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Have you ever wondered what happens during an autopsy? We might think we have half an idea from crime dramas like Silent Witness‚ but what's the reality of a post-mortem?As part of the "Living Autopsy" series of lectures‚ Dr Suzy Lishman CBE‚ consultant histopathologist at Peterborough City Hospital‚ UK‚ takes us through the process of an autopsy and reveals what we don't see on TV‚ from carefully examining the different organs of the body down to filling out the paperwork – all to figure out the cause of death.Check out Dr Lishman's lecture above. If you're a bit squeamish‚ don't worry – there's no blood‚ body parts‚ or dead body. Only a live model who must have some sort of superpower in order to stay that quiet and that still for so long.Credit: The Royal College of Pathologists

Einstein’s work was crucial for the current understanding of gravitational waves and the development of stimulated radiation that culminated in the invention of lasers. Dr Jing Liu‚ from the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences‚ has combined the two into an intriguing proposal: it is possible to create the gravitational equivalent of a laser.Let’s start with the basics. The word laser stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. A laser is made of light all with roughly the same frequency (or‚ in other words‚ it is monochrome) and it is coherent‚ so it can be focused to a tight spot or can be used to create ultrashort pulses. By stimulating a quantum mechanical energy transition‚ it is possible to get light out all with the same frequency.Natural lasers exist and they are called masers – with the "m" standing for microwaves. These astrophysical masers come from a bunch of sources‚ including comets‚ stellar atmosphere‚ and even the aurorae of Jupiter. So if light can make a laser‚ could gravity as well?Gravitational radiation shares similar properties with light behavior. Gravitational waves have frequencies and move at the speed of light‚ so in principle‚ you could make a laser with them. This would require a source that produces stimulated gravitational waves with a specific frequency. Anything that has mass and moves creates gravitational waves‚ but you are not getting that specific energy transition you encounter with atoms.         But maybe‚ there could be something like a gravitational atom – a structure where the gravitational interactions supersede the electromagnetic ones. The theoretical idea of a gravitational atom is recent and Liu exploited that hypothetical to test if a gravitational laser is possible. Liu’s gravitational atom is a rotating black hole surrounded by a cloud of axions‚ incredibly light hypothetical particles that are a leading candidate for dark matter.Though it is yet to be peer-reviewed‚ the work suggests that theoretically speaking‚ it is possible to generate resonant energy transition in clouds of axions. Those transitions‚ akin to an electron in an atom losing or gaining energy‚ would release gravitational waves of the same energy and direction. That would be a gravitational laser.So are we getting ready to find these gravitational lasers from these axions? Not quite yet. There are a lot of hypotheticals‚ but understanding what gravitational signals might look like is key to actually discovering them. And the laser signal would not look like anything we have encountered so far‚ so it matters to know what it is.A preprint of the study is available on ArXiv.[H/T: Live Science]

A fun question on Reddit asks "Do butterflies have any memory of being a caterpillar or are they effectively new animals?"Moths and butterflies have very unusual life cycles‚ as you likely learned from a surprising number of children's books where caterpillars are (unfairly) mocked by other insects for being ugly‚ before they retreat into a cocoon and emerge as a beautiful butterfly to the annoyance of the insect clique. Unfortunately‚ these books don't tend to go down into the nitty gritty of how this transformation takes place‚ prioritizing listing the number of blueberries the caterpillar has eaten over explaining the biological processes taking place in a cocoon. "What I learned‚" biologist Professor Martha Weiss‚ who investigated caterpillar-moth memory‚ told NPR‚ "is that the caterpillar turned to minestrone and that those ingredients that made up the caterpillar were completely reorganized into a butterfly that threw away the leftovers that it didn't need from the soup and was off."Humans generally don't have memories from the first three or four years of our lives‚ and we're willing to guess that we would remember even less if at four years old we melted down into minestrone. But‚ as Weiss discovered in a 2008 study‚ moths and butterflies can retain memories from their time as caterpillars‚ suggesting that the creatures' nervous system remains during the transformation into a butterfly. For the study‚ researchers from Georgetown University‚ including Weiss‚ released ethyl acetate into caterpillars' environment‚ a smell you probably know from nail polish remover. Caterpillars are not bothered by the smell‚ but by pairing it with mild electric shocks they were able to train the insects to be adverse to it. Sort of like how you may be "not fussed" by orange juice‚ but might actively avoid it if every time you picked up a carton you got tasered by a scientist.They then offered the caterpillars the choice of air containing ethyl acetate‚ or normal air. Seventy-eight percent of the caterpillars avoided the ethyl acetate‚ despite being unbothered by it beforehand. A month later‚ now moths‚ 77 percent of the moths chose to avoid the ethyl acetate. The moths had retained memory of their larval stage."The behavior represents true associative learning‚ not chemical legacy‚ and‚ as far as we know‚ provides the first definitive demonstration that associative memory survives metamorphosis in Lepidoptera‚" the team wrote in the study."Our behavioral results are exciting not only because they provoke new avenues of research into the fate of sensory neurons during pupation‚ but also because they challenge a broadly-held popular view of lepidopteran metamorphosis: that the caterpillar is essentially broken down entirely‚ and its components reorganized into a butterfly or moth."We now know that large sections of the nervous system are preserved during the transformation‚ allowing butterflies and moths to retain memories of their larval stage.The study is published in PLOS ONE.

Do you really know what’s going on in your mouth? The oral microbiome refers to the microorganisms living in the human oral cavity. While some of them can offer a positive or neutral benefit to human health‚ others can cause diseases within the mouth and even have a wider impact on human health beyond. We spoke to Martijn Verhulst‚ Medical Liaison Manager‚ Medical Affairs at Sunstar to find out just what it means to have a mouth full of bacteria. “The oral microbiome refers to all the microorganisms‚ their genetic information and the environment in which they interact‚ that's the mouth‚" explains Verhulst. The mouth is home to the second most diverse microbial community after the gut with more than 700 species of bacteria that live on the tissues present within‚ be that the hard surfaces of the teeth or the soft tissues of the tongue or the oral mucosa. Moreover this collection of microorganisms is unique to the individual. “Every single person also has a unique microbiome‚ the variation between people is even so distinct and so large that researchers believe that the microbiome can even be used as a unique microbial fingerprint like the ones on your hands‚” continues Verhulst.          Letting your oral hygiene slip can contribute to these bad bacteria spreading through the body with links between the microbiome and diseases like Alzheimer's‚ cardiovascular problems‚ and even arthritis. A 2017 study found links between periodontal disease and increased risk of different cancers. Keeping your mouth healthy with regular brushing and flossing can help reduce the chances of your bacteria spreading. “You need a mouth full of bacteria. However‚ the crucial part is to keep these bacteria in a healthy balance‚ and this balance is what we call symbiosis.”According to a 2016 paper‚ we are not distinct from our microbiome but together we form a "super organism"‚ with the microbiomes present both in our guts and in our mouths playing a role in those areas‚ but also in our overall health.Verhulst says‚ “In a symbiotic state‚ the microorganisms in your mouth‚ they fine tune your immune system‚ they keep your mucosa in a healthy state‚ they are involved in the digestion of food‚ and are crucial for maintaining health." Research is continually advancing in this field‚ with what Verhulst describes as a "paradigm shift" – from looking at the microbiomes individually‚ to looking at the oral microbiome as an integral part of the rest of the body and the role it has to play in different diseases. The content of this article is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice‚ diagnosis‚ or treatment. Always seek the advice of qualified health providers with questions you may have regarding medical conditions. 

The former forests of the eastern United States have rebounded over the last century. In the process‚ they’ve kept temperatures stable‚ or even marginally declining‚ for tens of millions of people while the world as a whole heats up. Climate discussion of reforestation usually relates to how much carbon it can draw from the atmosphere. This finding suggests the regional effects should not be neglected while considering the global consequences.Americans are much more likely to deny evidence for climate change‚ particularly those in the south-east‚ than counterparts elsewhere. Although this undoubtedly reflects social and historical factors‚ direct experience may also play a part. While almost the entire world has been getting hotter‚ exposing most of the global population to increasing heat waves‚ things have been different in the eastern US. The reason‚ new research suggests‚ is the recovery of forests devastated in the 18th and 19th centuries.This information could help calculate how much reforestation other regions would need to protect themselves from global trends."It's all about figuring out how much forests can cool down our environment and the extent of the effect‚" said Dr Mallory Barnes of Indiana University in a statement. “This knowledge is key not only for large-scale reforestation projections aimed at climate mitigation‚ but also plans for initiatives like urban tree planting.”Around 300 years ago‚ what is now the eastern US was almost entirely forested. Timber cutting and clearing for agriculture removed most of it‚ but since the 1930s‚ 15 million hectares (37 million acres) have been actively restored or recovered through neglect.Forests cool the air around them by transpiring water‚ just as we cool ourselves when we sweat‚ and create clouds at the same time. Other factors‚ such as the darkness of their leaves and surface roughness‚ can also have an influence‚ but away from the poles‚ transpiration tends to dominate.During the period of maximum felling‚ the eastern US probably warmed up‚ but we don’t have good records for most of that time. As the forests returned‚ they brought with them a regional cooling effect. While the whole of North America warmed by 0.7°C (1.2°F) between 1900 and 2010‚ the designated East Coast and Southeast regions cooled by 0.3°C (0.5°F).Barnes and co-authors are far from the first to notice this contradiction to the global trend; professional deniers love to point it out at every opportunity. However‚ its cause has been debated‚ with aerosols released as pollution‚ increased rainfall‚ and changes to agricultural activity proposed for blame."This widespread history of reforestation‚ a huge shift in land cover‚ hasn't been widely studied for how it could've contributed to the anomalous lack of warming in the eastern U.S.‚ which climate scientists call a 'warming hole‚'" Barnes said. "That's why we initially set out to do this work."It’s not news that trees have a cooling effect – you can feel it on entering a leafy neighborhood – but the size of the effect needed measuring. Barnes and colleagues used data taken from both satellites and thermometers in towers to compare forests with nearby areas further off the ground than in previous studies. They discovered that even areas a substantial distance from the forest benefited from the cooling effects.The team concluded that today‚ the eastern US’s forests provide 1°-2°C degrees cooling (1.8°-3.6°F) over the year‚ and much more in summer. Since only a small fraction of that would have been available from the scrawny pre-1930s forests‚ this means that without the regrowth‚ warming would have been close to the rest of the planet. They acknowledged‚ however‚ that other factors also contributed‚ with Barnes noting‚ “We can’t explain all of the cooling‚ but we propose that reforestation is an important part of the equation.”Planting forests is widely hailed as the quickest and easiest way to slow global heating by drawing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Nevertheless‚ it faces criticism since fires can reverse that effect‚ and in some locations‚ forests store less carbon than the grasslands they replace. The authors note similar caveats apply to the use of forests in different environments as well‚ pointing out that at high latitudes‚ trees could be warmer than snow-covered tundra. Young forests (20-40 years old) also have a greater cooling effect than old ones‚ so not all the benefits are permanent. “Nature-based climate solutions…will only be effective if they are accompanied by economy-wide decarbonization‚” they write.Nevertheless‚ if the study can be replicated‚ it would suggest that in the right places‚ reforestation – or leaving forests standing in the first place – could make a big difference.The study is published in Earth’s Future. 

In the quest to make better lab-grown meat‚ scientists in South Korea have created a beef-rice hybrid that's grown in a petri dish. Although it does look like a slightly unappetizing pink mush‚ the researchers contend that it’s a protein-rich food source that pumps out significantly fewer greenhouse gases than traditional beef farming.Scientists at Yonsei University in Seoul created the novel foodstuff by taking muscle and fat stem cells from cows and transplanting them into grains of rice. Fish gelatin and enzymes are first applied to the rice to help the cells attach. Once the stem cells are added‚ it's left to culture in the petri dish for nine to 11 days.The end result is a hybrid beef-rice that has 8 percent more protein and 7 percent more fat than regular rice. Along with having a low risk of foodborne illnesses‚ it’s much cheaper than natural meat. If commercialized‚ the researchers estimate the beef-rich hybrid could cost $2.23 per kilogram‚ while beef costs approximately $14.88 per kilogram.Better still‚ It has a much lighter carbon footprint. One hundred grams (3.5 ounces) of hybrid rice protein is estimated to release less than 6.27 kilograms (13.8 pounds) of CO2‚ while producing 100 grams of beef releases 49.89 kilograms (110 pounds). As for taste‚ it depends on how much fat or muscle is added to the rice. Hybrid rice with higher muscle content is said to have a beefy and almond-like smell‚ while those with higher fat content were said to smell creamier‚ buttery‚ and a bit like coconut oil. Texture-wise‚ it has a firmer and brittler feel than traditional rice.The question is: would you eat it? The researchers suggest they’re looking to commercialize the food product‚ offering consumers a low-cost and nutritious food source that dodges many of the environmental and ethical impacts of industrial agriculture. “Imagine obtaining all the nutrients we need from cell-cultured protein rice. Rice already has a high nutrient level‚ but adding cells from livestock can further boost it‚” Sohyeon Park‚ lead study author who conducted the study under the guidance of corresponding author Jinkee Hong at Yonsei University‚ said in a statement.It might not necessarily be served at Michelin-star restaurants‚ but it could have a range of practical uses. For example‚ it could be employed as a vital source of nutrition for people dealing with famine or natural disasters. Alternatively‚ it may prove to be an ideal food for astronauts on long-term space travelers.“I see a world of possibilities for this grain-based hybrid food‚” Park said.The new study is published in the journal Matter.

An archaeological dig has unearthed an intact chicken egg‚ still containing its yolk and albumen‚ from a wishing well that dates back to the age of the Roman Empire.The speckled egg‚ which is about 1‚700 years old‚ was recently discovered by Oxford Archaeology during excavations near the town of Aylesbury in Buckinghamshire‚ UK. It was found alongside other eggs inside a woven basket in an area that is believed to have once been a Roman wishing well. Unfortunately‚ the accompanying eggs had cracked open during the excavation‚ releasing an “incredibly sulphurous smell” into the face of unsuspecting archaeologists.One egg‚ however‚ remained intact. Amazed by its remarkable condition‚ the team carried out a micro-CT scan on the specimen. This revealed that the egg stilled contained an air sac filled with a gooey semi-viscous liquid‚ thought to be its yolk and albumen.Alongside the cache of eggs‚ the fieldwork near Aylesbury revealed a woven basket‚ pottery vessels‚ coins‚ leather shoes‚ and animal bones. An archaeologist at the site near Aylesbury unearths the egg-citing discovery.Image courtesy of Oxford ArchaeologyIt’s unbelievably rare for an egg to remain intact for 17 centuries – after all‚ some eggs fail to make it back from the supermarket in one piece. Given its age and condition‚ the researchers believe the Aylesbury egg is a first-of-its-kind discovery from Roman Britain and might even be the oldest unintentionally preserved bird's egg in the world.“The egg is‚ we believe‚ unique. It is the oldest surviving example of an inadvertently preserved avian egg found in the UK and we do not know of any equivalent globally‚" Douglas Russell‚ egg aficionado and senior curator of birds at London's Natural History Museum where the specimen has been sent‚ said in a statement sent to IFLScience."There are older eggs that were deliberately preserved. For example‚ the Natural History Museum holds a series of mummified Sacred Ibis eggs from ancient Egypt. Both the Egyptian mummified eggs and these Roman eggs were offerings to gods‚" Russell explained."What is fascinating and sets these Roman eggs apart is that‚ as far as we can tell‚ they are relatively fresh and unaltered when buried and it is simply that the soil conditions unintentionally preserved them‚“ he added.Acting as a symbol of life and rebirth‚ Romans often used eggs in burials and as offerings to the gods. Perhaps this cluster of eggs was one of these gifts to a world beyond ours (or maybe someone misplaced their shopping basket on the way back from the market).If old eggs are your thing‚ which presumably they are if you’re still here‚ there are some exceptional examples elsewhere in the world.Among the most mind-blowing‚ scientists discovered a 66- to 72-million-year-old egg in southern China that contained a fully articulated dinosaur embryo. Measuring 27 centimeters (10.6 inches) long‚ it belonged to a group of feathered‚ toothless theropods known as oviraptorosaurs‚ which are often seen as a link between dinosaurs and modern birds.

Fans of adorably small animals rejoice: A teeny tiny flea toad (Brachycephalus pulex) may have taken the title of tiniest frog‚ and also tiniest vertebrate‚ in the world.When we say teeny tiny‚ we aren’t messing. B. pulex is smaller than a pea‚ with males averaging just over 7 millimeters (0.28 inches) long‚ and females a little over 8 millimeters (0.32 inches)‚ according to new research that has investigated its credentials as a record-breakingly small species.The pocket-sized amphibians‚ known as flea toads despite being frogs‚ are endemic to southern Bahia‚ Brazil‚ and were first described in 2011. However‚ too few had been studied‚ and their adult status not confirmed‚ to nail them as the world’s teeniest frogs.“Identifying the smallest frog in the world has been no easy challenge‚” the team behind the new study explains. Hoping to change that‚ they measured the body lengths of 46 B. pulex individuals and compared them with other diminutive frog species‚ including the previously-identified “tiniest frog in the world”‚ Paedophryne amauensis.They found that some male B. pulex were smaller than known P. amauensis individuals. However‚ data on females of the latter species is scarce‚ so they compared the size of female B. pulex with the next smallest species‚ P. verrucosa‚ finding‚ again‚ that B. pulex were smaller.The researchers also assessed the frogs' maturity by examining their gonads‚ confirming they were adults.With all this taken into account‚ B. pulex “can be crowned as the tiniest frog and vertebrate species in the world‚ being closely followed by Paedophryne species from Papua New Guinea‚” they conclude.Love that for them. “It’s absolutely clear‚” Dr Mark Scherz at the Natural History Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen‚ told New Scientist. “These really are potentially the smallest extant frogs in the world‚ which is astonishing.”If B. pulex hasn’t scratched your teeny weeny animals itch‚ check out the world’s smallest chameleon‚ or how about the littlest crocodile‚ which has an a-moo-sing trick up its sleeve?The study is published in Zoologica Scripta.