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Via Appia, ancient Rome, reconstruction. Source: iStock/Getty Images   Rome’s position in the 4th century BCE stood on shaky ground. The Roman powerhouse that built an empire had just begun. The Republic’s adversaries, particularly just south of the city, threatened Rome’s growth. As Rome expanded outward, the city sought allies. The Gallic Sack of 390 BCE demonstrated Rome’s vulnerability. The Samnites would emerge as their toughest adversary. The Romans and Samnites, bitter rivals and neither willing to back down, fought three wars between 342 and 290 BCE.   The second conflict from 326-304 BCE saw the Via Appia built strategically to enhance  Rome’s position. Built in 312 BCE under the consul Appius Claudius Caecus, the Via Appia improved Rome’s fortunes dramatically. With the road built, legions would move faster, especially as Rome faced a Samnite-led coalition.   Embedding Roman Culture Via Appia. Source: Denmark National Collection   This first long-distance Roman road evolved into a nightmare for the Samnites. First built from Rome to its ally Capua, the Via Appia bypassed the impassable Pontine Marshes. With a solid, permanent connection to Capua, troops and supplies moved quickly. With the road set, the Romans established colonies like Fregellae on the River Lis or stopping points. Besides creating a ring around the Samnite areas, these settlements embedded Roman culture. The Via Appia showed Rome’s intent to remain and dominate. Rome won the second war within a decade.   Creating the Blueprint Via Appia Route-Southern Italy. Source: Wikimedia   The Via Appia was Rome’s first purpose-built road used to deploy the legions or for communication. With the typical Roman practical approach, engineers built the road with straight alignment (if possible). Next, three layers were laid down using gravel, sand, and then flat stones for robustness. Engineers made the road convex to prevent erosion and for drainage. Thousands of miles of Imperial roads would follow this template to a sum of nearly 50,000 miles.    Expansion and Tightening  Roman Milestone. Source: Wikimedia   With the Samnite Wars over, Rome used the Via Appia to strengthen their control in central and southern Italy. Nicknamed “Regina Viarum” or “Queen of Roads” by the poet Statius, Rome extended the road further south to Brundisium (246 BCE) and later Venusium and Tarentum.    During the Samnite Wars, the Via Appia stretched 132 miles from Rome to Capua (today’s Naples). Engineers in the 2nd century BCE extended the road to Brundisium, linking both southern Italy and the strategic Adriatic coast (370 miles total). Strategically, Roman legions could march quickly to either deal with internal problems or for easier overseas deployments.    The mere presence of the Via Appia showed Rome’s power. The road averaged twenty feet wide, lying atop crushed stone and flat lava slab, an ever-present reminder. Next, milestones displayed distances-another subtle Roman reminder. Mile markers also had a propaganda role with inscriptions such as “IMP CAESAR DIVI F AUGUSTUS (Emperor Caesar Augustus, son of the deified one)” reminding all that this was a Roman road.   More Than Power Projection Roman wagon. Source: Roman German Museum   As Rome’s first road well beyond the city, the Via Appia expanded Rome’s non-military reach. With the Via Appia now ending at Brundisium, Greece, and the eastern Mediterranean lay open for trading or expansion. The city’s rulers thought the road critically important, appointing a curator of praetorian rank.    Following the now set path came Roman merchants, settlers, and culture. From the hodgepodge of tribes and city-states, the road allowed the newcomers to Romanize the landscape. Safety improved and increased the ease of travel by avoiding rugged terrain. Remember the Pontine Marshes? Merchants traded olive oil, wine, ceramics, and other goods. Cities like Tarentum, Capua, and Beneventum were now available markets.    The Via Appia brought Roman law, culture, Latin, and other bits of culture, slowly changing the local culture. The road also enabled the Roman practice of land grants to veterans. The veterans created military style towns, creating outposts along or near the Via Appia. As settlements became more established, urban buildings such as amphitheaters, forums, and baths appeared, turning them into full Roman municipalities.   More Cultural Integration-Remembrance The Via Appia. Source: Wikipedia   As the Via Appia kept Rome’s grip firm, more bits of Romanization sprang up. Roman law forbade burial within the city, so the Via Appia became a road of remembrance. Elite families built mausoleums honoring the deceased. More than a grave, they became elaborate tombs showing family lineage, contributions, and military victories.    In a macabre display of power and remembrance, in 73 BCE, the Romans crucified 6,000 slaves. Following a failed slave revolt led by Spartacus, Rome sought to quell rebellions with stark measures. This gave the Via Appia a new layer of meaning, showing the power of the Roman government. The Via Appia started life with a military role but brought more than power. Culture also traveled along the paved stones, setting up a centuries-long system.

  On June 28, 1914, a Serbian nationalist assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke of Austria and heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The event triggered a domino effect, with multiple countries declaring war based on their alliances. The conflict pitted two powerful and determined coalitions. The Central Powers of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire faced off against the Allied nations of Britain, France, Italy, Russia, and the United States.   World War I Central Powers: Germany German Kaiser Wilhelm II, 1905. Source: Wikimedia Commons/German Federal Archives, Koblenz   The German Empire led the Central Powers during World War I. However, the Germans did not directly initiate the conflict. Instead, Germany went to war through an alliance (known as the Triple Alliance, as it also included Italy) with Austria-Hungary. Germany had one of the largest militaries at the start of the war, with 4.5 million soldiers available, and it boasted a significant navy.   When the war began, Germany immediately went on the offensive. The German Empire felt itself surrounded and threatened by the alliance between Britain, France, and Russia. The first objective was to knock out archrival France rapidly.   German armies were successful in the first weeks of the war. They conquered most of Belgium and pushed into France. Closing in on Paris, a French counterattack finally stopped the advance. Fighting on the Western Front then bogged down into a war of attrition, with stagnant battle lines through trench warfare.   On the Eastern Front, Russia attacked Germany first, pushing into East Prussia in August 1914, while the bulk of German forces rushed into France in the west. Although Russian forces outnumbered the Germans, the Russians were slow and disorganized. Under General Paul von Hindenburg, the Germans surrounded and forced the surrender of one Russian army group and the retreat of another.   German infantry on the battlefield, photograph by Underwood and Underwood, c. 1917-1918. Source: Wikimedia Commons/US National Archives and Records Administration   Germany slowly advanced in the east. After the collapse of the Russian government, the new Bolshevik regime negotiated a peace treaty in 1918. The agreement gave Germany control of the Baltic, Poland, and Ukraine.   In East Africa, an expanded conflict took place between Germany and the Allies. While heavily outnumbered, German forces held off Allied attacks and continued fighting until the German surrender.   While Germany saw success in the East, it was short-lived. In June 1918, a new western German offensive reached within five miles of Paris before halting. The Allies launched a summer counteroffensive that pushed back German lines with heavy casualties, forcing total capitulation in November.   Austria-Hungary’s Role as a World War I Central Power Franz Joseph I of Austria, 1908. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DC   The assassination of the Archduke of Austria set off the events of World War I, making Austria-Hungary the center of the conflict in the early days. Austria-Hungary quickly declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia then declared war on the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy, which was backed (and encouraged to start the conflict) by Germany.   Despite being a key European power, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had several major weaknesses. As a multi-ethnic nation, the people of Austria-Hungary spoke many diverse languages, making it difficult to organize a cohesive military force. When the war broke out, the military was also less prepared and developed than other powers’ forces, particularly lacking in artillery and airplanes.   The main battlefronts for Austria-Hungary were Serbia, Italy, and Russia. Heavy fighting occurred on the Serbian front in 1914, causing many casualties. However, the Serbians repelled the larger Austro-Hungarian forces. German and Bulgarian assistance to their ally helped defeat and occupy Serbia in 1915.   An early battle in 1914 between Austria-Hungary and Russia was the Battle of Galicia, which caused an Austro-Hungarian retreat. Russia captured significant territory. With Germany’s help, the Central Powers went on the offensive against Russia in 1915. Russian forces retreated from the gains they had made earlier and continued to fall back.   Austro-Hungarian soldiers on the Isonzo Front, by unknown, September 10, 1917. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Four years of endless war wore down the fragile control of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Encouraged by the Allies, various nationalities announced separation from the Empire in late 1918. This included Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and Poles. Even Hungary declared separation from the empire. Austria and Germany proclaimed an association, but it was only a few days before the German surrender.   The Ottoman Empire as a World War I Central Power Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V, by Bain News Service, 1914. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DC   By 1914, the Ottoman Empire was in steady decline, yet it remained a regional power in Eastern Europe and the Middle East. When World War I broke out, the Ottomans were friendly towards Germany but remained neutral for the first few months.   However, while performing joint Ottoman-German naval exercises in October 1914 on the Black Sea, German ships fired on the Russian coast. The Russians then declared war directly on the Ottomans and brought them into the Central Powers pact.   From the beginning of its entry into the war, the Ottoman Empire struggled to supply its military. Much of the equipment was outdated and of lower quality than their adversaries. Most of the fighting centered against the Russian Empire in the Caucasus region, east of the Black Sea. Ongoing skirmishes continued until Russia withdrew from the war in early 1918.   The most famous military event for the Ottomans was the Battle of Gallipoli. The Allies decided to attack the Gallipoli Peninsula in the Dardanelles, near Turkey. The aim was to weaken the Ottoman Empire, open a direct supply line to Russia, and create a new front in the war.   Ottoman cavalry in WWI. Source: Wikimedia Commons/National Library of Israel, Jerusalem   British and French attempts to sail through the Dardanelles failed in early 1915. Instead, the Allies prepared a land invasion. The Ottoman army was ready.   Ottoman troops holding higher ground gunned down Australia and New Zealand’s attempts to land at Gallipoli. However, the fighting soon turned into trench warfare-style tactics, much like on the Western Front. Staunch Ottoman defenses finally forced the Allies to abandon Gallipoli in 1916.   The Ottoman Empire collapsed following Germany’s surrender in November 1918. The Allies then partitioned the former empire, and in 1923, the Republic of Turkey emerged as independent.   World War I Allied Nations: Russia’s Role Portrait of Russian Tsar Nicholas II. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Like several other countries, the Russian Empire was not prepared for war. Less industrialized than either Germany or Austria-Hungary, Russia was in economic and political turmoil in 1914. Yet a wave of patriotism propelled the nation to military conscription to support their Serbian allies.   Russia quickly went on the offensive against its main adversary, Germany. However, a lack of organization and adequate supplies rapidly reversed the tide of the war. Many Russian soldiers even went into battles without rifles.   Shortly after invading East Prussia in the summer of 1914, Russian troops had to retreat. By the autumn of 1915, Russia had lost 800,000 soldiers. In response, Tsar Nicholas II, with little military experience, made a fateful decision. He removed the army commander-in-chief and took over himself.   A Russian recruiting poster. The text reads: “World on Fire; Second Patriotic War,” 1917. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The situation continued to deteriorate, and many Russians blamed the tsar directly. Mass casualties led to labor and food shortages, resulting in growing demoralization and political unrest.   The Russian Brusilov Offensive in Galicia, from June to September 1916, against Germany and Austria-Hungary, led to some success and advances into enemy territory. However, extended Russian lines and expanded German reinforcements at the front turned the tide of battle, forcing another Russian retreat.   The February Revolution of 1917 led to Tsar Nicholas II’s abdication. The new provisional government tried to continue the war effort, but with little success. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power, promising to end Russia’s involvement in World War I.   In 1918, the Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers. The armistice ended Russia’s commitments to the Allies and finished their war effort. The deal restored peace, but the Russians lost significant territory and population in the deal, including much of their essential grain production.   World War I Allied Nations: France Portrait of French President Raymond Poincare, photograph by Traumrune, 2022. Source: Wikimedia Commons   France faced the full force of German power on the front lines of the Western Front. The first few weeks of World War I witnessed German armies marching through Belgium and into French territory on their way to Paris. Germany’s strategy was to knock out the French, followed by the Russians and British.   France and Germany despised each other. France had lost its eastern territory of Alsace-Lorraine to the Germans in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. The French saw the new conflict as an opportunity to recover the region.   The First Battle of the Marne, in September 1914, stopped the German advance and saved the French Republic. The Germans were just 30 miles from Paris when French commander Joseph Joffre launched a successful French and British counterattack.   Following the Marne, both sides raced towards the North Sea coast, trying to outflank each other. The result was hundreds of miles of trenches dug throughout northern France and part of Belgium that turned into a stalemate. Yet the war remained on French soil throughout, draining France both economically and psychologically.   Perhaps the most significant confrontation for France was the Battle of Verdun in 1916 in northern France. Verdun was also one of the largest battles of World War I on the Western Front. The German attack began on February 21. Germans seized fortified posts near the city. However, French reinforcements soon arrived, preventing Verdun from falling. The battle lasted over 300 days, with casualties of hundreds of thousands of men on both sides.   A group of French soldiers in Paris, c. 1914-1915. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Library of Congress, Washington DC   France fought the war in other geographic locations, such as Gallipoli and the Middle East. The Allied Nations and Central Powers signed the Treaty of Versailles, officially ending the war, in Paris in 1919. In the agreement, France took possession of Alsace-Lorraine.   Britain as a World War I Allied Nation British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, by A. & R. Annan & Sons, 1915. Source: Wikimedia Commons/The New York Times Current History: The European War   The German invasion of Belgium and France brought Great Britain into the war. Britain promised to protect Belgian independence and already had an alliance with France. Britain had the largest empire but the smallest regular army among the major combatants. However, the massive British Navy dominated the seas.   The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was dispatched to France and saw action immediately. British forces included Dominion and Colonial troops throughout the empire. These troops saw action in most battles and on many fronts.   One significant clash involving British troops came in April and May at the Second Battle of Ypres in Belgium. This is where Germany first launched poisonous gas against Allied lines. Canadian and Indian soldiers fighting under the British flag took the brunt of the attack. Though casualties were high, the British-led forces held the line.   The Battle of the Somme lasted from July to November 1916 and became one of the bloodiest battles in history. The Allies planned a decisive offensive, but the Germans were prepared for the assault. On the first day alone, 20,000 British and Empire soldiers died in battle. By the end of the battle, the Allies had gained a total of six miles and suffered 600,000 casualties.   Men of the Notts and Derby Regiment marching along the Amiens-St. Quentin Road, from Foucancourt, near Brie, Somme, March 1917. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Imperial War Museum, London   Britain actively participated in the failed attack on the Ottoman Empire at Gallipoli. However, British troops made gains by taking Ottoman territories in the Middle East.   The navy saw much action in the war. British ships blockaded German coastal areas. They also worked to protect Allied shipping from German U-boat (submarine) attacks. The Battle of Jutland saw a direct encounter between large British and German dreadnoughts. Although the battle was indecisive, Britain maintained its overall naval superiority.   The United States in World War I as an Allied Nation American President Woodrow Wilson, by Harris & Ewing, 1914. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Cowan’s Auctions   In 1914, most Americans supported the Allied nations but still wanted to stay out of the war in Europe. President Woodrow Wilson agreed and maintained strict neutrality. Then came the sinking of the RMS Lusitania.   In May 1915, a German U-boat torpedo sank the British passenger ship RMS Lusitania. One thousand two hundred passengers died, including 128 Americans. Resentment against Germany grew. As a response, the German government temporarily backed off on unrestricted attacks on Allied shipping.   The status quo held, and Wilson was re-elected on a neutrality platform in 1916. However, in 1917, Germany resumed open attacks on Allied ships in an increased effort to win the war. Then, revelations of a secret German telegraph urging the Mexican government to attack the United States emerged. On April 6, 1917, America declared war.   Within months, the United States was sending massive supplies of material and personnel across the Atlantic Ocean. In early 1918, American troops finally went into battle, helping to turn the tide of the war.   American soldiers celebrate Armistice, by Cassowary Colorizations, 2018. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The German Spring Offensive launched on March 21, 1918. Fresh American forces helped the weary Allies repel the assault and prepare for a counterattack.   The American Expeditionary Force played a key role in the Allied “Hundred Days Offensive” in the autumn of 1918. On September 26, the United States launched the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. In a little over a month, 1.2 million Americans drove the Germans back 40 miles.   The United States was actively involved in post-war talks. President Wilson pushed for a world body to resolve future conflicts as part of the Treaty of Versailles. However, the US Senate refused to ratify the deal, keeping America isolated and out of the new League of Nations.   Italy in World War I: From a Central Power to an Allied Nation Official portrait of King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy in uniform, by Mario Nunes Vais, 1918. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Italy joined the Central Power alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882. The coalition made geographical and political sense, as Italy worried about a potential attack from France in the West. Still, the Italian government decided to remain neutral when World War I broke out, claiming it was not under obligation to provide military assistance for Germany’s offensive military actions.   Despite their alliance, much political friction continued between Italy and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In particular, Italy wanted to annex Italian-speaking populations within the empire. Britain and France promised to support Italian annexation if the Italians joined the Allies. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary.   Italian troops firing on Austro-Hungarian positions, photograph by an Italian Army photographer. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Numerous actions occurred, but three major campaigns dominated the Italian Front. The Battle of the Isonzo was one of twelve smaller skirmishes from 1915 to 1917. Italy initiated most of the attacks but made little progress against Austro-Hungarian defenders in the mountainous and watery terrain.   The final campaign in the Battle of the Isonzo became known as the Battle of Caporetto. By the fall of 1917, both sides were exhausted. However, Germany sent troops to reinforce the Austro-Hungarian line. Poisonous gas attacks caused the Italian forces to retreat more than 90 miles with heavy losses. Overextended supply lines ended the offensive after several weeks.   Italy launched a new offensive in October 1918, known as the Battle of Vittorio Veneto. It was a decisive victory. Troops pushed the Central Powers out of Italian territory and into Austria-Hungary. The fighting continued as the empire collapsed, leading to an Austrian surrender on November 3.   Italy incorporated some of the territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, many Italians, especially nationalists, felt they should have taken more land after the long war. The idea that WWI led to a “mutilated victory” was one of the factors leading to the rise of nationalism and fascism in the 1920s.   Other nations besides the major powers listed were involved in the Great War. Bulgaria fought with the Central Powers. Dozens of countries and dominions fought on the Allied side. Japan battled German outposts in the Pacific region. The colonies of Britain and France sacrificed their populations in the Allied war effort, many hoping their struggles would lead them to independence.  

  The Republic of Venice was once a powerful maritime state spreading across the Mediterranean and Balkan peninsula with multiple Mediterranean islands. Venetian merchants and sailors traveled across the Mediterranean Sea, selling luxurious goods and establishing Venetian influence. Throughout its millennia-old history, the Venetian political system evolved with the republic and played a crucial role in the republic’s prosperity. Read on to understand the political structure of La Serenissima, one of the biggest economic powerhouses of the medieval and early modern period.   The Doge Portrait of the Doge Francesco Foscari by Lazzaro Bastiani, c. 1460. Source: Museo Civico Correr, Venice   One of the most prominent parts of the republic’s political structure was the office of the Doge. The Doge was the official representative and the leader of the Republic for over one millennium. We can trace the title to the Latin word dux, which means “the leader.” According to historical sources, the first Doge was Lucio Anafesto, when the office and title were ingrained. It was established to represent and lead Venetian people in pursuing autonomy from the Byzantine Empire.   The Venetian leader had to be elected from one of the aristocratic merchant families. The Great Council of Venice was responsible for the Doge’s election to prevent a single aristocratic house from gaining too much power in the republic. The Doge had many roles in the political life of Venice and famously resided in the Doge’s Palace. He had a significant ceremonial role and wore distinctive attire, including a ceremonial hat and the corno ducale.   The interior of the Sala Maggior Consiglio, The Doge’s Palace, Venice, with patricians voting on a bulletin for the election of new magistrates by Joseph Heintz the Younger, between 1648 and 1650. Source: Bonhams   The Doge had executive powers—he was the naval commander and had broad duties in internal and external affairs. He was essential in establishing economic policies and signing trade treaties, the backbone of the republic’s prosperity. The Doge was an important part of maintaining Venetian influence through diplomacy. However, over time, the powers of the office were limited by other governing bodies like the Great Council or the Council of Ten.   After the Napoleonic invasion in 1797, the office was abolished, and the last Doge was Ludovico Manin. Some of the most prominent Doges were Enrico Dandolo (1192-1205), Pietro Orseolo II (991-1009), and Francesco Foscari (1423-1457).   The Great Council The Final Moments of Doge Marin Faliero on the “del Piombo” Staircase by Francesco Hayez, 1867. Source: Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan   The Great Council of Venice, or Maggior Consiglio, was one of the most important and influential political institutions of the Republic of Venice. Like the office of the Doge, the Great Council was established with the birth of La Serenissima, or the Venetian Republic. Its origins date back to the 8th century, and over the millennium, it adapted according to the political climate. The Great Council was a true aristocratic and oligarchical element of the Venetian political system. Initially, it had 480 members from noble aristocratic families known as patricians. Over the centuries, with economic development, the number of members increased. However, it remained an exclusive political office composed of wealthy and noble merchant families.   The Great Council of Venice had many functions and roles in the republic, the most important being the election of the Doge. The Great Council was responsible for assembling and selecting the electors who would choose the Doge from among the noblemen. The Great Council also held supreme legislative power, making decisions regarding the state, passing laws, and having the final word on important matters like international treaties and declarations of war. The council operated in their special chamber behind closed doors. The members were sworn to secrecy and were protective of their positions.   Just as the Great Council limited the powers of the Doge, other bodies were in place to prevent the abuse of the Great Council’s powers. Their actions were checked by the Council of Ten, a political office tasked with securing the stability of Venice. Over the Republic’s final centuries, the Great Council’s influence was overshadowed by the Council of Ten. The millennium-old existence and political activity of the Great Council ended with the fall of the Venetian Republic in 1797.   The Council of Ten The Bacino di San Marco on Ascension Day by Canaletto, c. 1733-1734. Source: Royal Collection Trust, London   The Council of Ten, or Consiglio dei Dieci, was one of the prominent political institutions within the Republic of Venice. It didn’t have a millennia-old legacy like the office of the Doge or the Great Council; however, its powers were as great as they got. Established in 1310, the Council swiftly became one of the most influential bodies despite its relatively recent inception. Primarily tasked with uncovering conspiracies and plots against the republic, the Council operated secretly.   Comprising ten Venetian noblemen whose mandates lasted for one year, the Council wielded legislative, judicial, and executive powers. It operated behind closed doors, and its affairs were closely guarded secrets. In addition to passing laws, the Council oversaw the activities of other political entities and had the authority to prosecute offenders. The Council of Ten supervised the work of the most important institutions, such as the Doge and the Great Council.   Aristocratic families viewed the Council with fear and apprehension, as it functioned like a secret service capable of accusations of treason, corruption, or espionage. Over time, its responsibilities expanded to include law enforcement and the maintenance of public order and safety. Historical sources portray the Council of Ten as both feared and renowned across the Mediterranean Sea and Europe, highlighting its influence beyond the borders of the Republic of Venice.   The decline of the Council unfolded with the decline of Venice itself. The institution of the Council of Ten was abolished with the fall of La Serenissima in the late 18th century.   The Quarantia  The Hall of the Full College in Venice by Pietro Malombra, 1606-1618. Source: Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid   The Quarantia, or the Quarantia Civil Vecchia, was an important political and judicial institution in the Republic of Venice. This significant administrative body was established in the 12th century to regulate and resolve disputes among citizens and all the residents of the Republic. The aim was to create a fair and effective system of civil justice. As the name says, the Quarantia comprised forty noblemen (Quaranta meaning forty in Italian). Members of every essential and high political institution in the Republic were wealthy aristocrats, and the Quarantia was no exception.   The Bucentaur in front of the Doge’s Palace by Canaletto, 1727-1729. Source: Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow   The Quarantia functioned primarily as a judicial body, adjudicating civil matters like contracts, property disagreements, or issues with debts and inheritances. It was also the appeals court; people unhappy with the lower court’s ruling could bring their inquiries to the Quarantia. This would allow them to appeal for a review of their issues. This judicial body also had some administrative functions. Under its responsibilities were matters related to civil law and legal reform.   The Quarantia functioned exactly like a court of law. Disputed parties would present their cases in front of judges, and after hearing both sides and examining the evidence, the judges would deliver their rulings. For the Republic to last as long as the Venetians did, it was necessary to have a trusted and fair judicial system. The esteemed judges of this high court were giving their best to deliver impartial and efficient rulings.   Like the other Venetian institutions, the Quarantia was disbanded with the end of the Republic in 1797.   The Senate  The Audience granted by the Doge of Venice in the College Hall at the Doge’s Palace in Venice by Francesco Guard, c. 1770-1780. Source: Musée du Louvre, Paris   The Senate of Venice, or the Consiglio dei Pregadi, was another vital institution in La Serenissima. Its primary responsibilities included foreign affairs, military matters, administration, and monetary issues. The Senate originates from the 13th century; however, according to some historical works, its origins can be traced to the Consilium Sapientium, or the Council of Wise Men. The Senate of the Venetian Republic had approximately 300 members, all high-ranking officials and Venetian noblemen.   The Senate had many functions and powers: legislative authority, foreign policy, and economic and financial matters, for example. The senators drafted and proposed laws regarding legislative issues and brought them up to the Great Council to be considered. The Senate played a significant role in the Venetian diplomacy and diplomatic missions of the Republic’s ambassadors. By educating skilled diplomatic missionaries, the Senate had a huge role in the economic and naval endeavors of the Republic. Through their work and influence, senators participated in the most important parts of Venetian prosperity: trade, military, and finances.   The Senate was a proactive institution; senators regularly met, often daily. The sessions were held behind closed doors, and a majority vote was used to make decisions. One of the most critical parts of the Venetian political system was that institutions were working and overseeing each other; that would prevent one institution from becoming too powerful. Because of this, the Senate usually worked alongside the Great Council or the Council of Ten.   The Senate of the Republic of Venice remained one of the most influential political institutions until the end of the Republic in the late 18th century.   Minor Councils, Administrative Divisions, & Local Governance Procession in St. Mark’s Square by Gentile Bellini, 1490s. Source: Galleria dell’Accademia, Venice   In addition to the major political bodies and institutions previously mentioned, smaller parts of the political system of the Republic of Venice were equally important for everything to run smoothly.   As every political head of state, the Doge needed advisers and counselors. The Doge had six counselors, each representing one of the six districts of Venice. They were Venetian noblemen and often people of trust and provided the Doge with advice, information, and insights. They would regularly represent the Doge as ambassadors and envoys.   With his six counselors and several magistrates from other political institutions, the Doge formed an executive committee known as the Colegio, or the Minor Council. The Colegio became an official political institution in the 13th century. It oversaw the work of other institutions, went through pressing matters, and was heavily involved in financial, economic, military, and diplomatic affairs.   Another important political institution in the Republic of Venice was the Signoria. The Venetian Signoria was established in the 13th century to ensure the stability and security of the republic. It comprised the Doge, the Minor Council, three representatives from the Quarantia, and occasionally the Council of Ten. The Signoria was an executive political institution with legislative, judicial, diplomatic, and administrative functions. It oversaw and was a part of almost every important matter in the republic.   For the Republic of Venice to manage its vast maritime empire, it was necessary to establish local governance. Venetians did this by appointing local governors, or podestà. Local governors did exercise a degree of autonomy; however, they were still accountable to Venice on important issues like taxation or economic policies.   Venice’s Political System: Pragmatic & Practical The Entrance to the Grand Canal, Venice by Canaletto, c. 1730. Source: The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston   The political system of Venice was complex and unique. It was built to last, and it adapted to different political climates over one millennium. By combining elements of three very different forms of government, Venitans successfully managed their vast maritime empire. The Doge was a monarchistic element; however, his powers were limited by other political institutions. The Minor Council and the Council of Ten added oligarchic elements to Venice’s political system; however, their power and influence were limited by the Great Council and other political institutions. The Great Council and the election of the Doge added democratic elements to the system; however, the selection was limited to the aristocratic social class of the republic.   Every political institution and legislative body in the Republic of Venice had one common goal: for the republic to flourish and become the most powerful economic force in the world. Their policies and laws were highly oriented toward economy, commerce, and manufacturing. Because of wise diplomatic endeavors and investments, La Serenissima had the most skilled sailors, captains, and admirals. Their ships were carrying precious cargo across the Mediterranean Sea and beyond. The republic would import valuable textiles, resources, and spices, which would later be sold to other states and courts.   The Republic of Venice and its political system were a true symbol of the Italian Renaissance. Decisions were made in Machiavellian style, pragmatic and emotionless. Ceremonies, rituals, and elections were glorious, captivating, and full of glamorous attire. The goal was to show the prosperity and wealth of the Republic and the strength and stability of its political institutions.   Further Reading   Hazlitt, W. C. (1900). The Venetian Republic: Its rise, its growth, and its fall 421-1797 (Vols. 1-2). Adam and Charles Black.   Jackson, T. G. (1905). Venice and its story. E.P. Dutton and Company.   Lane, F. C. (1973). Venice: A maritime republic. The Johns Hopkins University Press.   Norwich, J. J. (1982). A history of Venice. Alfred A. Knopf.

  In the mid-14th century, Catherine of Siena became one of the most influential holy women in the Roman Catholic Church, gaining an extensive following due to her asceticism and charitable work. Born when the papacy underwent considerable challenges, Catherine of Siena was also active in the political landscape, calling for religious reforms and lobbying for support for Pope Urban VI among the European elite. After her early death, Catherine of Siena’s mysticism and faith continued to influence believers through her doctrinal treaty and extensive collection of letters. Here are 9 facts about this Catholic saint:   1. Catherine of Siena Had 24 Siblings (and She Was a Twin) The house in Siena where Catherine was born in 1347, now the Shrine of the House of Saint Catherine. Source: Santa Caterina   Born Caterina di Benincasa on March 25, 1347, Catherine of Siena was either the 23rd, 24th, or 25th (historical accounts vary) child of Jacopo di Benincasa, a dyer, and Lapa Piagenti, the daughter of a Sienese poet. Most of her siblings, however, tragically did not survive to adulthood. In the years immediately following her birth, the outbreak of a pandemic known as the Black Death (probably caused by ​​Yersinia pestis, the bacterium causing plague) ravaged Tuscany, the Italian region where Siena is located, causing widespread death, especially in the densely populated towns.   Catherine’s twin sister, named Giovanna, died shortly after being given to a wet nurse, a common practice at the time. When Catherine was two years old, her parents had another daughter.   According to her confessor and biographer, Raymond of Capua (Raimondo delle Vigne), the Master General of the Dominican Order beatified in 1899, Catherine was a happy child whose cheerful attitude earned her the nickname Euphrosyne, meaning “joy” or “satisfaction.”   In his Life of Saint Catherine of Siena, Raymond reports the young Catherine, already deeply religious, had her first vision of Jesus Christ when she was around six years old. According to Raymond, Catherine saw Christ surrounded by the Apostles Peter, Paul, and John while walking home with one of her brothers after paying a visit to a married sister, Bonaventura. The vision inspired Catherine to pursue a religious life.   2. She Experienced a Mystical Marriage With Jesus The Mystical Marriage of Saint Catherine of Siena, by Giovanni di Paolo, c. 1460. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City   While Catherine vowed to dedicate her life to Jesus, her mother still hoped to persuade her daughter to find a husband and marry. Young Catherine initially yielded to Lapa’s pressure to take more care of her appearance, however, she later made her intention to remain a virgin clear by cutting her hair. Her father then allowed her to use a room in the family house to pray and meditate.   In the following years, Catherine spent most of her time in isolation in her room, praying and fasting. Then, around 1368, she experienced a mystical marriage with Jesus Christ. According to her biographer’s account, around the Carnival season, Jesus appeared to Catherine while she was praying in her room and said to the young woman, “Because thou have shunned the vanities of the world and forbidden pleasure, and have fixed on me alone all the desires of thy heart, I intend, while thy family are rejoicing in profane feasts and festivals, to celebrate the wedding which is to unite me to thy soul. I am going, according to my promise to espouse thee in Faith.”   The Ecstasy of Saint Catherine of Siena, by Agostino Carracci, 1590. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Galleria Borghese, Rome   In a letter to Sister Bartolomea Della Seta, Catherine herself recounted her mystical wedding, remarking, “Well seest thou that thou art a bride, and that He has wedded thee and every creature, not with a ring of silver, but with the ring of His Flesh.” The wedding ring was only visible to Catherine.   Known as “spiritual espousals,” the mystical marriages appear in several lives of the Catholic saints. Indeed, in the Old and New Testaments, the link between God and his chosen people is often described as a relationship between a bride and a groom. Celebrated in a ceremony attended by Mary, various saints, and angels, the marriages symbolize a deeper connection with Jesus Christ and his sufferings and inspire the chosen person to become more charitable.   After her vision, Catherine of Siena became more active in her community, tending to the sick in the Hospital of Santa Maria della Scala.   3. She Received the Stigmata Saint Catherine of Siena receiving the stigmata between Saints Benedict and Jerome, by Domenico Beccafumi, 1515. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Pinacoteca Nazionale, Siena   In 1375, Catherine of Siena experienced another pivotal religious ecstasy. According to Raymond of Capua, Catherine confided to him that, during a stay in Pisa to persuade the town’s government not to join the anti-papal league, she saw “my crucified Saviour who descended upon me with a great light; the effort of my soul to go forth to meet its Creator, forced my body to arise. Then from the five openings of the sacred wounds of our Lord, I saw directed upon me bloody rays which struck my hands, my feet and my heart.”   Visible only to herself, Catherine of Siena’s stigmata was officially recognized as valid by Pope Urban VIII in 1623. In Christian mysticism, the stigmata refers to the wound marks corresponding to those inflicted on Jesus Christ by the crucifixion. Often received during religious ecstasies, these alleged miraculous marks may be temporary or permanent and symbolize a special union with Jesus Christ’s suffering. Saint Francis of Assisi was famously the first one to allegedly receive the stigmata.   Today, the wooden crucifix from which Saint Catherine received the stigmata is located in the Church of the Crucifix, a Baroque-style place of worship built in the Shrine of the House of Saint Catherine in Siena.   4. Catherine of Siena Was an Ascetic The room where Catherine of Siena prayed and meditated. Source: Santa Caterina   Throughout her life, Catherine of Siena followed a rigid asceticism. In particular, she was used to fasting frequently to achieve a more complete spiritual union with Jesus Christ. “Knowing as I do that no other food can please or satisfy the soul, I am saying we must walk along the way, and he is the way. What was his food? It was what he ate along this way: pain, disgrace, torment, abuse, and in the end the shameful death of the cross. So we must eat this same food,” she declared in a 1376 letter to Frate Niccolò da Montalcino.   Originating from the Greek askeō, meaning “to exercise” or “training,” asceticism originally referred to abstaining from various pleasures to achieve an ideal level of bodily fitness. In many religions, including Christianity, the term asceticism is linked to the belief that living a simpler life, devoid of physical or psychological desires, preserves a person’s spirituality.   5. She Was a Political Activist View of the Palais de Papes (Palace of the Popes) in Avignon, by Jean-Marc Rosier, 2008. Source: http://www.rosier.pro via Wikimedia Commons   As her following grew, Catherine of Siena began to play an active role in the Papal States’ affairs. In 1309, Pope Clement V moved the papal capital from Rome to Avignon, a town in southeastern France, inaugurating the period known as the Avignon Papacy.   In 1376, Catherine of Siena visited Pope Gregory XI in Avignon, where she sought to negotiate peace in the conflict known as the War of the Eight Saints between the pope and an anti-papal league headed by Florence and lobby for a crusade. While her calls for peace and a crusade did not bear the results she hoped for, Catherine of Siena was more successful in urging Gregory XI to return to Rome, believing that restoring the former papal capital may put an end to the hostilities in the Italian peninsula. Gregory XI finally agreed to leave Avignon the following year.   However, the end of the Avignon Papacy did not benefit the papacy, nor did it bring peace across the peninsula. Following the election of the Bishop of Bari as Pope Urban VI, a group of cardinals in Agnani elected a rival pope (Clement VIII), who, after failing to challenge Urban VI’s legitimacy, relocated to Avignon. It was the beginning of the so-called Great Western Schism, a period when several antipopes vied for power with disastrous results for the papacy’s prestige and political stability in Italy.   During these turbulent years, Catherine of Siena traveled across Tuscany to persuade various local governments not to join anti-papal leagues while urging Urban VI to unite the Catholic Church.   6. She Was Not a Nun The Basilica of Saint Dominic in Siena, photograph by Luca Aless, 2013. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Catherine of Siena led a deeply religious life, she never became a nun. Instead, she opted to join the Dominican Third Order in Siena, an organization that allowed lay men and women to follow their religious vocation without living in a convent.   In Siena, the tertiaries of the Dominican Order were commonly known as Mantellate (cloaked) after the distinctive cloak they wore above their clothes. As a mantellata, Catherine began gaining widespread attention because of her charity work (especially following her Mystical Marriage) and rigorous lifestyle. Among her growing number of followers were both secular people and members of the clergy.   Around 1370, Catherine began corresponding with several of her disciples, offering advice and encouragement on how to achieve their spiritual goals. Though she had probably already learned to read, she dictated most of her letters.   7. She Died of Starvation Tomb of Saint Catherine of Siena in the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, photograph by Labicanense, 2023. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the last years of her life, Catherine of Siena’s long-term fasting practice led to a decline in her health. Like other ascetics, Catherine saw fasting as a means to cleanse her body and soul from sins and share Jesus Christ’s sufferings. “In our sufferings we will experience eternal life even in this life. Though we are in pain we will not suffer. Rather, suffering will be refreshing for us when we consider that suffering can make us like Christ crucified in his disgrace,” she declared in one of her letters.   The extreme fasting eventually depleted Catherine’s body. She died in Rome on April 29, 1380, at the age of 33. Her body is buried at the Basilica of Santa Maria sopra Minerva in the Italian capital. Her thumb and mummified head, however, are revered as relics in the church of St. Dominic in Siena, her hometown in Tuscany. A relic of her foot is in the Basilica of Saints John and Paul in Venice. 8. She Is One of Only Four Women Named Doctors of the Church A page from The Dialogue of Divine Providence, c. 1475. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Biblioteca Europea di Informazione e Cultura, Milan   In 1970, Saint Catherine of Siena became one of the 37 Doctors of the Church, a title only three other women received: St. Teresa of Ávila, St. Thérèse of Lisieux, and St. Hildegard of Bingen. To this day, Catherine of Siena is the only laywoman ever named a Doctor of the Catholic Church.   In the Roman Catholic Church’s theological system, the title of Doctor of the Church is given to saints whose writings are thought to be of particular importance in Catholic Catechism. Before her death, Saint Catherine of Siena recorded her theological doctrine in Il libro della divina dottrina (translated into English around 1475 with the title The Dialogue of Divine Providence).   A combination of four treaties (Of Divine Providence, Of Discretion, Of Prayer, Of Obedience), The Dialogue is a detailed record of the saint’s ecstatic experiences and mysticism written in the form of a series of dialogues between God and Catherine of Siena’s soul. In giving readers direction on how to achieve a deeper connection with God, Catherine often refers to Jesus Christ as a “bridge” between God and the souls of the believers. Indeed, her theology revolves around the figure of Jesus Christ, whom Catherine describes as the symbol of divine love.   Influenced by the works of Saint Augustine and Saint Bernard and written in the Tuscan vernacular of the 14th century, The Dialogue would, in turn, influence early Italian literature. Besides her doctrinal treaty, Catherine of Siena left behind 26 prayers and more than 380 letters. Among her correspondents were influential figures of 14th-century Europe, such as the kings of France and Hungary, the queen of Naples, various members of the Visconti family from Milan, and popes Gregory XI and Urban VI.   9. Catherine of Siena Is a Co-Patron of Italy and Europe Saint Catherine of Siena, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, c. 1746. Source: Wikimedia Commons / Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna   Canonized in 1461, Saint Catherine of Siena became chief co-patron of Italy in June 1939, sharing the title with Saint Francis of Assisi. Citing the troubling times Italy and Europe were facing (Nazi Germany would invade Poland in September, starting World War II), Pius XII expressed his hope that the two saints, who lived during “extraordinarily difficult times,” would inspire believers through their virtuous examples.   In particular, Pius XII remarked that Saint Catherine (described as “the most powerful and pious virgin”) played an instrumental role in ending the papacy’s “exile” in Avignon, thus acting for the “honor and defense of the Fatherland and Religion.”   In 1999, John Paul II proclaimed Catherine of Siena the patron saint of Europe, declaring: “By the assurance of her bearing and the ardour of her words, the young woman of Siena entered into the thick of the ecclesiastical and social issues of her time.”

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