Tobacco is a controversial product. Every year‚ the tobacco industry makes over 600 billion dollars in sales despite monumental efforts to curb its consumption. Over the past few decades‚ smoking tobacco has gone from being seen as a benign pastime to a life-threatening and addictive habit that harms not just the consumer but those around them.   Needless to say‚ tobacco largely has a negative image today‚ and companies that sell it are often seen as purveyors of death. Of course‚ tobacco didn’t always have this reputation. Before it became an industry‚ tobacco was enjoyed by Native Americans long before Europeans ever knew of its existence.   Tobacco is a contentious subject‚ as is its history.   Pre-Colonial Tobacco A Lakota tobacco pipe and bowl‚ ca. 1865. Source: Adolf Spohr Collection‚ Gift of Larry Sheerin. NA.504.125‚ Buffalo Bill Center of the West   Native Americans have been growing and using tobacco longer than anyone else in the world since it was in North America where the plant originated. Archeological evidence in Mexico suggests the plants may have been cultivated as far back as 1400 BCE‚ and it is likely the plant was used throughout much of the North American continent. Recent archeological finds have pushed the use of tobacco much further back than previously thought. Evidence now suggests the tobacco plant may have been used from around 10‚000 BCE.   What is known for sure is that it was used by the Maya of Central America in the first century BCE. At this point‚ it was being used at least as far north as what is now Mississippi.   Tobacco was also used as a cure for many ailments by various Native American nations. Among the Iroquois‚ it was used to cure earache. The Cherokee used it as a painkiller‚ and in Guatemala‚ it was used as an antiseptic. The proximity of many of the tribes also meant that customs and traditions were shared with several groups of tribes rather than being specific to one. Among the Blackfoot and the Crow‚ tobacco was so important that it was the only crop cultivated.   It was also developed into medicine and was used to cure a wide range of ailments such as earache‚ stomach ache‚ asthma‚ sore eyes‚ fever‚ depression‚ burns‚ and insect bites.   By the time Christopher Columbus arrived in the New World‚ Native Americans were using tobacco in different forms. They smoked it in cigars‚ through pipes‚ and used it as snuff.   Tobacco and Colonization Thomas Cavendish (1560-92)‚ Sir Francis Drake (1540-96) and Sir John Hawkins (1532-95). Source: Royal Museums Greenwich   After the arrival of Europeans‚ the societal landscape of the Americas changed forever. Creating industry was of utmost importance‚ allowing the colonies to be financially self-sufficient. In the first years of contact between Europeans and Native Americans‚ tobacco formed a valuable form of currency between the two groups.   In the first half of the 16th century‚ people in Europe were introduced to tobacco‚ and a substantial demand developed‚ first in the Iberian peninsula and then slowly northwards and westwards. Frenchman Jean Nicot is credited with having introduced tobacco to the French royal court.   Manufacture Nationale des Tabacs. Source: La Friche   As in the Americas‚ people were not yet aware of the dangers of tobacco. The plant was considered for its medicinal properties. Many doctors wrote about it in medical treatises‚ but tobacco smoking was not completely without suspicion.   Some found it a distasteful habit that produced a foul smell. One of the detractors was King James I of England (who was also James VI of Scotland)‚ who summed up his feelings by noting that the habit smelled awful‚ was harmful to the lungs and the brain‚ and conjured smoke as would be found in Hell. Pope Urban VIII was also not a fan. He threatened excommunication for anyone found smoking in church; however‚ the Catholic Church did not ban tobacco outright.   Tobacco was introduced into England around 1573 by naval administrator and slave trader John Hawkins. Like in other parts of Europe where it had been introduced‚ it was an immediate success. Not only was it revered for its supposed medicinal properties‚ but it was thoroughly enjoyed for its narcotic effect.   An Ottoman nobleman stands smoking a long-stemmed pipe by D. Lynch. Source: Wellcome Collection   In Russia‚ the Patriarch of the Orthodox Church condemned smoking as a mortal sin‚ and in 1634‚ under the rule of Tsar Michael‚ smoking tobacco and using snuff were banned for everyone‚ with the exception of foreigners in Moscow. Those found guilty were threatened with whipping‚ nose-slitting‚ and‚ in extreme cases‚ the death penalty. The law‚ however‚ was not enforced with any vigor. Half a century later‚ it was repealed by Tsar Peter I.   Similarly‚ smoking was banned in the Ottoman Empire in 1633 by Sultan Murad IV. His successor‚ Ibrahim the Mad‚ lifted the ban‚ which allowed smoking tobacco to be taxed. Despite the tax‚ smoking became widespread and was adopted throughout the empire‚ being a pastime enjoyed by both men and women.   Colonial enterprises around the world resulted in the spread of tobacco to all parts of the world. It was introduced to Japan by the Portuguese in 1542 and to Australia in the early 1700s. Tradesmen and those who traveled took the product far and wide‚ introducing it to grand civilizations all the way down to tiny tribes. For many‚ their first encounter with tobacco was also their first encounter with Europeans. For native Australians‚ it was introduced by Indonesian fishermen before Europeans made serious efforts to colonize the continent.   Tobacco Goes Back to America A tobacco field in Virginia. Source: Creative Commons / Kipp Teague / Flickr   Of all places touched by the tobacco trade‚ it was perhaps the North American colonies and the subsequent United States where it had the most socio-political and economic impact. Tobacco was largely responsible for transforming the southern colonies from a subsistence to an agrarian economy‚ allowing the colonies to become self-sufficient and economically competitive with international rivals. Tobacco became so crucial to the economy that it was even backed by the gold standard.   The first colonist to successfully grow tobacco was John Rolfe‚ who‚ in 1609‚ arrived in Jamestown‚ Virginia during a particularly difficult time for the colonists. They had just lived through a brutal winter and were facing famine. They had also struggled to find any way to support themselves financially‚ and many attempts at creating industries had failed.   The Wedding of Pocahontas With John Rolfe by George Spohni after Anton Hohenstein. Source: Library of Congress   John Rolfe arrived in this struggle and acquired land that would become a farm from Powhatan‚ the local native chief. He had brought tobacco seeds with him from the Caribbean and tried his hand at planting them.   His farm was incredibly successful‚ and it brought him a considerable amount of wealth. John Rolfe also married the daughter of Chief Powhatan‚ Pocahontas‚ and he returned with her to England. Pocahontas sadly died at the age of 20 or 21 from an unknown disease (possibly tuberculosis or pneumonia) and was buried on the banks of the Thames in Gravesend‚ a few miles southeast of London.   John Rolfe returned to the Jamestown colony and continued his efforts in the tobacco industry‚ transforming Jamestown into a significant trade center and exporting large amounts of tobacco to Europe.   Tobacco Plantation by Richard H. Laurie‚ 1821. Source: Creative Commons / Flickr   Tobacco was widely adopted as a cash crop amongst the European settlers‚ and regions where it grew well were prepared for massive plantations. Tobacco was thus one of the foundations for the trans-Atlantic slave trade that brought many Africans in bondage to the American shores.   As the trade grew‚ so did the demand for bigger tobacco farms and the need for a bigger labor pool. For the most part‚ in the early years of the colonies‚ much manual labor was supplied by indentured servants. Far more convenient‚ however‚ were slaves. Thus‚ the slave trade began to boom as hundreds of thousands of Africans were uprooted from their homes a continent away and transported in dismal conditions to work on the tobacco and cotton plantations in North America‚ especially in the South‚ where their population swelled to the millions.   It is estimated that between 1619 and 1865‚ enslaved people in the American colonies contributed approximately 410 billion hours of labor. To say that the American economy was built on the backs of slaves would be an understatement.   Throughout the centuries‚ the tobacco industry continued to grow‚ and it survived the shift in American politics that brought the emancipation of slaves and a bloody civil war. In 1881‚ an inventor named James Bonsack invented a machine that produced individual cigarettes much faster than the hand-rolling method that had been employed until then.   Tobacco in the 20th Century A newspaper article about the Nazi attempt to target smoking and drinking from Twin Falls News. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   At the end of the 19th century‚ there began an effort to warn of the dangers of tobacco smoking‚ but these efforts were restricted to small practices‚ and the warnings never reached any level to significantly impact the public. Smoking continued to be profitable as more and more people took up the habit.   Throughout the first half of the 20th century‚ smoking became immensely popular with women as well as men. Marketing campaigns began targeting both demographics.   It was only in Nazi Germany that a serious effort was made to curb smoking‚ and the first government-issued anti-smoking campaign was launched‚ creating ideas such as “sin tax” and banning smoking in many places. This was an immense irony given the widespread acceptance of other drugs in Nazi Germany.   A warning label. Source: Wikimedia Commons‚ via Smithsonian Magazine   In the years following the war‚ studies would be conducted in the United Kingdom and the United States. In 1948‚ a study by doctors in the UK found that there was a direct correlation between smoking and lung cancer‚ and in the 1960s‚ doctors in the US showed that there was a link between smoking and other forms of cancer as well.   Since then‚ public efforts to curb the use of tobacco products have gained momentum. Advertising has been pulled from many media‚ and warning labels on tobacco products are required in many countries.   While some countries have been slow to adopt anti-smoking measures‚ it seems clear that on a global scale‚ the use of tobacco is declining. Today‚ there are 1.3 billion tobacco users compared with 1.32 billion in 2015. By 2025‚ this figure is expected to drop to 1.25 billion. While these differences may not seem like much‚ when one factors in the growth of the human population‚ it becomes more significant.   Vintage Joe Camel advertisement. Source: eBay   Tobacco was a huge driving force in world trade for many centuries. Like many other plants from the New World‚ it existed in relative obscurity until the age of colonization introduced it to the entire world. Unlike many other products from the New World‚ such as potatoes‚ tomatoes‚ avocados‚ chilies‚ peppers‚ corn‚ and many other foods‚ the days of tobacco use may be numbered.

  Spanish Influenza was a widespread pandemic from 1918 to 1919. The highly infectious and fatal virus took millions of lives across the globe. Its death toll was enhanced by modern transportation but mitigated by modern medicine. Also known as the Spanish Flu‚ responses to this outbreak drew on centuries of public health measures. Analyzing its impacts unearths an infectious question: Was Spanish Influenza the first “modern” or “global” pandemic&;#63;   Overview and Virology of Spanish Influenza Electron micrograph of a recreated 1918 influenza virus‚ photographed by Cynthia Goldsmith‚ 2005. Source: Public Health Image Library‚ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention   Over the course of two years‚ Spanish Influenza infected roughly 500 million people‚ one-third of the global population. Death toll estimates vary from twenty-one to one hundred million‚ with modern scholarship proposing a total greater than fifty million. At the time‚ many people lived in densely populated‚ unclean environments‚ especially the militaries fighting the First World War. Doctors often accompanied the armies‚ creating shortages of medical professionals on the homefront.   Spanish Flu was caused by a type A form of the H1N1 virus. Influenza types A and B cause annual flu epidemics‚ but type A is the only variety to spur global contagions. Flu viruses undergo frequent mutations‚ which are slight enough that immunity from past infections will provide protection. But roughly every forty years‚ a significant change in the virus’s makeup ignites a pandemic. Major influenza outbreaks have occurred since at least 1500‚ perhaps much earlier.   Aquatic birds are carriers of influenza A viruses and may be the source of their presence in humans. Spanish Flu is theorized to have begun in birds before transmitting to mammals. This could have occurred through mutation or from pigs. Pig cells have receptors vulnerable to both bird and human flu viruses. Respiratory disease in American pig herds coincided with Spanish Influenza but could just as likely have been passed to pigs by humans.   Where Did Spanish Influenza Come From&;#63; Spanish Flu advertisement for Minard’s Liniment‚ by Minard’s Liniment Co.‚ ca. 1918. Source: Nova Scotia Museum‚ Halifax   Spain was neutral during World War I and did not have strict controls on its press as wartime nations did. These belligerent countries suppressed reports of the outbreak‚ not wishing to alert their adversaries to their losses. Spanish publications documented cases freely‚ so other countries called the disease Spanish Influenza‚ or Spanish Flu.   There are several theories on the origin point of Spanish Influenza. The speed of transmission pushed the limits of contemporary transit to the extent that some suggest the virus arose as early as 1916‚ spreading quietly and gradually. Outbreaks at two British Army camps in France in 1916 and 1917 exhibited comparable symptoms and rates of infection and death. Influenza outbreaks in China in early 1918 have also been proposed as the source.   The United States had one of the first recorded cases at Fort Riley‚ Kansas on March 11‚ 1918. Unlike suggestions of an earlier patient zero‚ transmission can be traced from this individual across the globe. The cramped nature of the military outpost caused the disease to spread rapidly. In a short time‚ additional cases struck military personnel on both coasts. Initially‚ the American public had little exposure to the virus‚ and the military largely ignored its spread‚ which was overshadowed by the war effort. Spanish Influenza fizzled out in the United States in May 1918‚ but by August‚ it returned after planting its roots virtually everywhere else.   Spanish Flu Spreads Around the World Map showing the worldwide transmission of Spanish Flu. Source: Institute for Public Health‚ Washington University in St. Louis   Spanish Influenza killed 100‚000 soldiers‚ but whether it affected the outcome of the war is debatable. Naval blockades and unrestricted submarine warfare threatened and substantially reduced commercial shipping and oceanic travel during the conflict. The end of the war brought a hasty return of troops‚ often welcomed back to their homes with celebratory events.   Mechanized transportation and the growing interconnectedness of the world allowed the virus to traverse rapidly across great distances. The flu struck India and North Africa by May‚ China by June‚ and Australia by July. A second‚ more fatal wave of the virus began in August‚ transmitting to the rest of Africa‚ Central and South America‚ and Europe. In December‚ countries began to recover and loosen restrictions before a third wave hit‚ ending for most in May 1919 and dissipating almost completely in 1920.   The Victims and Symptoms of Infection Plate 2‚ The clinical features of the influenza pandemic of 1918-19 by Herbert French‚ 1920. Source: University of Missouri Special Collections and Archives‚ Columbia   With most flu viruses‚ young children and the elderly are the most susceptible‚ but Spanish Flu was also extremely dangerous to healthy adults. In a reversal of course from every other influenza virus‚ half of all fatalities were from those aged 20-40‚ and 99% of victims were less than sixty-five years old. The death rate of 2.5% far exceeded the 0.1% of most influenza viruses.   Symptoms included a high fever‚ fatigue‚ dry cough‚ aches‚ and chills. Red spots formed on the cheeks before a blue hue took over one’s face from lack of oxygen. The disease ravaged the patient’s respiratory tract within hours. In time‚ the lungs filled with fluid‚ in which victims drowned. It was not uncommon for victims to perish the same day symptoms appeared. Complications such as pneumonia often killed patients if the virus did not claim their lives first.   Medical Treatments Were Largely Ineffective State Gymnasium serving as a temporary hospital for soldiers ill with the Spanish influenza‚ 1918. Source: Iowa State University Special Collections   Medicine in 1918 was closer to modern practices than to the pre-industrial era. Notions of health‚ sanitation‚ and disease prevention were relatively adequate. However‚ no viral test could detect the Spanish Flu‚ and there were no effective medicines to treat infection. Medical professionals used technology such as X-rays and basic diagnostic methods to identify infection.   Drug manufacturers attempted to create a vaccine but were far off from a successful product. The first step‚ isolating the virus‚ may have been completed by scientists in Japan and Tunisia‚ but they could not preserve the specimen. Blood transfusions from recovering patients showed promise in treating the illness and saw experimental administration in flu epidemics since‚ although their effectiveness is unclear.   Easing symptoms proved to be the most reliable and accessible means of treatment. Nurses‚ mostly women with little to no previous experience‚ provided active care in medical facilities and in the community. The nursing profession expanded during the First World War‚ and their continued service for the pandemic proved essential.   What Was Done to Stop the Flu&;#63; Policemen in Seattle wearing masks made by the Red Cross‚ during the influenza epidemic‚ December 1918. Source: National Archives   Governments mobilized to initiate measures aimed at mitigating the spread of the virus and its effects. Responses varied at the national‚ regional‚ and local levels. Municipalities prohibited public functions‚ sometimes even extending the bans to schools and churches. Law enforcement officers were empowered to fine people for spitting or to arrest people for sneezing or coughing outside.   Public health organizations issued guidance and dictated policy. War news and propaganda made citizens accustomed to reading informational posters and newspapers. The Red Cross campaigned for every person to wear a mask in public. Individuals donned face coverings of varying styles and efficacy to guard against airborne contagion‚ although many resisted recommendations and mandates.   Comparable Pandemics of Pre-Modern Times The plague of Florence in 1348‚ as described in Boccaccio’s Decameron by Luigi Sabatelli. Source: Wellcome Collection   The Plague of Justinian spread across trading routes as far as Western Europe‚ Britain‚ Africa‚ and Central Asia from 541 to 590. Estimates state it wiped out 40% of the Byzantine Empire’s population‚ or 25 to 100 million worldwide. Citizens of Constantinople ran out of room to bury bodies‚ so they placed the dead in guard towers‚ covering corpses in quicklime to hasten decay.   The Black Death‚ the most notorious historical pandemic‚ claimed 100 to 150 million lives. The plague originated in China in 1334‚ traveling along the Silk Road to reach Europe by 1347. By 1352‚ it spread to Russia and the Middle East. Those fearing the Bubonic Plague practiced self-quarantine and avoided public gatherings‚ as no treatments were effective against the contagion. The Black Death affected localities differently‚ sometimes sparing sparsely settled agrarian regions while killing fifty to sixty percent of a city’s population. Ports barred entry to ships‚ and militaries closed off roadways. Despite the high death tolls‚ the absence of contact with the Western Hemisphere bars them from being considered global pandemics.   Was it the First Modern Global Pandemic&;#63; Model – Cholera‚ Vibrio Cholerae (Spirillaceae) photographed by Rodney Start. Source: Museums Victoria‚ Melbourne   An influenza pandemic in 1557 spread across Asia‚ turning west to Constantinople and Europe. Its presence may have been recorded in Central America‚ presumably ferried aboard Spanish ships. The flu ravaged the entirety of Spain almost simultaneously‚ making transmission plausible‚ but documentation of its presence in Spain’s colonies is lacking. Another outbreak in 1580 is more widely accepted to have spread across the entire known world. Slow transportation methods still hindered the transmission of these influenza contagions.   Cholera is a bacterial illness that inhabits the digestive system‚ contributing to an expulsion of fluids that causes dehydration and death. Seven distinct cholera pandemics have transpired since 1817. The disease spread first from India to neighboring regions‚ then to other continents and the Americas. As with the Black Death‚ official quarantines were imposed upon visitors from areas with known cholera infections.   Love Field‚ Dallas‚ Texas. Preventative treatment against influenza‚ spraying the throat by US War Department‚ 1918. Source: National Archives   The seventh iteration continues today in the Pacific‚ Caribbean‚ Middle East‚ and Africa. Cholera receives comparatively less attention than other infectious diseases‚ although it continues to take 21‚000 to 143‚000 lives each year. The bacteria cannot be eliminated because they thrive in water sources‚ but illness can be prevented with access to clean water and sanitation. As the first outbreak to spread to every inhabited continent in recent history‚ it is fair to call cholera the first modern global pandemic.   Spanish Influenza’s Decline &; Lasting Effects Cartoon in the Wichita Daily Eagle‚ October 11‚ 1918. Source: Newton Public Library   Worldwide populations that were still reeling from history’s deadliest war to that point were punished by history’s second deadliest pandemic. Most communities experienced the illness as a time of rapid death and panic‚ which mercifully ended within a short time. The Great War contributed to developments in transportation and mobilization‚ which spread the disease‚ as well as media and medicine‚ by which officials could attempt to contain and treat it.   Death rates dropped dramatically throughout the next decade as people gained immunity from past infections. The H1N1 family continued to circulate until 1957‚ when it was replaced by H2N2‚ reemerging in 1977 and continuing to the present. Spanish Influenza may not be the first global or the first modern pandemic‚ but it served as a period of coordinated action across society that continues to mold public health and pandemic response to this day.

  When one thinks of plants that have been vital to the progress of civilization‚ one generally thinks of those that can be consumed as food‚ drink‚ or even smoked. There was (and still is) one plant‚ however‚ that has had a massive impact on human civilization – an impact so powerful that it revolutionized the world‚ almost literally.   That plant is cotton. And it was responsible for kickstarting the Industrial Revolution. Moreover‚ cotton has been in use for many thousands of years‚ but it was only 300 years ago that it changed the world forever.   The Ancient History of Cotton The Kingdom of Kush in Africa was a major center for cotton production in ancient times. Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica   Various species of the cotton plant are native to tropical and subtropical regions across the globe. Where and when cotton was first woven into fabric is debatable‚ as it was an activity that arose in many parts of the world and was practiced by people and cultures wholly unconnected with one another.   Cotton is also a substance that does not preserve well except in dry‚ arid regions where there is little of the moisture required to degrade the fabric.   The oldest cotton fabric found comes from Huaca Prieta in Peru and is estimated to be from around 6000 BCE. Unprocessed cotton has also been found in a cave in Mexico‚ dating to around 5500 BCE. Although the cotton bolls are in the raw form‚ their presence in the cave suggests they were intended for further processing.   In Eastern Africa‚ evidence suggested cotton was being cultivated and processed by around 5000 BCE. In the ancient era‚ the city of Mero&;euml; in the Kingdom of Kush became extremely wealthy for the quality and quantity of the cotton it produced. Reaching its height around 400 BCE and lasting until the 4th century CE‚ the massive cotton industry was greatly reduced by the conquests by the Aksumite king Ezana‚ who destroyed the cotton plantations of Mero&;euml;.   Medieval Indian cotton fabric excavated in Egypt in 1980. Source: TRC-Leiden   Meanwhile‚ on the Indian subcontinent‚ cotton was also being produced around 5000 BCE. The earliest evidence from this time comes from the Neolithic archeological site of Mehrgahr‚ which represents one of the oldest cities built. By 3000 BCE‚ cotton was being cultivated and refined en masse‚ forming a vital industry for the Indus Valley civilizations.   In Europe‚ cotton seems to have been completely unknown for millennia. The first mention in any European record is by Herodotus‚ who wrote of cotton being a wool-like fabric from the East. Greeks first started using cotton in the 4th century BCE during the conquests of Alexander the Great. Their contact with the Indian subcontinent introduced them to cotton‚ which they began wearing instead of heavier and hotter woolen garments.   Cotton in the Middle Ages Cotton bobbins. Source: Library of Congress   In India‚ cotton remained a primary industry‚ and developments were made in line with expanding cotton production. From the 6th century CE‚ hand-cranked cotton gins were being used to massively increase the speed at which cotton could be spun. One hundred years later‚ cotton began being produced in quantity in Egypt‚ a country that is still famous for the quality of its cotton.   Improvements in the gin roller started appearing over the centuries‚ and cotton production spread to other parts of Asia from India‚ with China being a particularly significant producer.   Cotton was introduced to Europe by Muslims during their conquests in the Western Mediterranean. For much of the Middle Ages‚ cotton was hand-woven on the loom. It was a time-consuming enterprise‚ but the fabric became a popular alternative to wool and linen‚ which had existed as industries long before the introduction of cotton.   The small cotton industries were generally located in southern Europe‚ where the climate was more agreeable to growing cotton. For Northern Europe‚ wool remained the most popular fabric by far.   Cotton. Source: Public domain / Rawpixel   By the late Medieval Era‚ cotton had become a popular fabric in Europe and was more readily available since the introduction of the spinning wheel in 1350. Improvements in trade routes and production meant the industry could move north. Venice‚ Antwerp‚ and Haarlem became notable centers for cotton production.   England was the wool center of Europe‚ and the product accounted for the vast majority of the English economy. Cotton and linen were seen as dangerous competitors‚ so it would be an ironic twist of fate that England would be the hub of world cotton production in the coming centuries…   The Renaissance &; the Age of Colonialism A Mughal-style cotton panel from the mid-18th century. Source: Roseberys‚ London   For the Old World‚ India remained the biggest center of production during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period. When the spinning wheel arrived in India during this time‚ production increased even more. Inventions that made processing the material drove prices down and increased demand‚ as cotton was now available at more affordable prices.   Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama had been searching for a sea route to the Indian Ocean‚ and in 1524‚ he opened a route between India and Portugal. His efforts brought huge quantities of textiles to Europe‚ as ships could carry far bigger cargo than trade caravans‚ which traveled along the Silk Road. As Europe entered a golden age and European economies boomed‚ so too did the demand for finer goods. Cotton became highly sought after.   During the Mughal Period (1526–1858)‚ cotton production surged. Agrarian and economic reforms under unified and capable leadership added incentives for cotton as a cash crop. By the early 18th century‚ the textile industry in India accounted for a quarter of the world’s trade in fabric. The biggest center of cotton production was the city of Dhaka in present-day Bengal.   A spinning jenny engraving by W. Lowry‚ 1811. Source: Wellcome Collection   With the rise of the British Empire and British colonial endeavors in India‚ the British East India Company became a powerful force in the cotton trade in Europe. By the mid-18th century‚ the importation of cheap cotton and the introduction of complex machinery began to make Britain the dominant power in cotton manufacture.   Within a century‚ Britain surpassed India as the world’s biggest cotton manufacturer. Cotton was obtained at a cheap price from India‚ processed in factories in Britain‚ and then disseminated to the rest of the world.   In the 1760s‚ the spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. It was a machine that could spin cotton at a much faster rate than previous methods‚ and it transformed the societal landscape of Britain. Home industries were pushed out‚ as factories employed hundreds of workers‚ many of them children‚ to work in the urban areas. This transformation is what helped kickstart the Industrial Revolution and turned Britain into a superpower. And it was done on the back of child labor and miserable working conditions.   At the forefront of this transformation was cotton. Its versatility saw it replace wool. Its ease of processing saw it replace linen. And its price saw it replace silk. Cotton became available everywhere and was worn by the wealthiest nobles all the way down to the poorest commoners.   In the Cotton Field by Henry Louis Stevens. Source: Library of Congress   In the United States‚ cotton remained a relatively small industry during the 18th century. The invention of the superior cotton gin in 1793 by American inventor Eli Whitney gave the cotton industry a massive boost. Within less than four decades‚ the US became the world’s largest cotton supplier‚ replacing tobacco as the South’s primary cash crop.   This dynamic‚ of course‚ required vast numbers of slaves to work on the plantations. The social dynamic of the need for more enslaved people versus the progressive conscience born by a modernizing world created a dangerous precedent for conflict that would erupt as the US Civil War.   The 20th Century Onwards Cotton harvesting in China. Source: CGTN   With the changes brought about by the Civil War and the appearance and spread of the cotton-eating boll weevil‚ the US cotton industry was hit with hardships. It was only in the 1950s that pesticides were able to deal with the boll weevil infestation. By this time‚ however‚ the United States had made massive changes in crop diversification‚ and cotton took a backseat to other cash crops such as corn and‚ more recently‚ soybeans.   The cotton industry of Britain completely collapsed as a result of war and boycotts. The First World War halted much production and made it difficult to export to many European markets. The interwar years saw a backlash against colonialism‚ and Britain’s biggest supplier‚ India‚ started asserting itself by boycotting the industry. By 1933‚ Japan‚ which had slowly been expanding its influence‚ had taken over as the world’s biggest cotton producer.   During the Second World War‚ production started to increase in Britain‚ especially around the cotton hub of Lancashire‚ where uniforms and parachutes were in great demand. The boom was short-lived‚ and by the end of the 1950s‚ the industry could not compete with cheaper‚ foreign competition.   Today‚ cotton demand is extremely high and is increasing every year. Currently‚ the four biggest cotton-producing nations are China‚ India‚ the United States‚ and Brazil.   A cotton field. Source: Public domain / Rawpixel   The importance of cotton cannot be denied. From small local industries in the Asian subcontinent to the booming trade worldwide‚ cotton is found everywhere‚ from dish towels to high fashion‚ being used to mop up spills on the floor and cover the bodies of royalty.   The history of cotton is‚ in many ways‚ the history of the modern era. It exploded onto the world in the same way that the Industrial Revolution represented a giant leap forward for humankind‚ bringing the world together and ushering in an era of financial gain that was unprecedented at the time.

  Although it began in the United States‚ the Great Depression spread around the world thanks to the interconnected nature of finance and trade. Europe was still recovering economically from World War I‚ and Germany had experienced hyperinflation in the 1920s due to printing currency. When American creditors attempted to call loans made to Europe in order to stave off their own collapse‚ they worsened the economic situation. After American politicians raised tariffs to try and generate revenue from imports‚ European nations responded in kind. The wave of higher tariffs worsened the Depression worldwide. Ultimately‚ the Great Depression in Europe had tremendous ramifications as it influenced the rise of fascism and the start of World War II.   Setting the Stage: Post-World War I Chaos Civil unrest in Germany in late 1918 and 1919 immediately after the end of World War I. Source: Imperial War Museums (UK)   In high school history classes‚ the Great Depression is typically portrayed as the simple and direct result of the US stock market crash of 1929. However‚ the actual cause of the severe economic recession is more complicated. Most individuals did not own many shares of stock and thus were relatively unaffected by the crash itself. However‚ underlying economic and business conditions turned the stock market crash into bankruptcies‚ panics‚ bank runs‚ and a swift reduction in production and trade.   In Europe‚ underlying economic conditions were weaker than in the United States due to the ravages of World War I‚ which had ended a dozen years earlier. Germany suffered the most as the loser of the war‚ facing both economic strife and political chaos. France also struggled‚ as a substantial portion of its territory had been destroyed by four and half years of warfare. Britain faced an economic slump due to the vast amounts of money expended on the war effort. The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia threatened to spread to Western Europe as high unemployment and shortages of essential goods raged. All this economic strife was not fully healed when the Depression struck‚ making it more severe than it otherwise would have been.   Setting the Stage: War Debts A newspaper political cartoon criticizing the United States for demanding repayment of World War I debts by fellow allies. Source: University of Massachusetts Amherst   Allied nations like Britain and France emerged more financially intact from the war than did Germany‚ but this financial safety net was largely provided by wartime loans from the United States. During the war‚ billions were loaned by American bankers‚ mostly to the Allies (prior to America’s entry into the war on the side of the Allies). By the end of the war‚ seventeen countries had borrowed money from the United States‚ and the status of repayment quickly became controversial. An economically devastated Germany quickly defaulted on its war reparations payments‚ which had been inflicted on it by the Treaty of Versailles. Under the Dawes Plan of 1924‚ Germany’s reparations payments were reduced in exchange for foreign oversight of its economic policies.   In addition to having to repay the United States‚ European nations struggled to secure foreign loans to help rebuild. The political chaos in the aftermath of World War I‚ akin to the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia‚ made many Americans feel that loans to Europe were too risky. Attempts by European governments to get private loans from American banks could be denied by the US government over political disputes. For example‚ when France refused to use German reparation income to repay the US for the costs of its temporary occupation duties in Germany‚ the State Department refused to allow a $100‚000‚000 loan from the J.P. Morgan &; Company Bank to France.   1920s Hyperinflation in Germany A photograph of children in Germany using nearly worthless paper money for play during the hyperinflation of the 1920s. Source: American Institute for Economic Research (AIER)   The final precursor to the Great Depression in Europe was hyperinflation in Germany. When the war ended‚ so did wartime price controls that had relatively limited price increases. Then‚ to make matters worse‚ the new government decided to print additional currency to pay off Germany’s war reparations. Inflation rose to levels unprecedented in history‚ with prices for common goods and services doubling within days. Germans would have to rush to buy goods as soon as they were paid‚ as waiting even a few days would severely diminish their purchasing power. By November 1923‚ violence and looting were erupting in major cities.   Fortunately‚ Germany got a hand in inflation by creating a new currency backed by gold: the Reichsmark. Unfortunately‚ the political and social damage was already done – many Germans now distrusted the government and each other. Foreign actions during the period of hyperinflation‚ including the seizure of German territory by France when Germany defaulted on its war reparations‚ created bitterness. It was during this era that a small political party‚ the National Socialist (Nazi) party‚ formed in Germany.   Banking Crisis in America Leads to Calls on Loans A cartoon in Puck from 1911 satirizing the wealth of J.P. Morgan‚ whose bank was later a major American lender to Europe during World War I. Source: Bowdoin College   When the US stock market crashed in the autumn of 1929‚ Europe was in a far better place economically than it had been at the beginning of the decade. Unfortunately‚ much of the recovery was built on loans from American banks. When the stock market crash triggered a growing recession in the United States‚ these banks began to call (demand immediate payment) their loans in Europe. Quickly‚ the German financial system collapsed‚ as it had been largely rebuilt during the 1920s with loans from American banks.   When German banks collapsed‚ they could not repay loans to banks in France or Britain‚ either. By 1934‚ all three nations were in default on their loans to American banks. When Germany defaulted on its foreign-made loans‚ it hurt smaller British banks more than larger American ones and essentially froze credit markets (lending markets). Thus‚ there was little international cooperation to try and stop growing financial crises. Instead of being able to get money flowing again‚ as would occur today under Keynesian economic principles‚ Europe largely “shut down” financially.   Smoot-Hawley Tariff Hurts International Trade A graph showing a decrease in US exports after the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act took effect‚ revealing that the policy was a failure. Source: Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR)   Europe was also impacted by the United States’ attempt to generate revenue early in the Depression through higher tariffs. Tariffs had begun rising in the United States in 1928‚ at first in an attempt to help farmers who had faced falling crop prices as European farmers recovered after World War I. However‚ tariffs on imported European agriculture quickly spread to most other goods. In 1930‚ the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act raised tariffs substantially. Instead of raising revenue for a struggling America‚ the tariff act prompted a wave of retaliatory tariffs. Before long‚ European nations were even decreasing trade with each other.   A textbook page explaining the similar economic effects in North America and Europe during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Source: Princeton University   International trade fell by almost two-thirds between 1929 and 1934‚ when Congress repealed the tariff act. The Smoot-Hawley tariffs worsened the Great Depression on both sides of the Atlantic by reducing the revenue generated by net exports. Britain reduced its trade with the United States and sought substitute trade with its own colonies‚ such as India.   France‚ Italy‚ and Spain quickly responded with retaliatory tariffs against the United States. Ironically‚ these nations were not as harmed by the loss of international trade as they had been focused on restoring domestic production after World War I. Having suffered worse during the war meant they were less impacted by the loss of imports a dozen years later.   Economic Depression Strengthens Push for Fascism The Nazi Party (above) quickly became popular in Germany due to its populist rhetoric and promise of economic improvements. Source: Museum of Jewish Heritage   Italy had become Europe’s first fascist state in the 1920s under Benito Mussolini. Economic turmoil in Spain in 1930 led to the resignation of dictator Primo de Rivera‚ prompting an era of political unrest that slid into the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). At the end of this bloody civil war‚ fought between pro-fascist Nationalists under Francisco Franco and the socialists‚ Spain became a de facto fascist state. Many had come to support Franco’s Nationalists after a period of leftist governance between 1931 and 1933 failed to improve the economy and public confidence.   In Germany‚ economic turmoil from the hyperinflation of the 1920s and the arrival of the Great Depression in Europe‚ which hit Germany hardest of all states‚ led to the growing popularity of the Nazi Party. As in Italy and Spain‚ people gravitated toward a charismatic strongman figure who promised economic aid. After Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933‚ he became an increasingly dictatorial figure. Within a few years‚ he decreed that Germany would no longer abide by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles‚ which had included disarmament and territorial loss in addition to reparations.   Nazis Rise as States Focus on Own Woes An illustration criticizing the America First movement for ignoring the rise of Nazism during the 1930s. Source: University of Minnesota   Although many were concerned about the rise of Adolf Hitler‚ few nations wanted to confront the bombastic German leader. In 1936‚ Hitler sent German troops to re-occupy the Rhineland‚ which bordered France and had been demilitarized after World War I. France and Britain were outraged but had little motivation to risk war during their ongoing economic woes. Instead‚ an era of appeasement won out‚ with Germany allowed to continue to violate Treaty of Versailles policies.   With economic distress and high unemployment‚ plus low public support for any return of warfare‚ European leaders did not push back forcefully against Hitler’s expansionist goals. Britain and France allowed Germany to rearm‚ secretly at first and then openly. In 1938‚ at the Munich Conference‚ an agreement among Britain‚ France‚ Italy‚ and Germany was struck to allow Germany to annex the German-speaking Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia. Hitler received this permission in exchange for a promise of no more territorial ambitions…which he promptly violated.   Effects of the Great Depression in Europe on the US An art installation commemorating the 1936 Jarrow March protest against unemployment in Britain during the Great Depression. Source: Arts Council England   As in the United States‚ all nations in Europe saw an increase in unemployment and a decrease in industrial output. Central Europe‚ especially Germany and Austria‚ suffered the most. At the outset of the Depression‚ few nations believed in deficit spending and were forced to cut government spending and raise taxes as the economy faltered. This quickly worsened the recession‚ with unemployment in England doubling during 1930. France suffered less than most other countries‚ arguably due to its relatively slow and steady recovery from World War I. Its industries had not overextended themselves during the Roaring Twenties‚ taking on debt that would bankrupt them after the stock market crash.   The lingering Depression in Britain prompted economist John Maynard Keynes to write The General Theory of Employment‚ Interest and Money. Keynesian theory argued that government spending should increase during recessions to build infrastructure and reduce unemployment. This increase in total spending‚ known as aggregate demand‚ would pay for itself through higher tax revenue later on when output was restored. Many world leaders‚ including US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and German dictator Adolf Hitler‚ had already been working with the same principles. By late in the Depression‚ virtually every European leader was a Keynesian.   Foreign Policy Effects of the Depression in Europe Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (left) and German dictator Adolf Hitler (right) pulled their respective countries out of the League of Nations during the 1930s. Source: Yale University Press   Due to the economic malaise‚ few European leaders were worried about foreign policy that was not related to economic benefit. Most significantly‚ the Depression almost certainly doomed the League of Nations‚ which had been created by the Treaty of Versailles as an international body to solve geopolitical disputes. Germany left the League in October 1933‚ followed by Italy in December 1937. The League’s charter‚ combined with little appetite for confrontation from Britain and France‚ made the organization toothless in terms of physical power.   The inward focus of most European nations during the 1930s allowed fascists like Mussolini‚ Hitler‚ and Franco to amass power unchecked. By the time Britain and France were willing to confront Hitler in September 1939‚ after he had invaded Poland‚ it was too late to avoid a tremendous war. In the history books‚ isolationism and appeasement have gone down as failures of the 1930s‚ blamed for allowing fascist Italy‚ Nazi Germany‚ and imperialist Japan to arise as warmongering powers.   Great Depression’s Effect on World War II in Europe German’s illegal rearmament program during the 1930s bolstered the economy‚ but set the stage for war. Source: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)   The Great Depression in Europe gave the Nazis an advantage: their foes were underprepared for conflict in 1939. Indeed‚ when Germany did strike westward‚ it defeated France in only six weeks. The sight of German soldiers marching in Paris was a shock to the world‚ as France had been one of the world’s foremost powers. Fortunately‚ US economic recovery allowed it to swiftly give military aid to Britain under the Lend-Lease Act. Thousands of tons of weapons and aid flowed from America to Britain before Hitler could truly contemplate an invasion of the island.   On the Eastern Front‚ the Depression in Europe may have given Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin a false sense of security about Germany’s strength. Potentially‚ this is what led Stalin to believe that a nonaggression pact between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union would be honored by Hitler. On June 22‚ 1941‚ Germany violated the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact by invading the Soviet Union with its handful of Axis-Power allies in Europe. Now fighting Germany and allied with Britain‚ the Soviet Union also became a recipient of Lend-Lease weaponry from the United States. This aid helped save Moscow in December 1941‚ with the US joining the war only days later.

  During the Cold War‚ East Germany’s secret police deployed 90‚000 spies and 100‚000 informers to keep tabs on 6 million people. Beyond the Berlin Wall‚ the CIA employed jazz ambassadors to penetrate the Iron Curtain with their secret countercultural weapon. Voice of America broadcasts captured the airways to beam jazzy democracy into the Soviet zone. Musicians and activists also risked their lives to smuggle contraband records across the border. Meanwhile‚ Stasi spies infiltrated clubs to track down subversive influences and harvest information on real or imagined enemies of the state.   Jazz and Cultural Espionage in the GDR “A view of Checkpoint Charlie‚ the crossing point for foreigners visiting East Berlin‚ May 1‚ 1977.” Source: Helga T. H. Mellman / National Archives   In April 1955‚ the heads of the East German Ministry of Culture gathered for an urgent‚ 3-hour meeting about jazz.   After a heated debate‚ the men decided that jazz‚ embedded in African American music traditions and popular among urban nightclubs‚ did not reflect German cultural values. During the Cold War‚ the German Democratic Republic (GDR) authorities showed confusion about whether jazz reflected a “people’s art” or a tool for Western infiltration. Under the previous Nazi regime‚ jazz became a voice of dissent and social decay.   Other experts disagreed.   Jazz represented freedom‚ and freedom came with an American swing and accent. For many everyday people in the GDR‚ jazz became synonymous with American democracy.   Officially‚ the GDR banned jazz. This censorship failed to stop jazz from flourishing nationwide. Despite the risk‚ fans smuggled black-market jazz records across the border. Over the next decade‚ jazz played a vital role as a psychological weapon deployed by the CIA in the cultural Cold War. As the nuclear arms race escalated‚ Western intelligence agencies worked to undermine Soviet power on every level.   While the Stasi viewed jazz as a threat‚ they also saw it as an opportunity. Even as the Stasi seized recordings‚ they embedded their spies at the heart of the jazz scene. This tactic enabled the secret police to keep their finger on the pulse of jazz activism‚ compromise clubgoers‚ and recruit them as Stasi agents.   Even before the 1961 Berlin Crisis‚ the CIA disseminated American culture to the people trapped in Soviet-controlled areas.   Soft Power in a Cold War  Members of the 11th AB Division kneel on the ground as they watch the mushroom cloud of an atomic bomb test‚ Frenchman’s Flat‚ Nevada‚ 1951. Source: Library of Congress   At its core‚ the Cold War was a war of ideas. As America competed with the Soviets for nuclear superiority‚ military power‚ and moral high ground‚ they had to confront racial issues at home and find ways to combat disinformation. Communist governments spread propaganda to create fear‚ mask a failing political and economic system‚ and keep people from accessing outside information.   For America‚ culture offered an opportunity to showcase American talents and fight Soviet portrayals. They aimed to use sound to gain allies behind the Iron Curtain and win the ideological Cold War.   With the Civil Rights Movement in full swing and racial tensions increasing at home‚ the US State Department had a brilliant idea. They decided to send both black and white musicians as jazz ambassadors to play worldwide. Jazz diplomacy had a twofold purpose: to undermine the Soviet Union’s cultural superiority claims‚ and to show racial unity to combat Soviet propaganda about racial tensions in America.   Then‚ the CIA got involved. At the height of the Cold War‚ the CIA created the Congress for Cultural Freedom (CCF). They sent “Goodwill Jazz Ambassadors” to export American jazz during the 1950s and 1960s.   The plan worked. When the State Department made black musicians the face of their Cold War foreign policy‚ they also gave entertainers to help shape politics back home.   John A. McCone‚ head of the CIA‚ rushes to a White House meeting‚ 1962. Source: Library of Congress   Radio stations such as Radio Free Europe (RFE) and Voice of America (VOA) punched holes in the barriers that the GDR used to soundproof their socialist state.   While jazz could not physically dismantle the Berlin Wall‚ it inspired a spirit of individualism and resistance that drove political change. Together‚ jazz ambassadors‚ radio broadcasters‚ and German fans helped break the Iron Curtain open from the inside.   City of Spies Glienicke Bridge in Berlin‚ where spy swaps took place during the Cold War. Source: dpa / picture-alliance / Deutsche Welle   Grim‚ gray‚ and gritty‚ East Berlin represented the dark side of a divided city. It stood in stark contrast to its well-lit twin on the other side of the Wall. Sodium lights cast a harsh orange glow over Soviet-style architecture and streets. But at night‚ the city came alive. Cabaret‚ once popular under the pre-Nazi Weimar government‚ had deep historical roots in the cultural and political substructure of the city. Jazz clubs flourished underground. People came to dance‚ mingle‚ and spill secrets.   After the Allies defeated Nazi Germany in the Second World War‚ the victorious Allied powers split Germany into four military zones to ensure that a dictator like Adolf Hitler would never rise to power again. In 1949‚ the regions occupied by the United States‚ France‚ and the UK became the Federal Republic of Germany. The Soviets established East Germany‚ or the GDR‚ in the Russian zone.   Map of East and West Germany. Source: Central Intelligence Agency / Library of Congress   Despite its name‚ the GDR did not represent a democracy or a republic. Instead‚ it held power as a communist dictatorship. In this totalitarian state‚ free speech‚ free elections‚ and freedom of movement did not exist.   By 1950‚ the Staatssicherheit‚ or the Stasi secret police‚ became a massive surveillance tool that acted as a proxy for the KGB.   After the Second World War‚ German leaders noticed how popular American culture affected young Germans’ ideas‚ tastes‚ and behavior. Debates over jazz‚ westerns‚ and comic books made the authorities on both sides of the Iron Curtain worry about how these influences might erode traditional German culture.   This created an uneasy and hostile relationship between GDR leaders and jazz cultural expression. Fearful of jazz as a tool for cultural infiltration‚ the Stasi employed their vast network of spies and informers to monitor and utilize the jazz scene inside the country.   Jazz Diplomacy: How the CIA Promoted Freedom Behind the Iron Curtain “A view of the Brandenburg Gate‚ with East Berlin in the background‚” February 1983. Source: Thomas Farr / National Archives   In 1956‚ the State Department launched ANTA’s International Exchange Program with Dizzy Gillespie and his band on a European tour. Gillespie’s band visited eleven countries‚ including West Germany‚ in an epic‚ eight-week tour. Crowds met them so enthusiastically that managers had to cordon off the stage.   In a few years‚ Louis Armstrong became the most recognizable face of American jazz entertainment abroad. Known as “Ambassador Satch‚” the singer and trumpet player toured Europe with his All-Stars group. Before the Berlin Wall went up‚ East Germans would do anything to hear Armstrong play. In a December 1955 interview‚ Armstrong revealed that he met excited young men at the West Berlin Hot Club who managed to slip across the border and did not know how to return.   Ella Fitzgerald. Source: The Rudy Calvo Collection Cache Agency / NPR   Even after the Berlin Wall virtually made travel a suicide mission‚ fans kept the jazz fever alive. Harlem Renaissance jazz giants such as Ella Fitzgerald toured East and West Berlin on cultural missions.   The “First Lady of Jazz‚” Ella Fitzgerald‚ sang to packed crowds at the cavernous Sportpalast Arena in West Berlin in 1962. In 1965‚ Armstrong became the first American jazz entertainer to play in East Germany.   Jazz diplomats brought the allure of New York lights‚ American democracy‚ and cultural change to vast audiences across Berlin. Beneath the excitement‚ the East German intelligence services unleashed spies to gather intelligence in jazz clubs’ fertile hunting grounds.   Satchmo Fights the Cold War Louis Armstrong playing the trumpet‚ 1953. Source: Library of Congress   During his single‚ brief tour to the GDR‚ Armstrong played his heart out to packed houses. As crowds celebrated Armstrong’s appearance‚ only jazz musicians and journalists knew the effort and danger it took to attend.   Contrary to official Soviet disdain for jazz music‚ fans expressed a rabid enthusiasm for jazz that exceeded expectations. Armstrong’s popularity floored the East German authorities since his records had not officially appeared yet. One jazz journalist‚ Karlheinz Dreschsel‚ risked his life and career to promote jazz. Later‚ he toured with Armstrong and announced his concerts while navigating sensitive political waters.   In March 1965‚ Armstrong gave two performances per day for three days to 18‚000 people at the Friedrichstadt-Palast Music Hall in East Berlin. Armstrong also traveled to Leipzig‚ where he played to awed audiences at the city’s massive trade fair hall. Armstrong only swung one tour thanks to political restrictions‚ but his impact ignited a Free Jazz scene that spread like wildfire behind the Berlin Wall.   The Stasi recognized this movement as more dangerous than the music. They wanted to stop people inspired by democratic ideas from escaping East Germany. By the time the Berlin Wall went up overnight in August 1961‚ the Stasi had planted their own informants in the jazz scene.   Jazz‚ Suppression‚ &; Resistance  A march for democracy by East Germans at the Brandenburg Gate‚ 1953. Source: The Associated Press / The Guardian   After World War II‚ German authorities hurried to distance themselves from the Nazi’s anti-jazz sentiments and promote a thriving socialist culture. Soon‚ the GDR prioritized saving German culture from a disastrous slide into American jazz‚ jeans‚ and democracy.   By February 1950‚ a shift in the political wind brought a crackdown. The authorities did not just ban jazz but also dancing that caused excessive arm‚ hip‚ and leg movement and threatened to energize people enough into thinking about dangerous things like freedom.   After Soviet tanks crushed an anti-communist demonstration by thousands of young East Germans in 1953‚ the GDR’s prime minister denounced the protestors who wanted to overthrow the communist regime.   In response‚ Moscow launched a frontal assault on jazz and insisted that the GDR toe the party line.   The GDR‚ armed by the Stasi‚ hastened to obey. They disbanded jazz bands‚ banned jazz music from playing on radio stations‚ promoted “civilized” German dancing without a whiff of racial mixing‚ and seized jazz records at every border stop.   Predictably‚ banning jazz had the opposite effect. Music became a popular medium for both men and women to resist the communist system.   A Dangerous Game Bone recording from the Eastern Soviet Bloc. Source: The X-Ray Audio Project / ABC News Australia   In this atmosphere‚ East Germans could not just buy jazz recordings. The 13-foot-tall and 27-mile-long concrete Berlin Wall‚ watched by guard towers and laced with 55‚000 landmines‚ meant that East Berliners lost access to West Berlin music stores.   Very little jazz music played on the radio. When producers did play swing music‚ they labeled it Tanzmusic‚ or dance music‚ instead of jazz. Instead‚ fans scanned newspapers for second-hand records or placed ambiguous ads for “dance music records” (Helma Kaldewey‚ A People’s Music: Jazz in East Germany‚ 93).   People listened to swing‚ bebop‚ and jazz via bootleg roentgenizdat records from GDR bands such as Schmidt-Joos‚ the Helmut-Brandt-Combo‚ and Zschockelt’s “That Da-Da Strain” band.   Suffocated by the tense atmosphere and reduced to speaking in double-talk‚ many jazz artists like Horst Lippman fled to the West in a cultural hemorrhage during the 1950s. There‚ they produced labels that fans and profiteers smuggled into the GDR.   Bone Records Kept People Dancing X-ray record‚ Cold War period. Source: The X-ray Audio Project / ABC News Australia   Intrepid fans also circumvented state censorship by pressing records from discarded X-rays scavenged from clinics or hospitals. This practice introduced bootleg copies known as “ribs” or “bone records.”   Conspirators cut the X-ray plates into 7-inch discs. Then‚ they burned a hole into the center of the disc with a cigarette. Next‚ they used a wax cylinder‚ an old phonograph‚ or a dubplate reference machine (that pressed test records) to cut grooves into the disc at 78rpm. While these records had poor sound quality and users could only play them five to ten times‚ rib records became an enterprising way to get around censorship.   On the street‚ illegal jazz record sales flourished like the drug trade. Sellers and buyers met in clubs‚ on corners‚ dark alleys‚ and city parks to sell contraband records impressed with ghostly bone images. This fitting symbol of mortality reminded fans that a passion for jazz could land you in jail or worse.   Friends of friends also met up to exchange recordings. Others tossed packaged records from moving cars on the highway. Even the Americans organized a covert jazz lift to drop records behind the Iron Curtain. When reel-to-reel records appeared‚ bone records became obsolete.   Despite the oppressive atmosphere‚ professional jazz orchestras and amateur bands thrived. Before Zschockelt escaped to the West‚ he received an invitation from jazz activist and journalist Karlheinz Drechsel to play in Dresden. While Zschockelt managed to flee the country‚ Dreschel stayed behind and risked his life to promote jazz. After communism fell‚ the German government awarded Dreschel for his tireless efforts to bring jazz freedom to the nation.   “My Spies Were Everywhere” Caf&;eacute; Moskau‚ Berlin‚ 1978. Source: Ute Mahler / The Guardian   The Stasi knew everything: what you said‚ where you went‚ and who you slept with. Or at least‚ it felt that way to East Germans‚ thanks to the secret police’s extensive spy network.   In the 1950s‚ jazz club critics conjured up images of smoky hot clubs‚ drugs‚ alcohol‚ and seedy individuals. Intelligentsia and black marketeers danced on tables to jazz music in hot clubs (Uta G. Poiger‚ Jazz‚ Rock‚ and Rebels‚ 56-57). Homosexuals‚ prostitutes‚ misfits‚ and musicians already found themselves outcasts in a society that criminalized and policed behavior.   The Stasi’s attitude towards jazz swung just as much as the music. The mood depended on the local authorities. Even some jazz fans who doubled as Stasi informers became reluctant to denounce fellow jazz artists for fear that they would not have anyone left with whom to play. Others‚ such as Horst Lippman‚ the founder of the Frankfurt Hot Club‚ fled to West Germany. There‚ they campaigned for jazz culture and other freedoms back home.   Jazz nightlife at the Badewanne in Sch&;ouml;neberg in Berlin‚ 1950s. Source: DPA picture alliance / ullstein bild / Berliner-Zeitung   When Caf&;eacute; Moskau opened on Karl-Marx Allee in Berlin in 1964‚ visitors sipped mocha‚ swung to jazz in the dance caf&;eacute;‚ or headed to the night bar located in the basement. The Bojar Bar‚ within sight of Checkpoint Charlie‚ became a favorite meetup point for journalists‚ secret agents‚ and Russian aristocrats in exile during the early Cold War. Over time‚ the exchange of rumors and intelligence slowed‚ but the bar’s vibe remained.   Whether you came for the coffee or stuck around for the music‚ you ran the risk of bumping into a reporter or a spy at Berlin’s jazz clubs and caf&;eacute;s.   How German authorities pictured jazz clubs’ mythologized decadence: Marlene Dietrich in Der Blaue Engel (The Blue Angel)‚ 1930. Source: DPA / Picture Alliance / Deutsche Welle   As jazz agitation simmered in the oppressive atmosphere‚ jazz clubs sprang out of the ground like mushrooms. In Leipzig‚ Eisenach‚ and Halle Universities‚ students played jazz‚ turned clubs into jazz halls‚ and even tried to organize a public three-day jazz festival.   Meanwhile‚ the Stasi had been busy.   Worried about subversive influences‚ the Stasi even reported jazz activities as high up as Walter Ulbricht‚ the head of the GDR. Stasi agents glided through smoky cellars like sharks in the jazz club’s shadowy underworld.   Some agents‚ like Werner Sellhorn and Ulrich Blobel‚ doubled as regular artists at the Berlin Jazz Club. They played alongside German jazz stars like Ruth Hohmann while reporting the names‚ political affiliations‚ and activities of the 90 club members back to their Stasi handlers (Barbara Miller‚ Narratives of Guilt and Compliance in Unified Germany‚ 139).   Thanks to the Stasi’s mass surveillance capabilities‚ this network of agents and informers successfully infiltrated jazz clubs. Markus Wolf‚ the faceless spymaster who ran the Stasi for 34 years‚ integrated espionage into the fabric of East German society. “My spies were everywhere‚” Wolf later claimed.   Secret police kept regular tabs on small jazz groups‚ the Berlin Jazz Club‚ and American jazz concerts. The Stasi even spied on their informers. As Blobel reported on his comrades‚ dozens of invisible Stasi informers watched his every move. They also monitored each piece of mail that he sent or received to and from the West (Kaldewey‚ 134‚ 218).   A Hotbed for Spies East German VOPO‚ a quasi-military border policeman standing guard on one of the bridges linking East and West Berlin‚ 1961. Source: University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill   Many Stasi informers expressed no regrets for their collaboration. Others‚ less willing‚ found themselves trapped in an impossible situation. Nevertheless‚ this Stasi-informer collaboration helped shape the jazz scene in Berlin and East Germany.   Despite cinema tropes of seductive female spies‚ the Stasi used far more men than women spies. Despite women’s contributions‚ most Cold War authorities considered espionage a male-dominated sphere. American spy Leslie Woodhead had a narrow escape from a probable Stasi spy who tried to lure him home from the Eierschale jazz club‚ a popular Stasi honey-trap spot. At the NAAFI bar‚ gay Stasi agents targeted American servicemembers out for a good time (Leslie Woodhead‚ My Life as a Spy‚ 220).   Blackmail remained an evergreen spy-craft tool. The Stasi regularly recruited gay men to meet new contacts and gather intelligence. In a time that criminalized homosexuality and linked it to a heightened spy risk‚ the threat of same-sex blackmail had explosive potential.   The Stasi did not limit their operations to jazz clubs on their side of the Wall. In a clever tactic‚ they stopped West Germans while speeding in the East and frightened them into spying for them at the Dandy Club‚ the Big Apple‚ and the Eden Saloon in West Berlin.   Many informers‚ pressed into Stasi service‚ frequented jazz clubs. Their handlers wanted to know how Berlin’s subversive gay subculture and jazz dissident networks worked.   “Attention&;#33; You will be leaving West Berlin in 40 meters.” Source: Allan Hailstone‚ Berlin in the Cold War: 1956 to 1966 / CNN Travel   The Stasi needed eyes and ears on both sides of the Wall. People who had something to hide became the easiest ones to control.   In November 1961‚ Berlin Jazz Club musician Werner Sellhorn‚ codenamed “Zirkel‚” met with his Stasi handlers to report on Humboldt University students’ jazz activities. As the meeting wrapped up‚ the secret police warned Sellhorn to avoid jazz demonstrations and not to cross the gray line into “negative influences.” The chilling warning highlighted the uneasy dual existence of jazz musicians and informers.   As the years passed‚ Sellhorn started skipping Stasi meetings and dragged his feet when asked to report on his fellow musicians (Kaldewey‚ 138). Other reluctant Stasi informers also helped destabilize the surveillance state from the inside.   When time unmasked him as a Stasi informer‚ his fellow musicians did not appear to hold this role against him‚ thanks to his genuine contributions to jazz‚ despite the Stasi’s constraints and the relationships forged.   A Risky Career Broadcasting VOA‚ 1957. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   Many jazz singers and musicians started their careers in jazz bars or clubs. Jazz producers or singers such as Angelika Weiz used their jazz expression to criticize the socialist system openly. As a result‚ the GDR banned a defiant Weiz from recording any records during her career.   Ruth Hohmann‚ known as the Ella Fitzgerald of the East‚ became the first East German to obtain a professional jazz singer license before 1965 (Kaldewey‚ 185). She even performed at the House of German-Soviet Friendship with the Jazz Optimists Berlin group in 1961. Her powerful‚ versatile voice made listeners laugh‚ cry‚ or punch the air with their fists as she reached the chorus.   By 1966‚ the government moved to silence her. They canceled her bookings on short notice. Before a television interview‚ the station received anonymous complaints. Sometimes‚ she fought back. In the 1970s‚ attitudes began to thaw. When Erich Honecker replaced Ulbricht at the nation’s helm‚ Hohmann resumed her jazz circuit.   Today‚ Germany remembers jazz activists for their intense devotion to improvisation‚ free expression‚ and banned music. They developed networks that stretched across the GDR and even penetrated beyond the Iron Curtain.   War on the Airwaves Voice of America studio radio system. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   The CIA did not stop at jazz diplomacy. They also covertly funded the Voice of America’s radio broadcast program. VOA’s contrarian broadcaster and producer‚ Willis Conover‚ insisted on doing things his way. A tall‚ thin man with black-framed glasses‚ Willis helped convince a reluctant Congress that‚ rather than wasting taxpayers’ dollars‚ jazz had the potential to win the Cold War.   At the height of the Cold War‚ the West waged psychological warfare against the Soviets via radio stations‚ which beamed music and news to the Soviet satellite states‚ including East Germany. In response‚ Soviet authorities ramped up their efforts to jam VOA radio signals.   Up until the 1980s‚ the Stasi used local and long-distance jamming methods to block the airways and soundproof East Germany. In return‚ shortwave radios used high power and numerous frequencies to outmaneuver jamming efforts. The Stasi also launched propaganda crusades against the corrupting influence of jazz.   Voice of America studio interior‚ 1957. Source: Thomas J. O’Halloran / Library of Congress   Despite this‚ millions of listeners fine-tuned their radio dials daily to catch the familiar surging theme music and the slow‚ sugary baritone voice that greeted them‚ “This is Willis Conover in Washington DC‚ with the Voice of America Jazz Hour.”   For over 30 years‚ Willis Conover and the Voice of America bombarded the Eastern Bloc with forbidden music. This hour of freedom reached millions of people in communist states. It not only helped Soviet citizens survive‚ but it helped pave the way for more cultural acceptance.   A Secret Sonic Victory East German students sit on the Berlin Wall in front of the border guards. The fall of the Berlin Wall meant the end of a divided Germany‚ November 1989. Source: University of Minnesota Institute of Advanced Studies / US National Guard   Across the Eastern Bloc‚ Soviet authorities fought a losing battle against the lure of jazz and democracy. By the 1980s‚ Glasnost and Perestroika’s “openness” and “restructuring” policies meant that resistance to popular music began to collapse.   In November 1989‚ an official slip-up resulted in a watershed moment. An official announced that East Germans could now cross the border. In response‚ crowds attacked the Berlin Wall with hammers‚ pickaxes‚ and their bare hands. Afterward‚ thousands of fans poured through to hit West Berlin music stores and get their hands on their favorite jazz artists’ records.   US jazz diplomacy and VOA broadcasts played a dual role in the cultural Cold War. America’s information war introduced new ideas that drove grassroots dissent. It also helped destabilize Soviet culture from the inside. This cultural invasion on an international scale may only have worked with the backing of the federal government. It certainly could not have succeeded without the efforts of millions of Germans.   Despite intense censorship‚ East Germans created jazz ensembles‚ clubs‚ and networks that crisscrossed the country. The combined force of musicians and journalists turned a musical passion into a popular form of unconscious resistance.   While it is impossible to quantify jazz’s impact on the GDR‚ jazz diplomacy‚ broadcasting‚ and activism launched a powerful cultural force. This triple threat helped break down ideological barriers and tested the limits of the communist regime.   Selected Bibliography   Kaldewey‚ Helma. (2020). A People’s Music: Jazz in East Germany‚ 1945-1990. Cambridge University Press. Miller‚ Barbara. (1999). Narratives of Guilt and Compliance in Unified Germany: Stasi Informers and Their Impact on Society. London and New York: Routledge. Poiger‚ Uta G. (2000). Jazz‚ Rock‚ and Rebels: Cold War Politics and American Culture in a Divided Germany. University of California Press. Woodhead‚ Leslie. (2005). My Life as a Spy. London: Macmillan.

  The Reformation in England is misleadingly credited to King Henry VIII. While Martin Luther was a contemporary of Henry‚ the association between the two was not cordial. Henry railed against Luther’s “heresies” and even after breaking with Rome continued to prosecute‚ torture‚ and execute reformers who challenged his nationalized Catholic beliefs.   The Reformation in Europe was not just fueled by spiritual differences with the Catholic Church‚ the religious and political powerhouse of Western Europe. It was the last part – the Church’s involvement in politics — that helped the Reformation bud‚ with local leaders throughout the continent looking for more autonomy‚ and protecting religious reformers. While this could apply to Henry VIII‚ he never disagreed with Catholic doctrine — only foreign control over his court.   Reformation Europe Jan Huss burning at the stake‚ from the Jensky Codex‚ 1490-1510‚ Source: Narodni Museum   Early in the 15th century‚ Jan Huss started the Bohemian Reformation. Papal politics were mixed into the politics of European states‚ especially within the Holy Roman Empire with its myriad of component cultural groups. Huss publicly spoke out against certain tenets of Catholicism‚ and his arguments were allowed by local leaders looking to weaken the papacy’s involvement in their local affairs.   Huss was invited to defend his position at the Council of Constance (1414-1418) — a meeting that was meant to resolve the Western Schism‚ which had created three competing popes. Unfortunately for Huss‚ who was granted a pass of safe conduct‚ one thing the rival popes could agree on was revoking his pass‚ convicting him of heresy‚ and then burning him at the stake. Designed to suppress opposition‚ Huss nevertheless became a (local) reforming martyr.   When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517 it was heralded as the birth of Protestantism‚ despite earlier‚ suppressed examples. Luther‚ like Huss‚ was given local protection‚ and then‚ like Huss‚ was invited to an ecclesiastical council (The Diet of Worms‚ 1521)‚ under a pass of safe conduct to defend his position.   Luther held firm and rather than revoking the pass and preparing another stake burning‚ the Church‚ surprisingly‚ gave him the opportunity to go home and consider his “errors.” One can almost hear the ashes of Huss cough in indignation.   Luther’s points had gone international (“viral” in other words) thanks to the printing press‚ so he was essentially sent to his room to think about what he had done. To be ignored rather than martyred.   Luther at the Diet of Worms‚ by Anton van Werner‚ 1877‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps Luther is considered the father of the Protestant Reformation because he survived. After his “time out”‚ the Church convicted him‚ but it was too late — the word was out and he was under the protection of Frederick III‚ Elector of Saxony.   Others followed his lead. Local religions‚ based on local interpretations of the Bible (a few even Luther found disagreeable but he had let the genie out of the bottle) were supported by local political authorities. Without whom these reformers would have gone the way that “heresies” had before.   Henry VIII Henry VIII‚ by Hans Holbein‚ 1540‚ Source: The Museum of Fine Arts‚ Houston   By 1521‚ Henry VIII‚ 30‚ had a decade on the throne‚ as the second monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The Tudors came to power in 1485 after winning the War of the Roses — a thirty-year civil war among English royal cousins‚ during which‚ Henry’s father‚ Henry VII‚ defeated Richard III. Though Richard lost both crown and life‚ he had a strong claim to the throne‚ one that Henry VII needed to equal to keep another cousin from challenging him in turn. Support came from the Catholic Church endorsing his authority.   When Henry VIII came to power upon his father’s death in 1509‚ he was 18‚ and his first act was to marry Catherine of Aragon. This marriage had been on hold because Catherine was the widow of Henry VIII’s brother‚ Prince Arthur. Married at the end of 1501 Arthur succumbed to illness in April of 1502. Henry VII was loath to return Catherine’s dowry but also not ready to redirect plans for his second son‚ Henry Jr. (future VIII). Instead‚ he kept Catherine on the back burner.   Church support was important to Henry Sr‚ and while likely not a primary concern‚ biblical law cited Leviticus (20:21) prohibiting one from marrying his brother’s widow. The debate centered on whether Arthur and Catherine consummated their marriage. Catherine insisted they had not. Seven years this went on until Prince Henry‚ already taken with Catherine‚ became king and the Church (eager to have the two kingdoms remain allied) ruled the previous marriage unconsummated; a Church dispensation allowed Catherine to marry Henry.   Catherine of Aragon‚ by Lucas Horenbout‚ 1525‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   The couple had at least six pregnancies‚ but only the fifth‚ their daughter Mary (b. 1516)‚ survived. Henry was the second monarch of a dynasty who were the victors of a decades-long civil war‚ during which nobody could agree who was king. His father resolved that‚ but without a legitimate son of his own‚ Henry VIII could let England descend back into chaos. English history had one example of a daughter succeeding her father to the throne (Henry I and his daughter Matilda)‚ an event that is literally known as the Anarchy. This put pressure on the King to produce.   In the 1510s‚ Henry had several mistresses. One‚ Elizabeth Blount‚ delivered a surviving infant son (Henry FitzRoy 1519-1536). Henry acknowledged him‚ but his illegitimacy caused no fewer problems than a daughter would. However‚ it provided an example of differential diagnostics: Henry could sire a son with someone else.   Martin Luther‚ by Mucas Cranach the Elder‚ 1529‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   In addition to (or because of) his philandering‚ Henry also attended to religious matters‚ including the Lutheran “heresy.” Henry opposed reformation‚ to the point that he had penned his own treatise‚ the Defense of the Seven Sacraments (Assertio Septem Sacramentorum)‚ against Luther. This started a 16th-century blog-battle between Luther and the King that earned Henry the title Defender of the Faith (Fidei Defensor) from the papacy. The Church and the King presented a united front against Lutheranism.   When the idea that Henry should set aside Catherine (she was his senior by half a decade‚ and each pregnancy had ended in despair or disappointment) the “logical” reason‚ to Henry‚ was that his marriage to Catherine violated Levitical law. The Church merely had to recognize God’s “obvious” disfavor and issue a new dispensation nullifying the earlier dispensation that allowed the marriage. Easy.   The issue was that the papacy was not in a position to support Henry’s wishes. Catherine’s nephew‚ Emperor Charles V‚ and the papacy were having their own disagreements‚ with Imperial troops in Rome‚ even the Pope’s personal safety was threatened. Charles had an opinion on Aunt Catherine’s premarital purity and was not shy in supporting his point with force. This was 1527.   By 1532 Henry was not getting younger‚ and while a young Anne Boleyn was an agreeable replacement bride the Church would not nullify Catherine or their earlier decision. Henry tried to play by the Church rules‚ with heavy reliance on his trusted advisor‚ Cardinal Thomas Wolsey‚ but even the Cardinal could not get the annulment passed‚ hastening Wolsey’s fall from favor.   Henry was the protector of England but could not protect it because a priest in Italy could not understand the stakes. When it was suggested that the King take matters into his own hands for the good of the kingdom‚ he agreed.   The Act of Supremacy Protestant Martyr Anne Askew‚ by Hans Eworth‚ 1560‚ Source: Artuk.org   The Act of Supremacy (1534) placed the king at the head of the Church of England‚ which severed all ties with the Church of Rome. This was followed by the Treasons Act‚ making anyone who would not pledge support to the Act of Supremacy (and Henry’s divorce from Catherine and remarriage to Anne) a traitor worthy of death; the most prominent conviction under this Act was that of Sir Thomas More.   These acts did not change English religion — just politics. Henry as king was head of the Church.  Not the Pope. All Church property was accordingly redistributed — making a few rather wealthy and upsetting quite a few others (during the Pilgrimage of Grace for example). Wolsey’s successor‚ Thomas Cromwell‚ served as a scapegoat for the unpleasantness and followed More to the gallows. In ecclesiastical practices‚ the Church of England changed very little from the Church of Rome.   Religious reformers in England hoping to find safety were disappointed. Over 60 people were condemned to death (often after a turn at torture) for Protestantism/heresy under Henry VIII between 1530 and the end of his reign in 1547.   Henry’s last wife (number six for those keeping count) Catherine Parr expressed Protestant ideas at court where she risked running afoul of her husband. Henry’s heresy hunters even secured an arrest warrant for her‚ which was only reversed by the King the moment it was being served. Catherine wisely corrected her course and became a source of relative calm in the last years of Henry’s reign.   Protestantism After Henry VIII The Execution of Lady Jane Grey‚ by Paul Delaroche‚ 1833‚ Source: The National Gallery   It was some time‚ and many lives before Protestantism was safe in England: Edward VI‚ the long sought-after son of Henry VIII (via wife #3‚ Jane Seymour) succeeded in 1547‚ at the age of nine.  It was Edward’s advisors (mostly his maternal Seymour uncles) who brought Protestantism into England — clearing out the last vestiges of Catholicism that Henry had held onto. The young king‚ however‚ fell terminally ill at 16.   This encouraged the Protestant leaders in power‚ fearful of a return to Rome‚ to circumvent Edward’s successor — Princess Mary‚ the only surviving (and very Catholic) child of Catherine of Aragon (remember her&;#63;). This circumvention — a coup-d’&;eacute;tat promoting a royal cousin‚ the reluctant Lady Jane Grey — was such a hijacking of the state that even English moderates threw their support behind the woman later known as Bloody Mary. Jane was an uncrowned queen for nine days before happily handing over the crown. She was sent to the executioner to prevent her later becoming a Protestant phoenix rising in another revolt. She was just 17.   Mary Tudor‚ by Anthonis Mor‚ 1554‚ Source: Museo Del Prado   Mary’s reign lasted four years — in that time she executed over 200 Protestants earning her that sanguinary moniker — before she too died and was succeeded in 1558 by her half-sister‚ Elizabeth‚ daughter of Anne Boleyn.   Elizabeth‚ an outed Protestant at her coronation‚ admirably stated she would not build windows into men’s souls so long as they remained loyal to her. Unfortunately‚ numerous plots to overthrow or simply assassinate her by parties promoting Catholicism made those who subscribed to the religion of Rome less and less free to practice and the English government more and more hostile to “popery” during Elizabeth’s 45-year reign. Elizabeth cemented Protestantism in England because‚ like Luther — she survived.   While few reformations of the 16th century could have survived without secular support‚ their motivations were religious and political. Henry was a devoted Catholic to his end intent on securing his kingdom’s future. Henry’s “reformation” had little to do with religious ideology and everything to do with authority. To him‚ the suggestion that he was a Protestant would get the suggester sent to the gallows.

  From the times of Hippocrates and Galen to the contemporary era of the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)‚ depression‚ historically referred to as melancholia‚ has been recognized as a pervasive disorder of low mood. Critically‚ beyond ordinary “sadness‚” depression often lacks an identifiable trigger or exhibits an intensity and duration disproportionate to any specific cause. Since the mid-twentieth century depression has been treated with drugs. However‚ in the context of modern society‚ depression is connected to a complex interplay of social factors that transcend mere biochemical explanations.   The Definition of Depression Melancholy (1892) by Edvard Munch. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Depression often begins with a strange sense of detachment. Persistent sadness‚ fatigue‚ low energy‚ changes in appetite‚ weight‚ quality of sleep. In severe cases‚ feelings of worthlessness progress‚ until one is left with the pain of existing and very little else.   The prevailing modern belief is that depression is caused by chemical imbalances in the brain – and can be treated by drugs. Effective treatment can also include lifestyle changes‚ exercise‚ and therapy. Yet in particularly acute cases‚ neither pharmacological nor therapeutic intervention works. An estimated 95 percent of people who commit suicide are also clinically depressed.   The hallmark symptoms of depression have been recognized for millennia. From Hippocrates (406-370BC) – who used the term “melancholia” – to the modern Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)‚ the concept of depression is described in remarkably similar terms.   Melancholy and Humeral Theory Bust of Hippocrates‚ Greek physician and “father of medicine”‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to the Humeral Theory of Hippocrates‚ the equilibrium – health – of the human body depends on the four humors: phlegm‚ blood‚ yellow bile‚ and black bile. These vital bodily fluids‚ when imbalanced – either in excess or deficiency – caused sickness.    Hippocrates delineated melancholia – from the Greek melas (black) and khole (bile) – as a distinct disease with particular mental and physical effects. Aristotle wrote further on the dangers of black bile. Likening black bile to wine‚ he claimed that it provoked hypercondric diseases like melancholy‚ and was prone to ferment‚ producing depression and anger.    According to the Roman physician Galen (129-216 AD)‚ moderate imbalances in the humors also produced behavioral patterns‚ or “temperaments” –  melancholia being the prime example. Although Humoral Theory was disproved and supplanted by Germ Theory in the 1850s‚ the concept of melancholy‚ understood as a disorder of low mood‚ survived.     From Melancholia to Depression  “A wretched man approaching depression‚ represented by encroaching little devils”. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The modern concept of depression finds its roots in the earlier concept of melancholia‚ which spans from ancient Greece to the physicians of the early modern period. Therefore‚ to trace the history of the term “depression” is to connect it to the history of melancholia. Thus‚ while depression is sometimes perceived to be a modern disease‚ the historical evidence suggests otherwise.    Through time many ideas about melancholia have taken root. Aristotle claimed that it was associated with men of learning and a natural hazard of intellectual brilliance. Melancholy was likewise seen as “fashionable” by many eighteenth-century artists and intellectuals. In 1917‚ Sigmund Freud linked melancholia to mourning‚ albeit arguing that in mourning the world becomes ‘poor and empty’ whereas in melancholia‚ ‘it is the ego itself.’ In the late nineteenth century‚ the terms melancholia and “depression” were largely interchangeable for a time. However‚ by the mid-20th century‚ depression more or less replaced the older word.    Anti-Depressants Fluoxetine‚ brand name Prozac‚ is one of the world’s most prescribed antidepressants‚ Source: Wikimedia Commons   As melancholia became depression‚ new treatments and new ways of seeing began to emerge. By the mid-1950s‚ anti-depressant drugs marked a significant breakthrough. However‚ early options like Tricyclics and MAOIs‚ marketed under brand names such as Norpramin and Nardil were plagued by a wide range of unpleasant side effects.    Then‚ in the 1980s‚ came the SSRI revolution. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors‚ free from many of the side effects of the older generation of drugs‚ were hailed as miraculous “anti-depressants.” Yet‚ despite the success of this class of drugs‚ what was once a relatively small population treated for depression in the 1950s has ballooned into millions in the twenty-first century. Many attribute the proliferation of anti-depressants in the modern world to the prominence of aggressive‚ profit-driven pharmaceutical companies. However‚ while big pharma has effectively monetized depression‚ at the same time‚ for many people around the world‚ anti-depressants “work.”     Depression in the Modern World Melancholy (1894)‚ by Edvard Munch. Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to the sociologist of depression‚ Alain Ehrenberg‚ since the 1950s‚ depression has undergone a transformation. No longer viewed in terms of psychic pain and melancholic anguish‚ it is increasingly understood as a “pathology of action”. To be depressed signifies one’s inability to engage in work and relationships and a lack of energy to function. In a society that prioritizes individual responsibility and entrepreneurial energy above all else‚ depression poses a serious problem.    Thus‚ while depression may well be caused by low levels of serotonin – a chemical imbalance in the brain – it is therefore unquestionably a social issue: why do some people have lower levels of serotonin than others&;#63; Amidst the stresses and uncertainties of modern life: rising inequality‚ the shifting nature of work‚ saturation of social life by technology‚ and increasing social isolation of the individual‚ depression manifests as a complex interplay of social factors that transcend mere biochemical explanations.

  The Holocaust remains the greatest tragedy in modern history. The crimes committed by the Nazi Party continue to horrify generation after generation‚ demonstrating how frightening the world can be when evil men come to power.   But despite the risks involved‚ plenty of individuals were still willing to fight back against this atrocity.   Oskar Schindler was one of these brave heroes. Initially driven by greed and profit‚ he changed his attitude after witnessing the persecution of the Jewish community. With a combination of intellect‚ bribery‚ and flattery‚ he saved over one thousand Jews from the horrors of the Holocaust.   Oskar Schindler: A Man Driven By Pleasure A photograph of a young Oskar Schindler with his father‚ 1929. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Oskar Schindler was born into wealth. His family was well-known and influential in the town of Zwittau‚ with Schindler’s father owning a factory that produced farming machinery.   At the end of the First World War‚ Zwittau became part of the newly formed Czechoslovakia. The economic fallout of the conflict resulted in financial hardship for many people. But owing to his family’s wealth‚ Schindler had plenty of fun during his adolescence‚ driving cars‚ racing motorbikes‚ and attending parties.   On March 6‚ 1928‚ Schindler married a young woman named Emilie Pelzl. The father of the bride offered up a dowry of 100‚000 Czech crowns. This money was meant to help the newlyweds have a strong start in life. But Schindler instead spent it on partying and a new luxury car. He was not a faithful husband‚ frequently dating other women and having sexual affairs. However‚ Emilie did not seek a divorce.   War &; Business Opportunities A photograph of the Nazi invasion of Poland‚ 1939. Source: Military Times   1935 was a grim year for Oskar Schindler. He lost his mother‚ and the family business went bankrupt‚ forcing him to work as a salesman for a company called Moravian Electrotechnic.   The same year‚ he joined a political party: the Sudeten German Party. Members of the party wanted the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia to be part of Germany. They were also openly anti-Semitic. Yet Schindler’s decision to join the Sudeten German Party was not really political. He was interested in making business deals‚ widening his connections‚ and selling more contracts.   Hoping to make more money‚ he worked as a spy for a Nazi intelligence-gathering service called Abwehr‚ collecting information from inside Czechoslovakia for the Nazis. Following the German invasion of the Sudetenland in September 1938‚ Schindler joined the Nazi Party.   Sensing another opportunity to make money‚ Schindler followed the Nazis into Poland in September 1939. He decided to start a business selling military equipment to Germany. Schindler saw the war as a golden opportunity to make money while avoiding serving in the military.   At this point‚ the plight of the Jews did not concern Schindler. All he cared about was money.   A Change of Heart A photograph of Oskar Schindler’s factory (Emalia) in Krak&;oacute;w‚ c.1943-1944. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Through his contacts in the military‚ Oskar Schindler agreed to manufacture goods for German soldiers‚ such as mess kits and kitchenware. He set up the business in the Polish city of Krak&;oacute;w and named the factory Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik‚ also called “Emalia.”   The city around Schindler changed quickly under Nazi occupation. After the invasion of Poland‚ the Germans carried out measures that isolated and persecuted the Jewish community. They forced them to form a Jewish Council‚ wear a white armband with the Star of David‚ register their property‚ and – later on – live in an isolated ghetto. Much of Schindler’s workforce came from the Jewish community in Krak&;oacute;w. Under the new laws‚ he didn’t have to pay them as much as non-Jewish workers‚ which helped increase his profits.   In March 1941‚ the Nazis established the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto. Between 15‚000 and 20‚000 lived inside‚ surrounded by barbed-wire fences. The only Jews who could leave were those with identification labeling them as workers in a factory. This identification also kept them safe from being sent away to a concentration camp.   Though the food situation in the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto was not as bad as other ghettos in Nazi-occupied Poland‚ hunger was still a problem. After the Nazis banned the Jews from earning a wage‚ the Jews purchased their food from shops inside the ghetto using a ration card system. Schindler knew his workers were not getting enough nutrition‚ so he bought extra food for them.   This was not the only problem. Gradually‚ the Nazis removed more people from the ghetto. The actions of the Schutzstaffel (the SS) alarmed Schindler. He saw them use violence against the Jews and knew something had to be done about it.   Protecting the Jewish Workers A photograph of Amon Goeth in Krak&;oacute;w‚ 1944. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Oskar Schindler used a mixture of bribery and persuasion to ensure those in his factory were deemed essential workers in the context of the German war effort. This way‚ they avoided being sent to the extermination camps.   But there were still risks. Abraham Bankier‚ who helped Schindler finance the factory‚ almost suffered a terrible fate when he forgot his card identifying him as an essential worker. The Gestapo arrested Bankier and forced him onto a train destined for Auschwitz. Schindler managed to save him before it was too late‚ but the sight of Bankier’s terrified face was hard to shake off.   Schindler took another step to ensure his workers’ safety by altering his factory’s rosters. He listed a special skill for each worker‚ reducing the likelihood they would be taken away. But the situation worsened with the arrival of Amon Goeth.   Goeth was the new commandant of the Plaszow concentration camp. He was a violent‚ sadistic Nazi tasked with moving the Jews from the Krak&;oacute;w Ghetto to his concentration camp. This had a negative impact on Schindler’s factory. He complained about the situation‚ saying his workers arrived late and were less productive. Some of them were clearly traumatized‚ having witnessed beatings and hangings inside the concentration camp.   Hoping to save his workers from suffering or death‚ Schindler used his powers of persuasion to arrange the construction of a separate concentration camp beside his factory. This way‚ the Jews could be housed away from Goeth.   But even this scheme was far from foolproof. The accountant Itzhak Stern recalled how the SS would unexpectedly barge into the factory and inspect what was happening. Schindler would keep them distracted by bringing them to his office and offering vodka. He even bribed the SS if he had to.   Moving Back to Czechoslovakia A modern photograph of Oskar Schindler’s factory in Br&;uuml;nnlitz. Source: Smithsonian Magazine   By the middle of 1944‚ things were not looking good for the Nazis. The Soviet Army was approaching from the east‚ while British and American troops moved from the beaches of France towards the German border.   With the Soviets edging closer‚ the Nazis started to move the Jews out of Plaszow. Oskar Schindler discovered his male workers would be moved to Gross-Rosen (a concentration camp infamous for harsh conditions and hard labor) while his female workers would be taken to Auschwitz.   To prevent this from happening‚ Schindler returned to Czechoslovakia‚ looking for a new location to set up a factory and move his workers. He found a two-story building on the outskirts of Br&;uuml;nnlitz that was suitable.   Schindler had to convince the Nazis it would be good for the war effort to move his operation into Czechoslovakia away from the Soviet Army. Using a mixture of flattery and bribery‚ Schindler gained permission from superiors in Berlin. In preparation for the move‚ he compiled a list of all the Jewish workers going to the new factory.   The workers eventually arrived at the correct destination‚ but the plan did not run smoothly. The male workers initially went to Gross-Rosen for three weeks before moving to Br&;uuml;nnlitz. The female workers‚ meanwhile‚ were initially taken to Auschwitz‚ and Schindler had to intervene to ensure their safety.   By this point‚ Schindler did not care about profit anymore. He wanted to keep the Jews safe at Br&;uuml;nnlitz for the rest of the war. As food and supplies became scarce‚ Schindler spent more time bartering on the black market. He also allowed the Jews to celebrate religious festivals‚ such as Hanukkah‚ making sure to purchase extra food on these occasions.   The Final Years of Oskar Schindler A modern photograph of Oskar Schindler’s grave in Jerusalem. Source: Time   On May 7‚ 1945‚ Oskar Schindler learned from a British radio broadcast the war would end the following day. He relayed this information to his workers and delivered a speech commemorating the victims of the Holocaust.   Schindler had succeeded in protecting more than one thousand Jews from the clutches of the Nazis. But it had been an expensive operation‚ and his fortune was gone. No longer a wealthy man‚ Schindler lived in Regensburg and Munich after the war. He also provided evidence against certain Nazis‚ including Amon Goeth‚ who was hanged on September 13‚ 1946.   The final decades of Schindler’s life were not ideal. His relationship with his wife‚ which had been difficult from the beginning‚ fell apart completely. His post-war business ventures proved unsuccessful‚ though he did have financial support from the Jewish community. He even went to Israel once a year to celebrate his birthday.   A photograph of Oskar Schindler‚ 1949. Source: The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   On October 9‚ 1974‚ Schindler died of liver failure at the age of sixty-six. He was buried in Mount Zion Cemetery in Jerusalem.   The story of Oskar Schindler – which has become more popular since the release of Steven Spielberg’s Schindler’s List in 1993 – continues to intrigue and inspire. When the Second World War broke out‚ Schindler was not an honorable man. But the cruelty of the Nazis awoke something inside of him.   In the darkest of times‚ heroes often arise from unexpected places.

  The Tripartite Pact was signed on September 17‚ 1940‚ between Nazi Germany‚ fascist Italy‚ and Japan. Also known as the Berlin Pact or‚ most commonly‚ the Axis Powers‚ the Pact intended to change the established world order by pledging to provide mutual assistance in case any of the signatory parties were attacked by a foreign state not involved in World War II. This formulation sheds light on the true purpose of the alliance: to prevent the involvement of the neutral United States in World War II. The Pact also attributed spheres of influence to the participating powers. While Nazi Germany and fascist Italy embarked on dominating the European continent‚ “Greater East Asia” remained in Japan’s sphere of influence. Just a year later‚ in 1941‚ the Pact was invoked following Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The United States entered the conflict by declaring war on Japan‚ proving the Pact ineffective.   The Berlin-Rome Axis as a Prerequisite of the Tripartite Pact Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini in Munich‚ Germany‚ by Eva Braun‚ 1940‚ via National Archives Catalog   By 1933‚ Adolf Hitler had consolidated power in Germany and established the Third Reich‚ regulated by Nazi ideology. Adolf Hitler’s ideology dictated territorial expansion and racial purity. However‚ the defeat in World War I and subsequent isolation from the international arena limited the possibilities of such expansion. Hitler needed allies‚ and Italy‚ led by Benito Mussolini‚ aligned with Hitler’s views. Both countries experienced similar political disturbances after World War I‚ resulting in the rise of radical nationalism.   Like Hitler‚ Mussolini sought territorial expansion based on a fascist ideology. Besides‚ Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in October 1935 strained Italy’s relationships with Western powers‚ particularly Britain and France‚ providing additional incentive for Hitler to seek a closer alliance with Italy. Such an opportunity was provided in July 1936 during the Spanish Civil War. Mussolini assisted fascist rebels under the leadership of General Franco with military equipment. Adolf Hitler seized the opportunity and offered military assistance to General Franco as well. The provided assistance helped General Franco to become the new fascist dictator of Spain.   The German-Italian cooperation culminated on October 21‚ 1936. Following Hitler’s invitation to Berlin‚ the two leaders formed a formal alliance known as the Rome-Berlin Axis‚ pledging to follow a common foreign policy course‚ including forming a united front against their rivals‚ opposing communism in Europe‚ and recognizing the need for territorial expansion. According to Mussolini‚ “This Berlin-Rome protocol is not a barrier; it is rather an axis around which all European States animated by a desire for peace may collaborate on troubles‚” officially coining the term “Berlin-Rome Axis.”   The Berlin-Rome Axis laid the foundations for signing the Tripartite Pact‚ which further solidified the political and ideological ties between the two countries.   The Anti-Comintern Pact &; the Pact of Steel A 1940 map describing Italy’s plan to rebuild the Roman empire‚ taken from the newspaper The San Francisco Examiner‚ via Digital Public Library America   Soon after establishing the Berlin-Rome Axis‚ Japan found common ground with Germany and Italy. Japanese imperialism also dictated territorial expansion and racial superiority.   The beginning of the 1930s saw the rise of military dictatorships and powerful nationalist movements in the country. The Shōwa Emperor‚ Hirohito‚ ruled Japan from December 25‚ 1926‚ through January 7‚ 1989. His reign was the longest of any previous Japanese emperor and was characterized by totalitarianism‚ expansionism‚ and ultranationalism. Emperor Hirohito sought to acquire new‚ resource-rich territories to make room for Japan’s surplus population. Like Germany and Italy‚ Japan’s means to achieve the goal were coercive and invasive‚  culminating in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and China in 1937.   The three nations united against an international order dominated by France‚ Great Britain‚ as well as the emerging Soviet Union. The Japanese were particularly concerned with the developing relations between the Soviet Union and China. The signing of the Soviet-Chinese Non-Aggression Treaty in August 1936 further intensified Japan’s concerns as it threatened its regional influence.   The Anti-Comintern Pact between Germany and Japan‚ signed on November 15‚ 1936‚ formalized the German‚ Italian‚ and Japanese alliance and provided much-needed assurances to Japan that the spread of communism and the influence of the Soviet Union could be contained. Officially‚ it was designed to oppose the Communist International (Comintern)‚ which was advocating world communism. Italy joined the Pact in 1937.   Adolf Hitler in conversation with Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka‚ 1941‚ via Hitler Archive   On May 22‚ 1939‚ Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Friendship and Alliance‚ also known as the Treaty of Steel. The treaty further reinforced the Rome-Berlin Axis by officially pledging mutual support in case of war. Additionally‚ signing parties could not negotiate peace terms without each other’s consent. Secret clauses of the alliance called for the preparation of war and intensified the propaganda efforts.   The Pact of Steel and its clauses made clear that these nations were already in preparation for a major war to fulfill their expansionist policies. Adolf Hitler aimed to regain control over the lost territories after World War I by establishing the German Empire in Eastern Europe‚ while Mussolini sought to gain control over the Mediterranean and Africa. However‚ Mussolini was reluctant to implement the Pact of Steel’s provisions because he believed that Italy was not yet prepared for war.   These agreements intensified Soviet worries about growing threats from the fascist nations and encouraged the Soviet Union and Germany to sign the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact on August 23‚ 1939‚ just a few months later. This non-aggression pact divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence and approved of Hitler invading his sphere of influence‚ Poland‚ on September 1‚ 1939‚ marking the start of World War II.   The Signing of the Tripartite Pact &; the Establishment of the Axis Powers Poster created to enhance and strengthen the pact between Japan‚ Germany‚ and Italy by Gino Boccasile‚ 1941‚ via Rare Historical Photos   Even though Japan perceived the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact as a betrayal from the German side‚ by 1940‚ Japanese Emperor Hirohito had resumed his relationship with Germany. He perceived Nazi Germany’s successful conquests in Scandinavia and France in April–June 1940 as Western democracies’ weakness and the assurance that Nazi Germany would eventually succeed in the war. Additionally‚ during this period‚ the increased possibility of Hitler’s invasion of the United Kingdom and Japan’s advancements in northern Indochina in the summer of 1940 lessened the United States’ isolationist policy.   In July 1940‚ the US Congress passed the Two Ocean Navy Act‚ a massive fleet-building program. Soon‚ President Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to reposition the Pacific Fleet to Pearl Harbor on the Hawaiian Islands‚ expanding the American defensive perimeter. These moves indicated that President Franklin D. Roosevelt was preparing to intervene in World War II.   Signing ceremony for the Axis Powers Tripartite Pact by Hoffman‚ 1940‚ via US Department of Defense   To draw the Axis powers together and deter American involvement in the war‚ Adolf Hitler‚ Imperial Japan’s Ambassador to Germany‚ Saburō Kurusu‚ and Count Galeazzo Ciano‚ Mussolini’s son-in-law‚ gathered in Berlin. Building on the existing treaties (the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Pact of Steel)‚ the Tripartite Pact was signed on September 17‚ 1940‚ in Berlin‚ Germany.   The signatories pledged to provide mutual assistance in case of an attack by a state not involved in World War II or the Sino-Japanese conflict‚ referring to the United States. The Pact also stipulated non-aggression‚ the commitment to settle any existing conflict between the signatories with peaceful means‚ and non-interference in achieving each country’s strategic territorial and foreign policy goals.   The Tripartite Pact united Germany‚ Italy‚ and Japan based on similar geo-strategic aims: the dissolution of the post-World War I international order created by the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919 that had humiliated German‚ Italian‚ and Japanese nations and shrank their imperial spaces.   A political cartoon suggesting that the United States Congress feels pressured to respond to fascist aggression‚ 1939‚ via Digital Public Library of America   The Axis countries signed a second agreement known as the “No Separate Peace Agreement.” The revised accord‚ created on December 8 and signed on December 11‚ contained four provisions that specified that neither Germany‚ Italy‚ nor Japan would consent to peace terms with the United States or Britain on their terms. If the Axis powers won the war‚ it was additionally implied that the three countries would cooperate to establish a “new order in the world.”   In response‚ President Franklin D. Roosevelt decided to seize Japanese property and money in the United States and declared an embargo on exports of necessary materials such as oil‚ steel‚ and iron to Japan. Other Western nations‚ including Great Britain and the Netherlands‚ joined the embargo. As isolation and financial crises threatened Japan‚ authorities were forced to act‚ resulting in a surprise strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service against the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor on December 7‚ 1941. The United States entered the war. The other Axis powers‚ Germany and Italy‚ declared war against the United States on December 11‚ 1941.   The Axis Powers would eventually oppose the Allied powers—Great Britain‚ the United States‚ and the Soviet Union—during World War II.   Allies of the Tripartite Pact &; Its Influence Pearl Harbor‚ Thick smoke rolls out of a burning ship during the attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese‚ December 7‚ 1941‚ via National Archives Catalog   The Axis Powers managed to align with different European countries without them formally joining the Tripartite Pact. For example‚ Hungary‚ Romania‚ and Bulgaria became close allies of the Axis powers and joined the war on the side of Nazi Germany‚ contributing to the military operations in Europe. Finland‚ although it did not officially join the Tripartite Pact‚ fought against the Soviet Union with Germany.   The defensive alliance under the Tripartite Pact was never invoked‚ but the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis managed to form a united front against the Allies through a combination of political coordination‚ propaganda‚ economic cooperation‚ and military collaboration‚ presenting a formidable challenge to the Allied powers during World War II.   Encouraged by the Tripartite Pact‚ the Axis Powers employed aggressive policies. Italy‚ for example‚ invaded Greece in October 1940. Facing strong resistance and suffering defeats‚ Adolf Hitler intervened in the Greco-Italian War to support Mussolini.   Even though the signing of the Tripartite Pact was not the direct reason for the start of World War II‚ the Axis Powers’ pledge for coordinated military actions and support of each other’s expansionist policies contributed to the escalation and expansion of it‚ drawing or aligning multiple countries in conflict. The Tripartite Pact was dissolved following the defeat of the Axis Powers in World War II in 1945.

  Employing Native Americans as ‘Code Talkers’ for encrypted battlefield conversations first occurred during the Great War. Cherokee speakers served with the U.S. Army‚ transmitting messages at the 2nd Battle of the Somme. Other Native American soldiers‚ the Comanche and Osage‚ served in different units. In total‚ nine Native American languages provided a secure communication method.   Native American languages as a code became known between the World Wars. By the 1930s‚ many Native American languages used or developed their own Latin alphabet. Nazi Germany even sent anthropologists to study those languages. They also used newspapers‚ opinion polls‚ or ads to discourage Native Americans from enlisting. However‚ the Navajo spoke a complex language‚ unlike other tribes. First‚ few outside the Navajo Nation spoke it fluently‚ and not having an alphabet made it a good choice for battlefield use. At best‚ only a handful of people spoke a smattering of Navajo.   Navajo Encryption Navajo Nation. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The gist for using Navajo for coded conversations occurred to Philip Johnston‚ a civil engineer‚ in 1942. Johnston had grown up on the Navajo Reservation‚ being the son of a Christian missionary. He spoke conversational Navajo and knew its uniqueness. With that knowledge and the Great War example of code talkers‚ he approached the U.S. Marines Corps.   Johnston demonstrated with several Navajos how unintelligible radio conversations could be. The Marines bought in; Johnston enlisted with twenty-nine Navajos. These initial soldiers worked with a cryptologist‚ using word substitution. Nonexistent words in Navajo got different terms‚ such as submarine‚ which turned into “iron fish.”   The first cipher contained 211 words‚ which increased to 700 by 1945. According to the U.S. Marine Corps‚ the Navajo Code remains modern history’s only unbroken military code. Besides the cipher‚ the lack of a Navajo alphabet meant no writing existed for the language to be hacked. Famous examples of World War II codes proving vulnerable are Nazi Germany’s Enigma machine by Great Britain and the U.S. Navy’s breaking the Imperial Japanese Navy code before Midway.    The program did encounter problems. First‚ there were only a certain number of qualified candidates to meet demands. Navajo is not a widely spoken language‚ unlike Spanish. As Marines‚ each Navajo needed to pass basic training as any Marine recruit would‚ using weapons‚ including speaking English and Navajo. Next came radio training‚ which involved sending messages and using the radios. Their final training was code talking‚ learning the codes‚ and helping develop them more.    Codes in World War II The Navajo Code Talker Memorial in Window Rock‚ Arizona. Katherine Locke/NHO. Source: iStock.   Eventually‚ 400 Code Talkers served in the PTO or Pacific Theater of Operations. From the Guadalcanal landings to the deadly 1945 Okinawa fighting‚ Navajo radio operators facilitated the fighting‚ their secure communications frustrating the Imperial Army. They couldn’t make sense of the weird sounds and words being broadcasted&;#33;   The Japanese captured a Navajo soldier‚ Joe Kieyoomia‚ in 1941‚ conquering the Philippines. Kieyoomia served before the Code Talkers existed. The Imperial Army learned that the Code Talkers used Navajo‚ but no one knew how. They tortured Kieyoomia regularly‚ making him listen to transmissions. He recognized his language but only as babble. It remained a mystery for the duration of the war.   They Played a Key Role in Island Landings Carl Nelson Gorman‚ one of the original 29 Navajo code talkers‚ tracks enemy movements on Saipan. 1944. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Navajo Code Talkers landed on the main beaches with Marine communication units. Only one Code Talker died in fighting out of hundreds. Their commanders happily praised the Code Talkers for their speed and efficiency. They reported critical information like enemy troop movements‚ fire support‚ coordinate operations‚ casualties‚ and unit changes. Their units landed on all the major‚ critical campaigns‚ such as Guadalcanal‚ Tarawa‚ and Iwo Jima. At Iwo Jima‚ a Marine commander bluntly stated the Navajo’s communications skills were the primary reason the Marines won. The small island’s importance as an unsinkable airfield became critical.   Success and Legacy 2015 Code Talker. Source: USMC   The Navajo Code Talkers triumphed‚ remaining an unbreakable code and happily approved by their fellow Marines. The reason is simple – being a tribal language‚ it was only translatable to native speakers. Transmissions were made in the clear. And this disturbed the Japanese badly. Japanese intelligence used English speakers to confuse and ambush Marines‚ so Navajo always remained an obstacle. Navajo Code’s other advantage was nothing needed to be developed from scratch. The Navajo Code Talkers showed the importance of tribal languages in the U.S.‚ helping preserve their language‚ and using their exclusive skills to help win a war.