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Making biscuits‚ purring‚ the little headbutts‚ that chirping noise they sometimes make these are just some of the many perks of having a cat in your life. Spraying their pungent-smelling pee? Not so much. But why does it smell so much worse than normal litterbox pee? You ask the questions a new study from scientists in Japan has the answers.The origin of the powerful aroma of cat spray has occupied researchers for some time. Twenty years ago‚ project leader Professor Masao Miyazaki discovered that cat urine contains a large quantity of a protein called cauxin (a name that comes from the Japanese word for curiosity)‚ which contributes to its distinctive smell.But ask just about any cat owner‚ and theyll tell you that smell is very different depending on whether the urine is contained within the litterbox or sprayed against a wall in the garden. One suggestion thats been put forward is that sprayed urine may contain extra chemicals‚ possibly secreted from the anal sac.Miyazaki and colleagues investigated this by collecting different urine samples‚ but found no evidence to support the hypothesis. Samples of spray and normal urine from the same cat had a high degree of similarity‚ suggesting they both originated solely from the bladder.That still doesnt explain why the human nose perceives these two types of pee as distinct from each other. However‚ an observation made while they were analyzing the samples pushed the teams investigation in a new direction. They noticed that the cat urine was sticking to the inside of the plastic syringes they were using‚ a property chemists refer to as wettability.Generally‚ the wettability of a liquid on solid surface increases as the surface tension decreases‚ explained first author Reiko Uenoyama in a statement. Based on this knowledge‚ we hypothesized that the high protein concentration in cat urine might reduce the surface tension of cat urine‚ enhancing the emission of urinary volatile compounds from the large vertical surface area that [the urine was spread over].The key appears to be the protein Miyazaki identified all those years ago: cauxin. Experiments showed that a solution of cauxin had higher wettability than a similar solution containing the mammalian blood protein albumin. Cat urine with high cauxin levels had significantly lower surface tension than urine with the proteins removed‚ and more readily adhered to a vertical glass surface.The team then set up two artificial gardens. In one‚ a brick was sprayed with tomcat pee. In the other‚ the same pee was poured onto the soil and covered up. That oh-so-familiar kitty smell was only detectable from the sprayed sample.The difference in environmental odors between the two gardens‚ despite using the same urine sample‚ can be explained by most of the urinary volatile chemicals being trapped in the porous structure of the sandy soil. This phenomenon did not occur in the urine adhering to the surface of the block‚ Miyazaki explained.Additionally‚ liquid droplets of sprayed urine can easily dry on the surface of the block‚ resulting in greater emissions of volatile chemicals from the scent mark rapidly as compared to from normal urine.So‚ there you have it. Spray is just the same pee that cats usually bury under soil or litter. Its the act of spraying itself‚ facilitated by the high levels of cauxin‚ that gives unsuspecting humans such a malodorous experience.Theyre weird and sometimes stinky little guys but we still cant get enough of em.The study is published in the Journal of Chemical Ecology.

Ancient hunter-gatherers in South America may have kept foxes as pets before domestic dogs arrived on the continent. Evidence for this unexpected alliance comes from a 1‚500-year-old burial site in Patagonia‚ Argentina‚ where a human skeleton appears to have been buried alongside a fox‚ suggesting that the pair may have shared a special bond during their lifetimes.Originally discovered in 1991‚ the archaeological site of Caada Seca contains the remains of at least 24 members of a hunter-gatherer community. Within one of the burial pits‚ researchers identified the bones of an unknown canid‚ although the relationship between the animal and its human grave-mate remained uncertain until now.To clear up the mystery‚ the authors of a new study conducted in-depth genetic‚ morphological‚ and isotopic analyses of the ancient bones. This enabled them to reveal that the fox belonged to a now-extinct species known as Dusicyon avus - which roamed South America until around 500 years ago - and not a gray fox‚ as had previously been speculated.More significantly‚ however‚ the results of the study have illuminated the social context of this peculiar multi-species burial. Previously‚ it had been difficult to interpret the meaning of this discovery since the human and fox bones were commingled‚ thus giving few clues as to whether or not the arrangement was deliberate or coincidental.However‚ after studying the carbon and nitrogen isotopes in the fox bones‚ the study authors were able to confirm that the animal survived on a human-like diet‚ consisting of considerably more vegetation and less meat than a wild fox would typically consume. According to the researchers‚ this finding is suggestive of systematic feeding‚ indicating that the fox was probably a companion or a pet for the hunter-gatherers during the late Holocene.Its strong bond with human individuals during its life would have been the primary factor for its placement as a grave good after the death of its owners or the people with whom it interacted‚ write the study authors. Such a conclusion is further strengthened by previous radiocarbon dating of the animals bones‚ which revealed that it was buried at around the same time as the associated human.Delving deeper into the foxs genome‚ the study authors sought to determine the cause of this long-lost canids extinction. According to one hypothesis‚ the species may have disappeared as it bred with domestic dogs‚ creating a hybrid lineage that eventually became genetically assimilated into the dog bloodline.However‚ the genetic divergence between D. avus and modern dogs turned out to be significant enough that the two would probably not have been able to produce viable hybrid offspring‚ thus ruling this out as the main driver of the foxs extinction. Instead‚ the study authors suggest that the animals disappearance was probably due to a combination of climate change and human meddling.The study has been published in the journal Royal Society Open Science.

In a landmark case‚ the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has ruled that authorities in Switzerland have violated the human rights of a group of Swiss women by not doing enough to stop climate change.April 9 saw rulings on three climate change cases in the court‚ expedited through the process after being considered as urgent. Two of the cases one brought by a former French mayor against France and the other by a group of Portuguese youths against Portugal and 32 other European governments were thrown out.But KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz (Senior Women for Climate Protection)‚ a group of older Swiss women‚ many of whom are over the age of 70‚ saw success. Theyd been arguing that Swiss authorities werent taking enough action to tackle climate change‚ and in doing so‚ were violating their human rights by leaving them vulnerable to the effects of climate change-induced heatwaves.Members of KlimaSeniorinnen protesting outside the European Court of Human Rights in March 2023.Image credit: Hadrian/Shutterstock.comThe ECHR agreed‚ ruling that the Swiss Confederation had failed to comply with its duties under the Convention concerning climate change and had violated the right to respect for private and family life under the European Convention of Human Rights.Though the ruling doesnt seem to have gone down particularly well with Switzerlands largest political party‚ its safe to say members of KlimaSeniorinnen Schweiz seem pretty happy. As reported by Reuters‚ one of the groups leaders‚ Rosmarie Wydler-Waelti‚ said: ";We still can';t really believe it. We keep asking our lawyers‚ ';is that right?'; And they tell us it';s the most you could have had. The biggest victory possible.";President of the Swiss Confederation Viola Amherd responded to the ruling: ";I would like to know what the grounds for it are. Sustainability is very important to Switzerland‚ biodiversity is very important to Switzerland‚ the net zero target is very important to Switzerland. We are working on those and will continue to work on them with all our strength. This ruling does nothing to change that.";In somewhat coincidental timing‚ a statement released a day after the ruling announced that Switzerland will be renewing its contribution to the Green Climate Fund‚ a fund thats part of a United Nations initiative to mitigate climate change in developing countries.Whilst its a momentous case for the ECHR‚ this isnt the first time people have attempted to bring authorities to justice for climate inaction and won.Last summer‚ a group of young activists arguing that the state of Montana had violated their right to a clean and healthy environment won the first ever case finding a US state guilty of breaking its constitution over climate impacts.The results of more climate change cases involving constitutional and human rights violations are likely to be seen in the future. According to Climate Case Chart‚ a website that keeps a database of climate change litigation‚ there have been 146 suits against governments outside of the US concerning climate change and human rights‚ many of which are still pending a decision.Only time will tell if the ECHRs ruling will have a trickle-down effect or make big waves in such cases.

Well‚ the world didnt end (yay)‚ so lets talk about Mondays total solar eclipse and those strange pink spots around its periphery. If you were lucky enough to snap a pic of the eclipse yourself‚ or have seen some of the incredible photos taken by others‚ you may have noticed bright pink‚ red‚ and orange coming off of the Sun like streamers. These are called solar prominences but what are they?What is a solar prominence?According to NASA‚ a solar prominence is a large‚ bright feature extending outward from the Suns surface. Formed of plasma‚ prominences are anchored in the Suns photosphere and extend into its outer atmosphere‚ or corona.Prominences can vary in size and shape. Usually‚ they are longer than the diameter of the Earth some have even extended for millions of kilometers and most often one end is tethered to the Sun‚ creating a streamer effect. But sometimes‚ they occur as an arch‚ with both ends anchored to sunspot regions.A solar prominence in 2010.Image credit: NASA Solar Dynamics ObservatoryThe glowing appendages form as plasma flows along a tangled and twisted structure of magnetic fields generated by the suns internal dynamo‚ explains NASA. When it becomes unstable‚ it erupts outward and creates the spots we see in the pictures.Also known as filaments‚ prominences form over the course of about a day and can last for several months.Their rosy color comes from electrically charged hydrogen and helium in the plasma. Prominences emit light in the red part of the spectrum as hydrogen fluoresces during the hydrogen alpha transition. However‚ when combined with white light from ordinary thermal emissions‚ it can produce a pink effect‚ as seen here:Pink solar prominences could be seen around Monday';s eclipse.Image credit: NASA HQ PHOTO via Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)Why was this visible during the eclipse?Mondays eclipse happened very close to solar maximum when the Sun is at its most active and the chances of flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are highest.Solar maximum is a product of the 22-year cycle of the Suns magnetic field‚ during which two peaks occur around 11 years apart. When the cycle reaches its peak‚ as it is now‚ the magnetic field becomes tangled‚ which means weve been treated to all sorts of phenomena of late‚ including sunspots‚ flares‚ and the CMEs that cause auroras.Even when solar activity is at a minimum‚ prominences can be seen around the edge of the Sun but during solar maximum‚ theyre even more abundant‚ which is why theyve popped up in so many eclipse photos.Solar prominences werent the only phenomena we witnessed on Monday. We also saw the rare light effect known as Bailys beads‚ which occurs when light from the Sun can be glimpsed at the Moons jagged edges‚ looking a little like beads.Baily';s beads seen just before totality on April 8.Image credit: NASA HQ PHOTO via Flickr (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0)Unfortunately‚ those in the US will have to wait until 2044 for the next total solar eclipse‚ but as the Sun heads toward its peak of activity‚ expect to see plenty more spectacles from our star in the coming months.All explainer articles are confirmed byfact checkersto be correct at time of publishing. Text‚ images‚ and links may be edited‚ removed‚ or added to at a later date to keep information current.

A fish tanker truck transporting around 102‚000 young Chinook salmon smolts overturned on the way to the Imnaha River on March 29. While you might think that that would be the end of all of the salmon on board‚ the fish did something rather extraordinary and began leaping into the nearby creek.The truck‚ which was 16 meters (53 feet) long‚ overturned after going around a sharp turn and skidding‚ causing it to hit a rocky embankment and roll onto its roof. The driver received minor injuries according to a statement by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW). However‚ the salmon were the real survivors of the accident‚ with 77‚000 leaping and flapping their way into the nearby Lookingglass Creek.The spring Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) were being transported to the Imnaha River for sport harvest and to supplement the wild population. They are the largest of all the Pacific salmon types and were raised by the Lookingglass Hatchery.Salmon have an extraordinary life‚ with young salmon hatching in freshwater streams before eventually swimming out to the saltwater ocean. After a few years at sea‚ the salmon will return to the streams in which they hatched to spawn and then die. The salmon on the tanker were about 18 months old and were due to be introduced to the streams before beginning their 1‚046-kilometer (650-mile) journey to the Pacific‚ the New York Times reports.After three years at sea‚ these salmon will return to the same rivers to breed. They kind of smell their way back‚ Andrew Gibbs‚ the ODFW';s fish hatchery coordinator for eastern Oregon‚ told the New York Times. Its an incredible life history.The ODFW think that around 20 percent of the total smolts on the truck were lost in the accident‚ while approximately 77‚000 leapt into the nearby Lookingglass Creek‚ a tributary of the Grande Ronde River‚ when the tanker fell.Some of the fish were fitted with passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags‚ an internal microchip that was able to be read by the team‚ helping them to collect and count the smolts that did not survive.But the silver lining for me is 77‚000 did make it into the creek and did not perish‚ said Gibbs. They hit the water running.While the loss of these fish is tragic‚ in 2021 a container of hagfish came loose and unleashed its contents onto the highway‚ not only releasing the hagfish themselves but their very slimy defence mechanism.