuries, wealthy families from Porto became patrons of the Franciscan monks. As a result, these families funded several lateral chapels. The most notable is the Chapel of St. John the Baptist, designed by João de Castilho with Manueline motifs.   However, the most significant works took place in the second half of the 18th century. During this period, the interior walls, columns, and side chapels were all covered in gilded woodwork, providing the church with the Baroque splendor and abundance you can see today.   6. Monastery of Serra do Pilar Photograph of Mosteiro da Serra do Pilar, by Wendell Adriel, 2021. Source: Unsplash   Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996, the Serra do Pilar Monastery preserves a church and cloister with a circular floor plan, something unique in Portugal. Inside are several gilded altarpieces with Solomonic columns and polychrome wooden sculptures from the 18th century depicting St. Eulalia, St. Apollonia, and St. Augustine.   The circular-shaped church was built in 1537 as a replica of the Church of Santa Maria Redonda in Rome. The monastery was finished 72 years later due to the canon’s lack of funds and because Portugal was under Spanish rule (the monastery’s location was even renamed after the Spanish Saint Our Lady of Pilar).   During the Siege of Porto in 1832, people recognized the monastery’s military value. As a result, the convent was converted into a makeshift fortress. In the early 20th century, it became a troop barracks and it is still currently under the purview of the Serra do Pilar Artillery Regiment.   From Mosteiro da Serra do Pilar, you will find a magnificent viewpoint over Porto and the Douro River.   7. Casa do Infante Casa do Infante, photo by Joseolgon. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Casa do Infante (the House of the Prince), or Casa da Rua da Alfandega Velha is a museum and one of the oldest buildings in Porto. This iconic landmark is known as Prince Henry the Navigator’s birthplace.   In 1325, King Afonso IV ordered the construction of a royal warehouse where all incoming merchandise was to be deposited and tax was to be paid. The original Customs House (in Portuguese, Alfândega do Porto) building had two towers and a central patio. The highest floors served as a private residence.   East of the Casa do Infante was Casa da Moeda and the Notaries’ Palace. The Casa do Infante worked as a Costume House until the 19th century. In the 20th century, the building was declared a national monument, and conservation works here have revealed traces of the Roman city.   8. Fort of São João Batista da Foz Photograph of Forte de São João Batista da Foz, by Joseolgon. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Also known as São João da Foz Castle or Foz do Douro Fortress, this monument is a military building designed to protect the Douro River mouth and Porto itself. It was built in 1570 during King Sebastião’s infamous reign, as a simple domed structure surrounding the hospice (monastery) and the church of the Benedictines of Santo Tirso (Old Church), both ancient medieval structures.   In the 17th century, during the Restoration War, King João IV feared a Spanish invasion from the northern border. As a result, the fortress was enlarged and reinforced.   During the French Invasion in the early 19th century, Sergeant Major Raimundo José Pinheiro occupied the fortress and hoisted the Portuguese flag, the first act of Portuguese reaction against the Napoleonic occupation.   Over time, the fortress lost its defensive function and during the Estado Novo dictatorial regime, it was used as a prison for political prisoners. In the 20th century, the Portuguese poet Florbela Espanca lived here as the wife of one of the garrison officers.   After being abandoned for some years, in the early 1990s, the fortress underwent an archeological intervention. Today, it houses the National Defense Institute.   9. Cheese Castle Castelo do Queijo, by Alvaro Sanchez. Source: Unsplash   Built in 1661 under the name São Francisco Xavier Fortress, the building has since gotten a new nickname. Since it was built over a cheese-shaped rock, locals named it Castelo do Queijo (Cheese Castle).   Located overlooking the Atlantic Ocean, this fortress’s goal was to protect the area between Leça da Palmeira and the Douro River mouth. At the time, this was one way of repelling  Spanish troops who were trying to reach Porto during the Restoration War.   During the Siege of Porto, D. Miguel’s supporters occupied Castelo do Queijo, regardless of the bombings ordered by D. Pedro. When the siege was over the fortress was abandoned and sacked by the locals.   In 1934, Castelo do Queijo was classified as Property of Public Interest. Today, the fortress is fully restored and houses a military museum open to the public.   10. Clérigos Church and Tower Torre dos Clérigos, by Samuel Jerónimo, 2022. Source: Unsplash   Clérigos Church and Tower is a Baroque masterpiece from the 18th century, designed by Nicolau Nasoni, an Italian architect who left his mark on many monuments in Porto and the northern region of Portugal.   The church’s façade hosts unique Baroque decoration, to which you should pay a close look. The church interior is made of granite and marble and covered in Baroque carvings.   However, the church’s most interesting feature is its granite stone tower. This iconic landmark is 75 meters (246 feet) high, rising in rhythmic flights that finish with a Baroque-decorated crown. Inside the tower, you must climb 225 steps before reaching the top. You may feel out of breath, but the stunning panoramic view over Porto is worth it.   11. Chapel of Santa Catarina Santa Caterina, Porto, by Serge Le Strat. Source: Unsplash   The Capela das Almas, also known as Capela de Santa Catarina, is a unique chapel in the center of Porto. Erected in the 18th century, Capela das Almas stands over a humble wooden chapel, a tribute to Saint Catherine. The building as we see it today resulted from when the Brotherhood of Souls and Wounds of Saint Francis moved from the Monastery of Santa Clara to the Chapel of Saint Catherine. However, what has made this beautiful chapel famous is its incredible façade.   You can admire the framed door topped by a circular pediment, the coats-of-arms of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Catherine, the two-story bell tower, and a unique stained glass window depicting souls executed in the 20th century.   Until 1929, the Capela das Almas exterior walls were plastered and tiled in white. Today, the chapel’s façade is covered in more than 15,000 tiles designed by Eduardo Leite, depicting the life of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Catherine, who are venerated in the chapel.   12. Monastery of São Bento da Vitória Mosteiro São Bento da Vitória, by Yuri Rapoport, 2019. Source: Flickr   In the 16th century, the old Benedictine Congregation agreed to build a monastery to support traveling clerics and to provide a monastic presence.   Filippo Terzi was responsible for the monastery design and construction works that began in 1604 and lasted until the end of the century. Later, a new church was built with new interior decorations.   During the Napoleonic occupation, French troops occupied the building, followed by the Portuguese, who transformed it into a military hospital. In 1835, after the extinction of the religious orders, the monastery became a military court and prison. In the 20th century, Mosteiro de São Bento da Vitória was restored to preserve the building’s original structure.   13. Santo Ildefonso Church Igreja de Santo Ildefonso, by Vítor Ribeiro, 2023. Source: Flickr   Santo Ildefonso Church, in the heart of Porto, is one of the most beautiful churches in the city. Built over a medieval hermitage, the Igreja de Santo Ildefonso was inaugurated and blessed in 1739.   The church presents a unique façade. Besides two tower bells with dentils, topped on each side with spheres and pediments, the exterior walls are covered in 10,000 blue and white traditional Portuguese tiles designed by Jorge Colaço. If you take a closer look, you can admire the fascinating details of the tile panels depicting Santo Ildefonso and episodes from the New Testament.   Inside, you will find several architectural styles in different areas. At first glance, you’ll see a proto-Baroque polygonal nave with a wooden ceiling. You should also admire Neoclassical side altars and collateral altars carved in Rococo designs.   14. Freixo Palace Palácio do Freixo, by Visit Porto, 2018. Source: Flickr   Palácio do Freixo is one of the best examples of the Baroque architectural style in Portugal.   Built in the 18th century at Quinta do Freixo, the palace sits on a sloping site near the Douro River. Canon Jerónimo de Távora e Noronha, a wealthy man from Porto, ordered the construction of this beautiful building. This project brought the notorious Italian architect Nicolau Nasoni to Porto in 1725.   In the 19th century, the palace was refurbished by António Afonso Velado, a wealthy merchant who made his fortune in Brazil and bought the property from one descendant of the original owner. As part of the renovation works, he also replaced the old Távora coat-of-arms with his own. Velado also built a soap factory beside the palace.   A few years later, Velado sold the palace to Gustavo Nicolau Alexandre Petres, who converted the soap factory into a grain distillery.   Gardens by the Douro River, Freixo Palace. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the mid-1850s, the property was divided into lots. The house and surrounding gardens were acquired by the Harmonia Milling Company, which converted the palace into the company headquarters and built a milling factory and a 45-meter-high (147 feet) silo, just a few steps from the Baroque building.   Although Palácio do Freixo was declared a National Monument in 1910, unfortunately at the time, there were no conservation efforts. As a result, the palace was abandoned.   In 1986, Porto City Council bought Palácio do Freixo and its surroundings. However, the consolidation and restoration work took place between 2000 and 2003. Eventually, Porto City Council ceded the palace to Pestana Group, a Portuguese hotel group owner of the brand Pousadas de Portugal.   Even though Palácio do Freixo now works as a hotel, you are welcome to visit this beautiful building as a visitor. Once inside, you can admire frescoes and stucco ceilings, some of which are in an oriental style. Paintings with allegorical themes are common inside the palace, much of it done by Nasoni himself.   15. Carmo Church Igreja do Carmo, by Rui Alves, 2022. Source: Unsplash   A few steps away from Torre dos Clérigos is Igreja do Carmo. This Baroque and Rococo church was built in the second half of the 18th century by the Third Order of Carmo and designed by architect José Figueiredo Seixas.   The church was built on a plot of land next to the Carmelite Church that the Order received in 1852. At the time, it was not allowed to have two churches side by side. That is how Casa Escondia came to be. At only 1.5 meters wide (5 feet), this is the narrowest house in Portugal.   Outside Igreja do Carmo, the building’s façade features Saint Anne, to whom the Carmelite Order professed great devotion. In the two niches flanking the entrance are images of the prophets Elijah and Elisha. On the façade are sculptures of the four Evangelists, which reveal the influence of the Italian Baroque style Nicolau Nasoni created in Porto.   The side façade shows a large panel of tiles depicting the foundation of the Carmelite Order and Mount Carmel. Inside, you will be surprised by the extraordinary gilded woodwork in the side chapels and on the high altar.   16. Church of Lapa Igreja do Carmo, by Roy Meyer, 2015. Source: Flickr   In 1754, Father Ângelo Sequeira, the founder of the Venerable Brotherhood of Our Lady of Lapa, preached in Porto, hoping to build a chapel in honor of Our Lady of Lapa. The desired chapel was built in 1755 thanks to donations made by worshippers.   The Igreja da Lapa is a complex of buildings that includes Lapa Cemetery, the oldest in Portugal, an elementary school, and the Hospital of the Brotherhood of Lapa.   Due to the considerable number of worshippers, the construction of a new church began in 1756. However, construction works extended for over 100 years due to the lack of funds and materials and the Napoleonic invasions. In 1863, Igreja da Lapa was completed.   Since 1835, the church has housed King Pedro IV’s heart in a monument in the main chapel. In the early 1990s, the Igreja da Lapa also acquired a monumental pipe organ that weighs around 32 tons. The organ became an iconic possession of the Brotherhood and a fundamental part of the concerts promoted by the church.   17. Bolsa Palace Photograph of the Arab Room at Palácio da Bolsa, by Isabelle Puaut, 2011. Source: Flickr   Erected in October 1842, Palácio da Bolsa, located in Porto city center, welcomed the city merchants after Casa da Bolsa do Comércio closed. At the time, these businessmen did not have a reputable place to discuss their business.   Palácio da Bolsa shows a mixture of different architectural styles ranging from Neoclassical to Tuscan architecture and English Neo-Palladian. However, the Arab Hall is the most famous room in the palace. As the name suggests, here you will find gold stucco with Arabic characters covering the walls and ceiling. It is where Heads of State are welcomed and honored.   Today, Palácio da Bolsa is the Porto Commercial Association headquarters and hosts cultural, social, and political events.   18. D. Luís I Bridge Photograph of the D. Luís I Bridge, by Visit Porto, 2017. Source: Flickr   D. Luís I Bridge is a two-deck metal bridge built between 1881 and 1886 over the Douro River. It connects Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia. This construction replaced the D. Maria II Bridge, an old suspension bridge in the same location.   Due to its design, people often think this is a Gustave Eiffel project. However, the engineer behind this masterpiece was Théophile Seyrig, Gustave Eiffel’s partner. The bridge’s upper deck was inaugurated in 1886, and the lower deck was operational in 1888. The bridge was classified as a Property of Public Interest in 1982 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996.   Until the 21st century, D. Luís Bridge was one of the city’s main roadways. In 2005, the bridge’s upper deck was adjusted to serve the Metro do Porto subway. On the other hand, the lower deck is used by cars and pedestrians.   In recent years, the Portuguese Government has proceeded with conservation work and maintenance, forcing the bridge to close on and off.   19. São Bento Train Station Photograph of São Bento Train Station, by Rostyslav Savchyn, 2020. Source: Unsplash   King Carlos I laid the foundation stone in 1900. However, Estação de São Bento was completed in 1916. This iconic landmark was built over a former São Bento de Avé Maria convent. Designed by the architect Marques da Silva, the building’s exterior was influenced by French architecture.   Inside the atrium, you can admire more than 20,000 tiles depicting historical events and ethnographic designs. The colorful frieze tells the story of the evolution of transport, in chronological order, from the earliest times to the first train in Portugal. The largest panels depict scenes from Portugal’s history.   In 2010, Estação de São Bento’s tile panels underwent conservation and restoration work.   20. Livraria Lello Bookshop Lello Bookstore, by Ivo Rainha, 2018. Source: Unsplash   Livraria Lello is often considered one of the most beautiful bookstores in the world and it is one of Porto’s most iconic neo-Gothic buildings. The façade features a large arch with a central entrance and two side windows. A lacy platband tops the windows, and the façade ends in three pilasters topped by corbels with neo-Gothic arched openings.   Inside, the broken arches support the pillars on which the sculptor Romão Júnior sculpted the busts of the writers Antero de Quental, Eça de Queirós, and Camilo Castelo Branco, among others. However, Livraria Lello’s most recognizable features are the carved ceilings, the stained-glass window in the skylight, and the red-carpeted staircase.   Livraria Lello’s foundations can be traced back to Ernesto Chardron. In 1869, he founded the Livraria Internacional of Ernesto Chardron and became a reputable publisher. He was the first to publish the works of the famous Portuguese writer Camilo Castelo Branco. When Chardron died, Mathieux Lugan bought the publishing house.   In 1894, Lugan sold the former Livraria Chardron to José Pinto de Sousa e Lello. Twelve years later, in 1906, the new Livraria Lello building opened to the public. At the time, this was a distinguished event attended by the cultural and intellectual elites.   Although its origins date back to the 19th century, it became world famous only after a myth spread out that this was the place where J. K. Rowling wrote the Harry Potter saga during her days as an English teacher in Porto. Both the bookstore and the author have denied any connection to the store.   Since 2015, visitors have had to pay a fee to enter the bookstore. The amount paid is deducted from the purchase of a book. It was Livraria Lello’s solution to deal with the high number of tourists visiting the bookstore and has been used to fund restoration works.   21. Café Majestic Café Majestic, by Filipe Barreto, 2006. Source: Flickr   Majestic Café is linked to Porto’s history in the 1920s. At the time, there was a tradition of meeting in cafés where politicians, writers, and intellectuals gathered to debate ideas.   This café opened to the public in 1921 under the name Elite. However, the following year, it was renamed to Majestic, a name that remains unchanged until today. The architect João Queirós designed an exquisite café with a chic atmosphere to preserve the Parisian tastes of the time. The Majestic is often considered a perfect example of a tertulia café.   From the 1960s onwards, society changed and beliefs no longer matched the Majestic’s ideals. As a result, business declined. Nevertheless, it was declared a Building of Public Interest.   In 1994, Majestic reopened, keeping the original Art Nouveau décor. Inside, you can admire Antwerp crystal mirrors, the Indian marble floor, and the chandeliers. The decoration details, which include a piano and a winter garden, will make you relive the “Belle Époque.” Today, you can order a coffee and admire this beautiful building or attend poetry recitals, piano concerts, and exhibitions.

  As the first country to adopt Christianity as a state religion, Armenia boasts the world’s oldest Christian churches and monasteries, all set in immensely picturesque locations. It was also subjected to seven decades of Soviet occupation and, due to its strategic location at the crossroads of Europe and Asia, has been at the center of conflict for millennia.   Despite its harrowing history, Armenia does a commendable job of protecting and showcasing its most important historical relics. When you visit Armenia, don’t miss these ten must-see historical sites.   1. The Armenian Genocide Museum, Yerevan Inside the Armenian genocide museum, Photograph by Adam Jones. Source: Flickr   Considered the first ethnic cleansing of our modern era, the Armenian Genocide (1915–1923) was one of the devastating events that inspired Raphael Lemkin, a Polish-Jewish lawyer who contributed to the Nuremberg Trials, to coin the term “genocide” in 1944. Visiting the Armenian Genocide Museum is a profoundly moving experience and unmissable if you wish not only to understand more about Armenia’s fight for survival but also the genocide’s still-currant impact on the nation’s psyche.   The capital’s foremost history museum is well laid out in chronological order, beginning from the dawn of the 20th century. It retells the struggle of Armenians living as a Christian minority group within the Muslim-majority Ottoman Empire and the escalation of their oppression until the eventual attempt at their total annihilation.   The museum’s modern and solemn design houses a collection of photographs, documents, personal belongings, eyewitness accounts, and artifacts that provide a detailed account of the genocide. It is part of a memorial complex that includes a Soviet-era monument and an eternal flame commemorating the 1.5 million Armenians who perished during the genocide.   2. Mother Armenia Monument in Victoria Park, Yerevan The Mother of Armenia Monument, photo by Armineaghayan. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sitting atop a hill overlooking central Yerevan, Victoria Park was first established in 1950 to commemorate Soviet victory in World War II. The park’s centerpiece used to be an imposing statue of Stalin, yet in 1967, it was replaced by a 72-foot copper statue of Mother Armenia. Tall, proud, and slightly antagonistic, Mother Armenia stands atop a pedestal housing the Military Museum of Armenia.   Astute visitors will undoubtedly notice that the statue is flanked by all manner of military paraphernalia (missiles, tanks, and jets), all pointed toward Turkey. Once you’ve visited the Armenian Genocide Museum, you will grasp the context.   The belvedere opposite the statue affords spectacular views of Yerevan and, in the distance, Mount Ararat. No longer Armenia’s tallest peak and its cultural pride and joy, Mount Ararat was lost to Turkey in the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, something the country has never quite forgiven.   3. Garni Temple The Temple of Garni, by Clay Gilliland. Source: Flickr   Adopting Christianity as a state religion in 301 CE didn’t just signal the start of a new future for Armenia. It also spearheaded the destruction of its pagan past. Located amidst spectacular mountain scenery just 15 miles southeast of Yerevan, Garni Temple is a masterpiece of Hellenistic architecture and a must-see historical site in Armenia.   Built in the 1st century CE by King Tiridates I and dedicated to the sun god Mihr, Garni Temple is the most significant pre-Christian historical relic left standing in the country. Others are dotted across the Armenian landscapes, but since most are essentially reduced to piles of rubble, this is arguably the only one worth visiting.   The basalt structure features classic Ionic columns and intricate carvings and is perched on a rocky promontory overlooking the Azat River Gorge. The temple is eye-popping of its own accord, yet the views across the valleys and along the gorge—a geological wonder—are equally breathtaking.   Despite being partially destroyed by a 1679 earthquake, the Garni temple was meticulously restored in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Usually, a visit here is combined with a stop at our next historical highlight.   4. Geghard Monastery Geghard Monastery, by Diego Delso. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Carved into the rockface of the Azat River Gorge, Geghard Monastery is a UNESCO World Heritage site renowned for its incredibly unique architecture and revered for its spiritual significance. Dating back to the 4th century CE, this complex of medieval churches and chapels is an enticing blend of natural and man-made beauty, unlike any other historical site in Armenia.   Plan to travel here on a sunny day, and you’ll discover intricate carvings, ancient chapels hidden in caves, and long and dark corridors drenched in natural light as they filter through the many stone-cut windows. Legend has it that the monastery once housed the spear used in Jesus’s crucifixion.   Visit on a Sunday, and you might also be lucky enough to hear the local all-female Gregorian chanting choir practicing their ethereal craft in the big oval chapel. It is worth noting that busloads of tourists on organized trips arrive at the site in the late morning when the light is “just right” for photography and after they’ve stopped in Garni. Big crowds can easily overwhelm a serene historical site like Geghard, so if you prefer a more peaceful visit, head here first and visit Garni on the way back to Yerevan.   5. Tatev Monastery Tatev Monastery, photo by Thomas Frederick Martinez. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While even the most committed history lover risks suffering a bout of church burnout in Armenia (it is very much a thing here), visiting Tatev Monastery is a must. Located in the country’s far south, nestled in some of its most alluring mountainous landscapes, Tatev is perched atop a vertiginous cliff overlooking the Vorotan River Gorge.   Founded in the 9th century CE, Tatev swiftly became the most crucial religious learning center in medieval Armenia. It was a remote and isolated haven where monks and clergy meticulously copied and preserved religious texts, historical manuscripts, and literary works. They contributed to maintaining and disseminating Armenian culture and knowledge during medieval times.   From a historical point of view, Tatev wins prizes for seniority, being one of the oldest Christian complexes in Armenia. It also entices with its many relics, including impressive fortress walls, an ancient oil mill, a unique pendulous column, and awe-inspiring frescoes painted by European masters. Yet, one of the most alluring aspects of a visit is the chance to ride the longest reversible cable car in the world. Soak up eye-popping views of the gorge as you ascend the monastery directly from Halidzor village on the “Wings of Tatev.” Or, as the locals call it, the tramway to heaven.   6. Khor Virap Khor Virap, by Diego Delso. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Located near the Turkish border, just south of Mount Ararat, Khor Virap is renowned for its pivotal role in converting Armenia to Christianity in the early 4th century CE. Here, Saint Gregory the Illuminator, the patron saint of Armenia, was imprisoned in a deep pit for 13 years by King Tiridates III. This dramatic episode not only solidified Christianity as the state religion of Armenia but also marked the beginning of a long and enduring Christian tradition in the whole Caucasus region.   The monastery’s stellar location offers unparalleled views of Mount Ararat, which holds symbolic importance in Armenian culture as the believed resting place of Noah’s Ark (hence the resentment about losing the peak to Turkey). Nowadays, Khor Virap remains an active pilgrimage site and is one of the most revered places of worship.   While the monastery itself may not be grandiose, you would be hard-pressed to find one with a more remarkable setting.   7. Lake Sevan and Sevanavank Monastery Lake Sevan, by Delmee. Source: Needpix   Lake Sevan, one of the world’s largest high-altitude lakes and the largest lake in the Caucasus, holds a substantial place in Armenian history. It is home to the 9th-century Sevanavank Monastery, and the Sevan Lake Union of Writer’s House, an iconic symbol of the architectural style known as Soviet Brutalism. The lake is also a testament to what it almost became: one of many environmental disasters of the Soviet era.   During Soviet occupation (1920–1991), Lake Sevan was almost harvested into oblivion as extensive irrigation projects diverted water from its tributaries to support agriculture, drastically reducing its water level. Luckily, Sevan’s sheer size helped it endure long enough to see the fall of the Soviet Union and the start of concerted efforts to replenish its water and fish.   After a slow and steady recovery, Lake Sevan is now Armenia’s most prized asset. It is the country’s prime freshwater reservoir and most popular tourist attraction. The lake is also deeply embedded in local culture and folklore.   Due to its high altitude (6,234 feet), Lake Sevan welcomes spring quite late, around mid-June. Visiting this time of year will allow you to experience the explosion of scents and colors of the wild herbs and flowers all along its shores.   8. Orbelian Caravanserai The Orbelian Caravanserai. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Orbelian Caravanserais is one of the last remaining relics of Armenia’s role as a noteworthy stopover along the ancient Silk Road. Built in the 14th century CE, along a lesser-known route of the ancient trade line discovered by Marco Polo, Orbelian showcases intricate ornaments, carvings, and a chapel. You must have direct sunlight overhead to take in all the details. Alternatively, arm yourself with a headtorch before visiting.   Armenia’s best-preserved caravanserai (one of only four left (somewhat) standing in the country) Orbelian played a vital role in the evolution of the local culture. Not only did these ancient roadside inns facilitate the trade in goods between East and West, but they also helped the spread of philosophy, religion, and the arts between Asia and Europe.   You’ll find the Orbelian Caravanserai along the M10 road heading south toward the Iranian border, along a snaking road that affords astronomical views of the Vardenyats Mountain Range. Head here, and you’ll be in the heart of Armenia’s ancient winemaking region — one more reason to explore a little further.   9. Areni-1 Cave Complex Areni-1 Cave complex entrance, by Serouj. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While in this stunning southern region of Armenia, visit the Areni-1 cave system, home to the world’s oldest known winery. This complex of caves dates back to 5000-4000 BCE and has revealed ancient winemaking equipment and even traces of red wine. Interestingly, the site also unearthed the oldest leather shoe, amazingly preserved for 5,500 years due to the cave’s dry, cool conditions and sheep dung insulation.   Additional archaeological finds at Areni-1 include well-preserved barley, wheat, apricots, and the world’s oldest brain tissue specimen.   10. Dilijan Old Town Old Town Dilijan, by Rita Willaert. Source: Flickr   Armenia’s answer to a picturesque Swiss village is located in the Tavush province northeast of the capital. Historic Dilijan is a breath of fresh charming air in a region that is often replete with drab-looking gray abodes. The town is renowned for its medicinal natural springs and surrounding wilderness, with a historic core comprising cobbled streets, stone houses, and wooden balconies. It is wonderfully preserved and represents perhaps the most enchanting example of Armenian traditional architecture.   Aside from offering easy access to two prominent medieval monasteries (Haghartsin and Goshavank), the town is also the central point of an eponymous national park prized for its biodiversity. Several hiking trails lead to ancient fortresses and Armenian khachkars (memorial cross-stones), all set within verdant forests. The park also hosts wildlife, including seldom spotted brown bears, Eurasian lynx, and gray wolves.

  If you love historical places, museums, and cafes, then Paris is the place for you. Paris is brimming with history, from the first Roman fortifications to remnants of the Napoleonic Wars.   When you visit, there are endless things to learn and experience. After your day exploring its historical gems, you can visit one of its famous cafes or parks. Below are the top 10 historical sites to visit in Paris so you can get the most out of this wonderful European capital.   10. La Conciergerie Historic portrait of La Conciergerie. Source: La Conciergerie   At the heart of Paris’ historic center, known as Île de la Cité, La Conciergerie stood as a Roman palace and then as the residence of Frankish kings, beginning in the 10th century. For four centuries, it grew as a royal palace. In the 13th and 14th centuries, leaders such as Philip IV added new additions to the grandiose building.   In the 14th century, the palace became a royal prison, led by the royal concierge. Soon, the name La Conciergerie stuck. From the 15th to the 19th centuries, it was one of Europe’s most notorious prisons, housing famous prisoners such as the Marquise de Brinvilliers, the Countess de la Motte, and most famously, Marie Antoinette.   If you visit between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m., you can enjoy a guided tour of the historical palace and prison. The tour takes you through the hidden chambers where Marie Antoinette and other historical figures once sat in isolation. You can also see the Guardroom, Gens d’Armes room, and the famous medieval kitchens.   9. The Louvre Museum The pyramid and courtyard of the Louvre. Source: The Louvre, Paris   The Musée du Louvre is more than an art museum. Here, you can wander through thousands of year’s worth of artifacts that chronicle not only French history but that of the whole world. The Louvre was once a medieval fortress in the 12th century, with massive walls and military quarters. In the 14th century, it was converted into a royal residence and it became the palace of the French King, Louis XIV. After the French Revolution in 1791, the palace became a museum.   The museum houses some of the world’s greatest collections of historic art and artifacts. You’ll not only get to see famous art such as the Mona Lisa, but observe artifacts that tell the story of human history. There are nine curated sections which include Egyptian relics, antiquities from Greece, Etruria, and Rome, and Islamic Art.   When you visit, you can easily spend a day exploring its halls. From its exhibits to the museum’s historical building itself, there are endless things to do and experience. Throughout the week, you can enjoy a tour from one of the museum’s expert guides.   8. See History at Les Invalides Les Invalides courtyard by Cécile de Sortiraparis. Source: Sortiraparis   Just across the 19th-century Pont Alexandre III bridge is the ornate complex known as Les Invalides. The buildings and courtyard are from the 17th century. It was built to house disabled veterans of France’s wars in Europe and overseas. Les Invalides was built under King Louis XIV. It consisted of several beautiful buildings and a central church, which came to be known as the domed church, or Église du Dôme. After the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, the domed church was made into a tomb for Napoleon Bonaparte. Today, the complex houses several incredible museums, such as the Army Museum, the Museum of the Order of the Liberation, and the Museum of Relief Maps. Walking throughout the complex is one of the most exciting things to do in Paris for anyone who enjoys learning about French military history.   7. Place de la Concorde Place de la Concorde Fountain by Février Photography. Source: Unsplash   The French Revolution was one of Europe’s major turning points. Here at the Place de la Concorde, several French royals met their fate, most famously Queen Marie-Antoinette and King Louis XVI. The square was originally designed for Louis XV’s equestrian statue. After the revolution and several name changes, it was renamed Place de la Concorde in 1830. In 1836, a 75-foot-tall Luxor Obelisk, an original Egyptian obelisk, was erected in the center of the square, followed by two ornate fountains.   The Place de la Concorde is a unique space that has seen some of France’s most pivotal moments in history. At almost 20 acres, it is the city’s largest square. You can still enjoy events such as military processions and sports tournaments here.   6. The Eiffel Tower Side view of the Eiffel Tower. Source: Freepik   No monument in Paris is as iconic as the Eiffel Tower. This 984-foot tower dominates the Parisian skyline. It was built in 1989 after only two years of construction. When it was built, the immense structure was unlike anything the world had ever seen, pushing architects around the world to design taller buildings.   The tower is supported by four wrought iron lattice-girder sections that form a single structure at the end. It was designed by and named after the famous bridge engineer Gustave Eiffel. The French government was looking for a monument to commemorate the Paris World’s Fair of 1889. Eiffel submitted his design. It was both economical and impactful so the French authorities decided it would be the perfect fit.   The tower is still a major international tourist destination, with millions of visitors annually. Still, for French and architectural history lovers, a visit is a must. On top of learning about its construction and significance up front, you’ll get one of the best views of the city from its observation deck.   5. Visit Paris’ Catacombs Inside of the catacombs of Paris. Source: Catacombes de Paris   During Paris’ expansion in the 18th century, the city’s cemeteries outgrew their boundaries and caused major health issues in the city. To solve this problem, the city created a new burial spot in the former Tombe-Issoire rock quarries south of the city center. Soon, authorities excavated some of Paris’ largest cemeteries, such as the Saints-Innocents cemetery. The bones were transported to the catacombs at night to avoid disrupting the public. They were then dumped inside the quarries where workers arranged them in organized piles. Visiting the catacombs is one of the most thrilling historical adventures you can have in the city. You’ll learn about the catacomb’s history, the city’s cemeteries, and the unique queries that were dug underneath the city.   4. Gaze at the Notre Dame Cathedral Notre Dame Cathedral from the air. Source: Freepik   In the center of Paris is Notre Dame de Paris, a massive cathedral that’s seen as one of the world’s great buildings. Construction lasted from 1160 until 1250, and when it opened, it was one of the largest buildings in Europe. On its site stood two former medieval churches and, during Roman times, the temple of Jupiter. The cathedral famously became the site where Napoleon crowned himself emperor in 1804.   Since then, it has seen plenty of history and undergone repairs. It’s now one of the most vivid examples of Gothic architecture in Europe. It’s also a major tourist attraction that draws millions of visitors to the city every year. In 2019, people around the world witnessed a massive fire engulfing Notre Dame de Paris. In 2024, the renovated cathedral is set to open to the public once again.   3. Sainte Chapelle Concert inside Sainte Chapelle. Source: Sainte Chapelle   King Louis IX built this Gothic masterpiece in the middle of Ile de la Cité, Paris’ historic center. The Grand Chapel is one of the city’s oldest buildings and a prime example of early Gothic architecture. The chapel served several functions throughout its history. The most famous of its uses was to hold relics that were purchased and taken during France’s crusades in the Middle East. During the French Revolution, people stormed the chapel and ransacked it, converting it into a storehouse for goods. After years of neglect, in 1840, French writer Victor Hugo and other scholars led a restoration.   Today the chapel is a historical and architectural masterpiece worth visiting. Its stained glass windows, internal structure, facade, and artistic decorations make it a truly unique destination. The chapel offers daily tours which are a great way to learn about its history and the role it played in the city’s medieval culture.   2. Arc de Triomphe Arc de Triomphe structure. Source: Freepik   After Napoleon Bonaparte conquered the frontiers of his new empire, he built a colossal arch in his thriving capital. The renowned architect Jean-François-Thérèse Chalgrin built this 164-foot-high and 148-foot-wide monument. The Arc de Triomphe is one one of the city’s most striking landmarks. From its roundabout are 12 major avenues that stretch out through the city. Since it was built, it has seen parades, celebrations, and even invasions, as in World War II’s somber occupation by Nazi Germany. When you visit, you’ll have the option of a self-guided tour or a guided tour. You can see the internal rooms and climb to the observation deck on top.   1. Café de Flore in Paris Cafe de Flore, 1900. Source: Paris Zigzag   Almost every literary center has its iconic meeting points, such as Buenos Aires’ Café Tortoni or Vienna’s Café Landtmann. Paris has Café de Flore. Here, Parisian and international literary greats such as Louis Aragon, Ernest Hemmingway, Charles Maurras, and Jacques Prévert worked on their internationally acclaimed masterpieces. It opened in 1887 and soon became a Parisian center for intellectuals and influential people. The cafe is a simple, sit-down establishment that specializes in serving croissants, drinks, and coffee. In addition to the famous writers, there were artists such as Pablo Picasso, actors such as Jack Nicholson, and major political figures throughout the last two centuries who also came here. It’s hard to find so much history in one establishment.

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