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Following the end of World War 2 and the devastating impacts of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombings‚ the Cold War was looming. The immense destruction and power promised by atomic bombs pushed world superpowers into a nuclear research frenzy‚ with the USA prepared to drop a third on Japan if necessary‚ and the remaining nations creating their own arsenal as a deterrent or defense. Enter the ";demon core";. Sitting at a sizeable 6.2 kilograms (13.7 pounds) and 8.9 centimeters (3.5 inches) in diameter‚ this spherical mass of radioactive plutonium (at the time named ";Rhufus";) was designed in nuclear research to be a fissile core for early iterations of the atomic bomb. Throughout 1945 and 1946‚ the demon core was experimented on and could have found itself in an atomic bomb intended for Japan had it not have been for their surrender.As expected from its ominous title‚ the demon core was not kind to the nuclear physicists involved. Designed as a bomb core‚ it had just a tiny margin before it would increase radioactivity and become supercritical (once the fission reaction has begun‚ it increases in rate). Therefore‚ any external factors that could increase reactivity‚ for example‚ compression of the core (which is how the fission bomb detonates)‚ must be carefully monitored around the demon core.Tickling the dragon';s tailDespite the danger‚ researchers used the core as an experimental piece on supercriticality‚ using neutron reflectors topush it to its limits. Neutron reflectors are used to surround the core‚ and as the nuclear fission reaction occurs‚ they reflect neutrons back at the nuclearmaterial to increase the amount of fission taking place.In 1945‚ alone in his laboratory‚ physicist Harry Daghlian was performing a neutron reflector experiment on the demon core when he mistakenly dropped a brick of reflective tungsten carbide onto the core‚ pushing it into supercriticality and releasing a deadly burst of neutron radiation. After a three-week battle with acute radiation sickness‚ Daghlian succumbed to his wounds‚ leading to tighter legislation around nuclear research in the Manhattan Project although it would not be strict enough.Unperturbed by the gruesome death of his predecessor and colleague‚ Louis Slotin would continue the work of Daghlian to work out how close the core was to supercriticality. To do so‚ the procedure was to slowly lower a neutron reflector over the core whilst measuring the activity within. As we learned above‚ contact between the reflector and the demon core would end horribly‚ so spacers were used to keep the separation between the two.A talented physicist and nuclear daredevil‚ LouisSlotin was not privy to protocol. Instead‚ Slotin devised his own method that required less time‚ less effort but a whole lot more risk. Doing away with the spacers that kept the core from the reflectors‚ Slotin would use a flathead screwdriver to maintain separation and he would manipulate it with one hand throughout the experiment. He quickly became known for his experiment‚ which was coined ";tickling the dragons tail"; after famous physicist Richard Feynman likened the daring act to provoking a dragon‚ and despite warnings by prominent experts‚ Slotin repeated it multiple times. Unfortunately‚ the bravado would be Slotins undoing. On May 21‚ 1946‚ Slotin was demonstrating his experiment to several people in Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory when his screwdriver slipped by just a tiny amount‚ allowing the neutron reflector to surround the core and push it into supercriticality. A flash of blue light burst from the core‚ followed by intense heat that blasted Slotin and some of his colleagues. Slotin quickly flicked the reflectors off of the core and stopped the reaction‚ but the damage was done. That burst of radiation would kill Slotin within nine days of exposure. Stood right beside him during the accident‚ Alvin Graves would also receive a huge dose of radiation but would survive the ordeal and live for another 20 years before death. Owing to Slotins quick thinking and body position‚ which absorbed most of the radiation‚ the remaining onlookers were shielded from the blast and survived to tell the tale. Following the accidents‚ the core would finally gain its name as the demon core‚ before being recycled down into other fissile cores.An earlier version of this article was published inMay 2021.

The first study to quantify the environmental impacts of toxic forever chemicals on a global scale has found that much of the globes source water‚ which has not been treated for drinking‚ is more contaminated than suspected.Toxic forever chemicals‚ which do not degrade‚ are otherwise known as per- and poly-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS for short). They have been popular since the 1950s and now there are over 14‚000 human-made chemicals that have been used in coatings and products that are resistant to stains‚ heat‚ oil‚ grease‚ and water.But while you may think they are limited to things like pots and pans‚ PFAS are also present in other products. This includes clothing‚ furniture‚ adhesives‚ food packaging‚ cooking surfaces‚ the insulation on electrical wires‚ and firefighting foams. PFAS have also been found in supposedly biodegradable products‚ such as paper straws.In recent years‚ we have become aware of the potential threat these chemicals pose to both our health and to the environment. Studies have found potential links between exposure to PFAS and the development of various adverse health outcomes‚ including altered metabolism‚ body weight regulation‚ impaired kidney function‚ thyroid disease‚ altered sex hormone levels‚ and the development of various cancers liver‚ kidney‚ and testicular.Although‚ there are issues here. While PFAS have indeed been linked to these health outcomes‚ they have not yet been shown to causethem. Nevertheless‚ the growing evidence has led many regulators from across the world to start tightening restrictions on their use‚ though to different extents. But despite this research‚ there are still many things we do not know about the scale or the nature of this threat. We dont even know how much of these chemicals are present in our water supplies.However‚ a new international study led by researchers from the University of New South Wales Sydney has found that much of the global source water exceeds PFAS safe drinking limits.Firefighter';s foam has been found to be a serious contributor of PFAS‚ which linger in the environment long after their use.Image credit: TheoBox/Shutterstock.comMany of our source waters are above PFAS regulatory limits‚ senior author of the study Professor Denis OCarroll said in a statement.We already knew that PFAS is pervasive in the environment‚ but I was surprised to find out the large fraction of source waters that are above drinking water advisory recommendations‚ he said. We';re talking above 5 per cent‚ and it goes over 50 per cent in some cases.Using various sources‚ including government reports‚ databases‚ and peer-reviewed literature from across the world‚ the team were able to create more than 45‚000 data points spanning 20 years.Despite the worrying results‚ OCarroll stressed that these PFAS traces were found in source water‚ such as dams‚ and not drinking water. The latter goes through treatment plants that purify water for consumption. Some of these facilities are even designed to reduce the amount of chemicals like PFAS before the water reaches our taps.However‚ not all water providers routinely measure the broad range of PFAS potentially in our water.Drinking water is largely safe‚ and I don';t hesitate drinking it‚ OCarroll added. I also dont suggest that bottled water is better‚ because it doesnt mean that theyve done anything differently than what comes out of the tap.But I certainly think that monitoring PFAS levels and making the data easily available is worthwhile.The study also found high concentrations of PFAS in Australia‚ especially in areas where firefighting foams had been used in the past. These included military institutions and fire training facilities.Regulations from across the worldAlthough many countries are now regulating the use of PFAS‚ there is no single standard shared by everyone across the world. For instance‚ for the last 20 years‚ two forms of PFAS PFOS and PFOA have commonly been controlled‚ but not to the same extent.These chemicals are regulated to different extents around the world. In the US‚ the proposed drinking water limits for PFOS and PFOA are four nanograms per litre‚ OCarroll explained.In Australia‚ a third chemical PFHxS is also regulated‚ and the sum of PFOS and PFHxS is limited to 70 nanograms per liter. This is well above the USs 4 nanograms per liter combined PFOS and PFOA limit.In contrast‚ Canada tallies up the sum of all PFAS and limits the overall number to 30 nanograms per liter.According to this studys results‚ 69 percent of global groundwater samples with no known contamination source exceeded Canadas safe drinking water limits. Thirty-two percent of the same samples exceeded the USs drinking water hazard index. Other than nonstick kitchen products‚ clothes‚ cosmetics‚ and other objects have high levels of PFAS that can make their way into our systems or into the environment.Image credit: Ernest Rose/Shutterstock.comUltimately‚ it seems the worlds water resources could be more contaminated than previously suspected‚ mostly because of differences in how regulators approach the different types of PFAS out there.Theres a real unknown amount of PFAS that were not measuring in the environment‚ said OCarroll. Commercial products like garments and food packaging have a lot more PFAS in them than we realise.This means were likely underestimating the environmental burden posed by PFAS.OCarroll and colleagues are now trying to expand their research to quantify the levels of PFAS created by commercial products and their presence in the environment. In addition‚ they are hoping to develop technologies to degrade PFAS in drinking water systems and to find ways to predict where the chemicals will go in the environment.The study is published in Nature Geoscience.

Veins of a blue-and-yellow banded mineral run through the Derbyshire hillside in Britains Peak District‚ a rare mineral we know today as Blue John. It';s thought to only be found in two locations across the planet‚ so while it';s only semi-precious‚ its scarcity makes it a valuable find.Blue John is a variety of fluorite‚ a mineral composed primarily of calcium fluoride (CaF2). Fluorite belongs to the group of minerals known as fluorspars. Found along pipe veins in Treak Cliff Cavern and the Blue John Cavern in Derbyshire‚ UK‚ Blue John is often spotted alongside deposits of yellow fluorite‚ barytes‚ pyrites‚ calcite‚ galena‚ and quartz.It displays some diversity within its coloration‚ being made up of dark blue‚ pale blue‚ and yellow bands. The exact source of its midnight-blue hue was debated for a long time‚ with possible suggestions including radioactive material. However‚ field‚ laboratory‚ and experimental evidence have suggested it';s the result of bituminous inclusions‚ a type of organic material made up of the ancient remains of organic matter like plants and microbes.Veins of Blue John in Blue John Cavern‚ Derbyshire‚ UK.Image credit: Mfloryan‚ Public Domain‚ via WikimediaMuch of the mineral was lost during the First World War when fluorspar became a coveted material as a flux in blast furnaces. Blue John was subsequently mined for this purpose‚ stripping the region of large veins of the precious stone.As a beautiful mineral‚ its coveted for jewelry and ornaments‚ with examples online including goblets and carved panther heads. According to Blue John Stone‚ some areas off the beaten track are still mined for small-scale jewelry‚ but larger pieces are no longer made as most of the substantial veins have already been tapped.That said‚ we are still finding new veins of Blue John in recent times. Back in 2013‚ a vein that had long been considered lost was rediscovered. It was lost following the death of miner John Royce back in 1945‚ who passed before having a chance to show the landowners at the time the ins and outs of Treak Cliff Cavern.For 68 years‚ his predecessors failed to find the vein until January 2013‚ when a prospecting mission off the Witchs Cave revealed something interesting hiding beneath some clay.Blue John jewelry on sale at Treak Cliff Cavern‚ Derbyshire‚ England‚ made from stone mined thereImage credit: Andy Mabbett‚ CC BY-SA 3.0‚ via WikimediaThere was approximately a metre-length plate of crystals that we worked to clear‚ said John Turner‚ who was present during the search‚ to Blue John Stone. That first day we dug away as much as 2 tonnes of clay‚ and by 3pm decided to let the dripping water wash more away overnight. The next morning we took better lighting into the area along with the big rock drills‚ but before any drilling took place we had to dig more clay. It was around 1 pm that day we first were able to drill the limestone surrounding the Blue John‚ by the end of the days drilling we had exposed more of the vein wed ever guessed existed. Then I told Gary about the carpet and wooden batons‚ he told me of the lost vein of John Royce‚ and that he had a particular way of covering his work. By the end of the day we had exceptionally beautiful pieces of stone we had not seen at the Treak Cliff for years.Again‚ in 2015‚ an entirely new vein was discovered by mine manager Gary Ridley‚ who was testing out a new approach to mining using a stone chainsaw. I couldnt believe my eyes when within a few minutes I had uncovered a substantial deposit of Blue John unlike any other vein I had ever seen before‚ he said.BRB‚ going to fetch our mining chainsaw.

Parkfield in California is no stranger to an earthquake it sits on the San Andreas Fault‚ after all. Previously‚ it seemed that a quake with a magnitude of 6 or greater happened here around every 22 years‚ but after the last one was 14 years late‚ scientists are now trying to figure out if theres a reliable way to detect when the next will occur.To do so‚ the team looked at seismic wave data leading up to the last‚ late quake back in 2004; thankfully‚ researchers have taken a keen interest in studying activity in the region since the 1980s.It helped that‚ as the study authors write‚ the Parkfield region has very simple geometry and behavior and is known to be a transitional segment‚ sitting between a part of the fault where plates can move against each other (";creeping";) and a part where they cant (";locked";).The San Andreas Fault passes right through Parkfield.Image credit: Dimitrios Karamitros/Shutterstock.comSpecifically‚ the team was looking for any patterns or clues in how the seismic waves caused by a quake lose energy as they travel through the Earths crust in this transitional region; this is called attenuation.And they appear to have found one in the six weeks leading up to the 2004 earthquake‚ the loss of energy in low-frequency seismic waves increased‚ while decreasing for high-frequency waves. Known as bifurcation‚ according to the authors‚ this likely reflects whats going on underneath the surface just before an earthquake‚ with long cracks forming and short cracks closing up as stress continues to build near the eventual epicenter.But the real question is‚ will these measurements allow scientists to predict when the next earthquake will be? And could the same methods then be applied to other seismically active areas? Parkfield is in a fairly remote location‚ but plenty of earthquakes occur in built-up‚ densely populated regions. Being able to predict quakes in those places would be more than helpful.If youre hoping for an answer to those questions now‚ then were afraid youre going to have to wait. The researchers wont truly know if these measurements are a sign until the next earthquake happens.You might not have to wait long though; study author Luca Malagninitold Live Science that he suspects itll happen this year. Its been 22 years since the last quake‚ so its a pretty reasonable suspicion to have.That being said‚ Malagnini and colleagues write that they cannot find signs about the Parkfield asperity having reached its critical state yet‚ so at the very least‚ its probably more than six weeks away.The study is published in Frontiers in Earth Science.[H/T: Live Science]