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  Nero was the fifth emperor of Rome‚ and the last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Nowadays‚ he is best known for his tyranny‚ murderous cruelty‚ decadence‚ and the Great Fire of Rome. However‚ Nero was a more complex figure. He was a reluctant emperor‚ installed to the throne by his ambitious mother‚ empress Agrippina the Younger. It was Agrippina who had convinced her husband – Emperor Claudius – to secure the throne for her only son. After Claudius’ death‚ mother and son ruled together. But Agrippina’s meddling in politics and her son’s personal life led to a cooling of the relationship‚ eventually culminating in Agrippina’s infamous murder. From that point until his death‚ Nero ruled as a sole emperor‚ an autocrat who constantly clashed with the Senate‚ which ultimately cost him his life.   Nero Was a Reluctant Emperor Marble statue of young Nero‚ 50-54 CE‚ Louvre Museum‚ Paris   The future Roman Emperor Nero was born in 37 CE as Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. He was the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger‚ a great-granddaughter of the first Emperor Augustus and sister of the late Emperor Caligula. This made Nero a member of the most prestigious Roman family – the Julio-Claudian dynasty. However‚ Nero’s place on the throne was not assured. Nor did the sixteen-year-old want it. Nero was more of an artist than a ruler.   His ambitious mother‚ however‚ thought differently‚ and did all in her power to persuade her uncle and husband – Emperor Claudius – to adopt Nero as his heir instead of his nephew Britannicus. Agrippina was also instrumental in arranging the marriage of Nero and Claudius’s daughter‚ Octavia‚ in 53 CE‚ which further solidified Nero’s claim. She also employed one of the best minds in the Roman Empire‚ Seneca‚ a famous philosopher‚ to tutor her son and teach Nero how to rule.   Agrippina Secured Throne for Nero Chalcedony cameo portrait bust of Agrippina the Younger‚ 37-39 CE‚ The British Museum   Agrippina the Younger was the driving force behind Nero’s rise to power. She used her influence over Emperor Claudius to promote Nero’s interests and eliminate his rivals. After Claudius officially adopted Nero in 50 CE‚ he granted his adoptive son the title of princeps iuventutis (leader of the youth). Nero could make public appearances and speeches‚ allowing him to meet his future subjects. Agrippina also secured the loyalty of the Praetorian Guard‚ instrumental in the imperial succession‚ through her favorite – the praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus. Thus‚ when Emperor Claudius died in 54 (allegedly after eating poisoned mushrooms given by Agrippina)‚ the ambitious woman set her plan in motion. Nero was proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and with the Senate’s approval. The 17-year-old was now master of the Roman Empire.    Agrippina Ruled Through Her Son Agrippina the Younger crowns her son Nero emperor‚ relief from the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias‚ ca. 54 – 59 CE‚ Sebasteion-Sevgi Gönül Gallery‚ Aphrodisias. Source: Oxford University Open Content   However‚ in this early stage of his reign‚ the boy emperor was overshadowed by his ambitious mother; Agrippina ruled through her son. The extent of Agrippina’s influence can be best seen in depictions of the imperial family‚ especially on the coinage minted in the first years of Nero’s reign. One of the earliest coins features Agrippina on the obverse — the place traditionally reserved for the emperor. Other coins show a joint portrait of mother and son‚ suggesting an equal relationship. The most striking example of Agrippina’s power is the relief from Aphrodisias (in modern-day Western Turkey)‚ where Agrippina is portrayed as the source of the emperor’s authority‚ crowning her son.   The Mother – Son Relationship Soured Quickly Head of Nero‚ from a larger than life statue‚ after 64 CE‚ Glyptothek‚ Munich   However‚ the “honeymoon” did not last for long. Agrippina’s increased meddling in imperial politics and her son’s private life soured the relationship between mother and son. Fearing Agrippina may use Britannicus against him‚ Nero poisoned his stepbrother and co-ruler in 55 CE. The already bad relationship between mother and son turned worse when Nero started an affair with an ex-slave girl‚ Claudia Acte. The marriage with Octavia was purely political affair. Thus‚ when Agrippina tried to befriend Octavia‚ Nero exiled his mother from the Palace. However‚ Agrippina’s influence continued manifesting through her allies at the court‚ such as Seneca or Burrus. Nero had to get rid of his mother if he wanted to establish himself as a sole ruler.   Nero Eliminated Agrippina‚ Becoming the Sole Emperor The Shipwreck of Agrippina‚ Gustave Wertheimer‚ 19th century‚ private collection   After Octavia’s banishment and subsequent death‚ the situation escalated quickly. Agrippina never approved of Nero’s marriage with Poppea Sabina. Ambitious like his mother‚ Poppea was probably behind Octavia’s demise and had a hand in Agrippina’s murder. After Agrippina’s plot to remove her son from the throne failed‚ Nero decided to eliminate his problematic mother. The sources on Agrippina’s death differ and contradict each other‚ but they all agree that Agrippina survived several assassination attempts. The most infamous one involved a self-sinking pleasure barge from which Agrippina miraculously escaped‚ able to swim ashore. However‚ Agrippina’s luck finally ran out in 56 CE.    After the death of his mother‚ Nero became the sole emperor. However‚ his involvement in Agrippina’s demise further widened the gap between Nero and the Senate. Nero had the support of the people and the army‚ but the Senate had connections and influence. Eventually‚ the conflict with the Senate would lead to Nero’s death and vilification of his name for future generations. 

  The Greco-Persian Wars have long stuck in the minds of those who study the ancient world. Although this series of battles had a significant impact on ancient Greece‚ including its history‚ literature‚ and identity‚ there is more to the relationship between ancient Greece and the Persian Empire. Furthermore‚ we only have the Greek perspective on this relationship‚ so it’s important to keep that in mind when discussing it. This article will examine the relationship between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire before‚ during‚ and after the wars.   Greco-Persian Relations Before the 5th Century Red-figured hydria‚ artist unknown‚ 400-380 BCE. Source: British Museum‚ London   Despite what more popular depictions of the Greco-Persian Wars may say‚ the relationship between the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire was not entirely antagonistic‚ especially before the 5th century BCE. The Greek city-states and the Persian Empire had a strong trade relationship‚ leading to the spread of goods‚ clothing styles (see above image)‚ and art through mainland Greece. Before the Greco-Persian Wars‚ it was a sign of power for upper-class Greeks‚ particularly Athenians‚ to emulate Persian dress and customs.   In addition to a trade relationship‚ the Greek city-states and the Persian Empire also had a political relationship. There were official envoys from Greek city-states that would be received in one of the capitals of the Persian Empire. For example‚ although this is after the Greco-Persian Wars‚ Antalcidas was a Spartan politician and envoy to Persia in the 4th century. Persian kings often invited Greek artists and orators to their courts‚ with the Athenian tragedian Euripides being one such example.   Stater of Ionian Revolt‚ artist unknown‚ 498-494 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts‚ Boston   Another factor that complicated the relationship between Greece and Persia was the status of the Greek city-states in Ionia. Ionia was a region on present-day Turkey’s coast with Greek colonies. The Lydians had initially conquered the colonies in around 560 BCE. However‚ Cyrus the Great eventually took down the Lydians and brought the area under the Persian Empire. From then on‚ the Ionian cities would become restless Persian subjects leading to the Ionian Revolt in the early 5th century.   Relief from palace of Darius‚ artist unknown. Source: British Museum‚ London   The Ionian Revolt (499-493 BCE) is seen as the unofficial beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars by many scholars‚ as it involved the military rebellions of multiple Greek areas of Ionia against the Persian Empire. The areas that rebelled included Aeolis‚ Cyprus‚ Caria‚ Miletus‚ Naxos‚ and more. The revolt lasted around six years‚ beginning in 499 and ending in 493 with a Persian victory. Although the Greek city-states of Athens and Eretria offered their support‚ they were unable to substantially help Miletus and the rest of the revolting regions. In fact‚ their intervention placed them on Darius I’s (Darius the Great) radar.   Darius’ Invasion of Greece Monument to Marathon‚ artist unknown‚ ~460 BCE. Source: Institute of Classical Studies   In 492‚ only one year after the end of the Ionian Revolt‚ Darius I began an invasion of Greece‚ starting with territories in the Aegean. Before making it to mainland Greece‚ the Persian military conquered Macedon and some islands off the coast of Greece. By the time the fleet landed and began marching toward Athens‚ it was 490. At this point‚ the only major battle in mainland Greece during this invasion occurred: the Battle of Marathon.   Athenian hoplites cut off the Persian military’s path to Athens and fended them off in this battle. Most of the information for Marathon (and the second invasion‚ as well) comes from Herodotus‚ a Greek historian. Herodotus’ account describes a much smaller Athenian army (in addition to some forces from Plataea) taking on the large Persian military in an attempt to prevent them from capturing Athens.   Terracotta Nolan‚ artist unknown‚ 480-470 BCE. Source: MET‚ New York   The Persian fleet still attempted to sail to the undefended city‚ but the Athenian military hurried back and intercepted them‚ forcing them to sail back to Persia.   It was also in this battle that the famous origin of the marathon race came about. Before the battle‚ one Athenian named Pheidippides was tasked with running to Sparta from Marathon to seek aid for the battle‚ which he did. Sparta could not make it in time due to a religious festival. Pheidippides had to run back to Marathon within only a few days‚ and after the battle‚ he was tasked with running another 42.195 km (the exact distance of the Marathon race) back to Athens to inform the city of the victory. Pheidippides successfully made it to Athens‚ announced that “we won”‚ and died.   The victory at Marathon ended the first invasion of Greece‚ which‚ in reality‚ was a campaign in the Aegean and the northern countries above Greece‚ with only one battle occurring on the mainland. Although this invasion has often been seen as a failure for the Persian Empire‚ they conquered many territories and re-subjugated Thrace before their loss at Marathon.   Xerxes’ Invasion of Greece Jar with inscriptions of Xerxes‚ artist unknown‚ 485-465 BCE. Source: MET‚ New York   Ten years after the Battle of Marathon‚ Darius’ son‚ Xerxes I‚ began the second invasion of Greece in 480. According to Herodotus‚ he wished to finish his father’s campaign‚ but that is only one guess as to why Xerxes decided to resume the invasion. Once again‚ Herodotus is the main source for this invasion‚ and many aspects of it are even more exaggerated than Darius’ invasion.   Unlike the first invasion of Greece‚ where Athens was the only city-state that faced off against the Persian Empire‚ the second invasion brought more of the Greek city-states together. Although the Athenian role is still emphasized in Herodotus’ works‚ multiple cities formed an alliance to fight the Persian military. The invasion lasted only one year‚ but there were multiple notable battles that occurred in these twelve months.   Leonidas at Thermopylae by Jacques-Louis David‚ 1814. Source: Louvre‚ Paris   After the Persian fleet crossed the Hellespont and landed on mainland Greece‚ they first encountered Greek forces at Thermopylae‚ a pass that was defended by Sparta and its allies until the Greek forces were defeated. After Thermopylae‚ the Persian army marched to Athens and ransacked the city‚ burning the Acropolis and destroying religious sanctuaries. This act was one of the most significant events in the 5th century for Athens‚ and it would greatly impact the relationship between the Persian Empire and the city-state.   Bay of Salamis drawing by William Simpson. Source: British Museum‚ London   After the sack of Athens‚ the city-state met the Persian forces in a naval battle at Salamis‚ giving the Athenians a victory and contributing to their naval pride. The final major battle happened nearly a year later at Plataea with a large alliance of Greek forces from Sparta‚ Athens‚ Corinth‚ Megara‚ and other city-states. At this point‚ Xerxes had returned to Persia‚ leaving his general Mardonius in charge of the remaining campaign. After Mardonius’ loss at Plataea‚ the Greco-Persian Wars are seen as over by some. However‚ the conflict would continue in the Aegean and beyond for around three more decades‚ ending around 449 with the Peace of Callias (whose date is debated).   Ancient Representations Bust of Herodotus‚ artist unknown‚ 2nd CE. Source: MET‚ New York   As already mentioned‚ the relationship between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states was not always hostile. However‚ during the 5th century‚ there was a notable shift in how Persia was represented in art and discussed in literature‚ which evidently ties in with the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars.   Due to a lack of primary sources‚ Herodotus informs much of our knowledge on how the Persian Empire was represented in literature around the 5th and 4th centuries. However‚ he contributes to a trend seen in other representations of the Persian Empire that frame the empire as the one true enemy of Greece‚ which has helped shape the more modern interpretation of the Greco-Persian Wars as a divide between “East” and “West.”   Herodotus begins his account of the Greco-Persian Wars by recounting the history of the Persian Empire and its kings‚ but his characterization of Xerxes‚ the king responsible for the second invasion of Greece‚ follows a pattern of portraying the man as effeminate‚ hubristic‚ and careless. For example‚ there is the famous scene of Xerxes whipping the Hellespont after his forces were unable to cross. This scene only appears first in Herodotus and then later in authors who have read his works‚ but it has still become part of how Xerxes is remembered‚ despite the high probability that it is not true.   Marble relief from Parthenon frieze by Pheidias‚ 438-432 BCE. Source: British Museum   In addition to a shift in how the Persian Empire is represented in literature‚ we also see new artistic representations. Following the destruction of Athens after the Battle of Thermopylae‚ Pericles‚ an Athenian politician‚ began a reconstruction campaign on the Acropolis. As part of this reconstruction‚ he funded the Parthenon‚ which replaced the former temple of Athena that had been destroyed by the Persian military.   The frieze running along the Parthenon’s top depicted Athenian mythological heroes in scenes like the Amazonomachy (battle between Greeks and Amazons) and the Centauromachy (battle between Greeks and centaurs)‚ which are often perceived as representing the battle between Greeks and barbarians or in this case probably the Greeks and the Persians. Furthermore‚ the frieze was likely influenced by Persian reliefs such as the ones from Persepolis.   Greece &; Persia: A Shifting Relationship  Kylix of Greek and Persian soldiers‚ artist unknown‚ 460 BCE. Source: National Museum of Scotland‚ Edinburgh   We do not have much evidence of the Greco-Persian Wars from the Persian Empire‚ so it’s difficult to say if these wars had anywhere near the name impact as they did on the Greek city-states‚ particularly Athens. However‚ it’s important to remember that the Persian Empire was enormous. While the failure to conquer mainland Greece may have had some impact‚ it didn’t erase the amount of power or territory that Xerxes had in the 5th century. Nevertheless‚ it is interesting to see how the relationship between these two ancient powers shifted over time. Prior to the 5th century‚ they had a relationship built on trade‚ and elites in Greece would spend money imitating Persian dress and buying Persian art and goods. Additionally‚ there were few artistic representations of the empire.   With the beginning of the Greco-Persian Wars‚ we see a shift in how the Persian Empire is represented in literature and art. They were now rebranded as the effeminate enemy of Greece; a common enemy that helped bolster national identity. Also‚ the Greek wins during the Persian Wars were perceived as major blows to Persian imperial power. Although this interpretation is far from the truth‚ it is important to understand where it came from and how the relationship between Greece and the Persian Empire changed due to the wars.

  Few faces are as iconic as that of Nefertiti. The bust uncovered in 1912 cemented her as one of the most recognizable historical figures to ever live. However‚ behind that image is one of the most fascinating and unique players in Egyptian history. Her story is every bit as enchanting as the timeless art that has made her so famous but also one that is mired with uncertainty and differences of interpretation‚ which means no two reconstructions of her life are the same. However‚ we can draw a general picture of this fascinating woman.   Married to the legendary heretic Pharaoh Akhenaten‚ together they instituted a religious revolution that cast aside Egypt’s old gods and favored the exclusive worship of the Aten sun disc. Although the revolution did not long outlast its instigators‚ Nefertit’s actions endured as one of the most controversial and hotly debated periods of Egyptian history.   The Beautiful One Has Come Bust of Nefertiti. Source: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin   The uncertainty begins with her origins. Nefertiti’s name means ‘The Beautiful One Has Come’‚ but come from where?   The only concrete thing we know about her childhood is that she had a wet nurse named Tey. Tey was the wife of a prominent courtier called Ay‚ whose name should be familiar to anyone who has delved into this period before. Ay began his career under Amenhotep III and continued through Akhenaten and his successors‚ becoming a vizier under Tutankhamun and finally pharaoh after the boy king’s death. Some historians posit that Ay was the brother of Queen Tiye‚ which explains his high rank and access to the corridors of power.   Painting of Ay (right) from Tutankhamun’s Tomb. Image via National Geographic‚   It has been proposed that Nefertiti was Ay’s daughter. Inscriptions relating to Ay’s son Nakhtmin imply the existence of an earlier wife who could be Nefertiti’s mother as well. This first wife might have died in childbirth‚ explaining her absence from the historical record‚ and Tey took up the role of raising Nefertiti. Additionally‚ Ay proudly bore the title of ‘God’s Father’‚ which had often been held by the father of the Queen.   Having Ay as her father would explain how Nefertiti secured such a prestigious marriage while having Nefertiti as his daughter explains Ay’s continued prominence in the royal court.   A Path to Revolution Relief of Akhenaton as a Sphinx‚ 1349–1336 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts Boston   Wherever she came from‚ Nefertiti managed to secure a betrothal to Amenhotep IV‚ the man who would soon become Akhenaten.   Nefertiti first appears in tomb artwork for prominent court officials within the first few years of the reign. These early depictions were already adopting the characteristic features of the Amarna style‚ such as misshapen skulls‚ extended limbs‚ wide hips‚ and bulging paunches. It was the first hint of the changes to come.   Queens had a duty to provide Pharaoh with children‚ and Nefertiti was no slouch on that front. Their eldest daughter‚ Meritaten‚ was born before the end of year two‚ and their second‚ Meketaten‚ by the end of year four. Their names are a clear sign of their parents’ devotion to their solar deity.   Where this devotion to the Aten came from is unknown. Amenhotep III had favored the Aten towards the end of his life‚ but Akhenaten’s obsession was peculiarly intense. One might speculate that Nefertiti‚ the new variable introduced to the royal scene‚ could be behind it. Alternatively‚ Akhenaten might have been nursing his intense devotion quietly until he came to power and then unleashed it upon the country.   Talatat block originally from the Gem-pa-Aten showing Nefertiti giving praise to the Aten. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It’s possible that the royal couple was making a statement against the powerful priesthood of the god Amun‚ which by this point controlled vast amounts of land and wealth. Around year four‚ they erected a temple to the Aten named the Gem-pa-Aten inside Amun’s sacred temple complex at Karnak. It was a blatant intrusion of the other god’s domain‚ a snub towards the priests‚ and a signal that the Aten superseded all other deities.   Nefertiti appeared prominently in this temple‚ as did her daughters. She was shown in some scenes smiting Egypt’s enemies‚ an act usually reserved for Pharaohs alone. It was a clear statement from Nefertiti and her husband: they were willing to break the rules‚ and they were only getting started.   Signs of a Struggle?   By year five‚ the Aten revolution was well underway. The royal couple adopted new names to celebrate this — Amenhotep became Akhenaten (One Who is Beneficial to the Aten) while Nefertiti added Neferneferuaten (Perfect Beauty of the Aten) to her name. They also relocated the royal court to a new city at Akhet-Aten‚ modern-day Amarna.   Boundary stela from Amarna suggest that this move might not have been voluntary. Fragmentary inscriptions allude to Akhenaten’s hearing of ‘terrible things’ that motivated his decision to relocate. Had the people grown tired of the royal couple’s change already? Had the priests of Amun put up a fight? We simply don’t know what happened‚ only that Akhenaten and Nefertiti left Thebes and‚ it seems‚ never returned again.   The Amarna Project Boundary Stela N at Amarna as it appeared in 1907 (top) and a reconstruction (bottom). Source: Amarna Project   From this new city‚ Akhenaten and Nefertiti embarked on a radical religious project. Their lavish new city‚ with its wide open roads and fine noble houses‚ was also home to sprawling temple complexes and royal palaces. The elites were given marvelous rock-cut tombs around the city‚ signaling Akhenaten and Nefertit’s commitment to making the city a home for eternity.   Here‚ the Amarna art style crystallized. Countless scenes depicted Akhenaten and Nefertiti with their ever-growing royal family. Unlike traditional Egyptian art‚ all gods save the Aten are absent and instead we see visions of family life. Depictions include Akhenaten and Nefertiti playing with their children or enjoying family meals‚ a stark departure from the formulaic battle and ritual scenes typical of Egyptian art.   The emphasis on family was amplified by more daughters. Nefertiti gave birth to at least four more at or just before moving to Amarna: Ankhesenpaaten around year 5‚ followed by Neferneferuaten-Tasherit‚ Neferneferure‚ and Setepenre at the new city‚ all bearing suitably solar names. Debate has also raged over whether Nefertiti bore any sons. The parents of Tutankhamun and the elusive Smenkhkare are a constant topic of debate and‚ as the Chief Royal Wife‚ she is a strong candidate. However‚ there is no particular evidence that makes her their mother. Smenkhkare might well be a brother or nephew of Akhenaten rather than a son‚ and DNA might favor a union between Akhenaten and one of his sisters as the origin of Tut. Until and unless new evidence emerges‚ the question of Nefertit’s sons remains wide open.   Nefertiti and Akhenaten with three daughters beneath the rays of Aten‚ now housed in the Aegyptisches Museum‚ Berlin. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nefertiti continued to play a prominent role in public life. She took daily chariot rides with her husband along the city’s main route‚ which proudly displayed her power while flaunting the traditional prohibition on women riding in such a manner. Nefertiti also appears in scenes bestowing honors upon various officials‚ placing her at the center of elite politics.   The glory of Amarna culminated in year 12 when the royal couple hosted a dazzling festival there. Dignitaries from foreign lands flocked to Amarna to partake in the feasts and festivities. It might have been to commemorate the completion of the city‚ or the suppression of a rebellion in Nubia‚ or perhaps just a whim of the royal couple. Nefertiti and her daughters featured prominently in the celebrations and nobles would later fill their tombs with scenes depicting the momentous occasion.   Amarna seemed to be an idyllic paradise for Nefertiti‚ but this utopia would soon be shattered by tragedy.   Utopia Shattered Relief from Room γ of the Amarna Royal Tomb. The bottom register is believed to depict Akhenaten and Nefertiti mourning the dead Meketaten. Image via Jacobus van Dijk and Peter James Brand ‘The Death of Meketaten’‚ (2007)‚   Not long after the year 12 festival‚ death tore through Amarna.   In less than two years‚ Neferitt lost at least three of her daughters: Meketaten‚ Setepenre‚ and Neferneferure all died. The aged Queen Tiye also passed on. A number of other Amarna figures also suddenly dropped out of the historical record around this period‚ including Akhenaten’s only known secondary wife‚ Kiya.   The sudden death or disappearance of multiple people in a short span of time has led to speculation that a plague gripped the city. Some Egyptologists have suggested that it was brought into Amarna by one of the countless foreign visitors during the year 12 festival.   Very little information survives from these final years of Akhenaten’s reign. It appears that work on tombs and temples ground to a halt in the city — possibly a labor shortage caused by the plague or a general collapse in social and economic order.   Nefertiti herself all but vanishes from our sources at this point. In fact‚ it was long speculated that she had died along with so many others until an inscription mentioning her in year 16 indicated that she survived a while longer.   Succeeding Akhenaten Nefertiti on royal barges and towboats‚ 1349-1346 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Art Boston   Akhenaten died after 17 years on the throne. The circumstances and chronology of his death and final years are infamously obscure and have spawned an array of theories.   The ever-frustrating presence of Smenkhkare in the Amarna chronology is the first obstacle. Modern Egyptology is leaning towards Smenkhkare as Akhenaten’s immediate successor‚ but this is by no means a consensus. If so‚ then Nefertiti would have been a queen dowager while her daughter Meritaten became full queen.   However‚ Smenkhkare’s short reign opened the path for a new Pharaoh: Neferneferuaten. The identity of Neferneferuaten has attracted fierce debate but most Egyptologists come down into one of two camps: mother or daughter‚ Nefertiti or Meritaten.   Neferneferuaten’s name immediately supports Nefertiti‚ who assumed that name at the same time that Akhenaten took up his Aten name. Nefertiti’s prominence in court and the connections she must inevitably have made from a career at the apex of Egypt’s political system could have easily paved her way into power. Women did not typically rule as Pharaohs‚ but Nefertiti had been anything but traditional‚ and women like Hatshepsut had wielded the crook and flail in the past. With Smenkhkare dead and Tut still a young child‚ Nefertiti could feasibly have assumed power in the meantime.   Statue of an Amarna Princess‚ usually believed to be Meritaten. Source: Louvre   The identification of Mertiaten as this Pharaoh rests on less stable ground. She was the widow of Smenkhkare but not necessarily more powerful than her mother‚ given the latter’s longer political career. Neferneferuaten shares some royal titulary with Smenkhkare‚ which could be an homage from a widow to her husband‚ but royal titulary had been repeated by Pharaohs in the past. Additionally‚ many of those who support Mertiaten’s candidacy do so on the assumption that Nefertiti was dead by this point‚ which is far from certain.   The Nefertiti identification seems more likely‚ but new evidence could change that.   The Fall of Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti The Mask of Tutankhamun‚ which some scholars have argued was originally made for Neferneferuaten. Source: Wikimedia Commons‚   Assuming she was Pharaoh Neferneferuaten‚ then Nefertiti’s time at the helm of the Two Lands was be brief. There are very few references to this Pharaoh‚ and she only ruled for about two or three years.   Nefertiti’s reign might have seen the first steps towards reversing the Atenist revolution. References to scribes of Amun in Thebes during her reign suggest that the proscriptions against the old god of Karnak had been rolled back. An inscription mentions that a mansion of Pharaoh existed in Thebes too‚ although administration remained in Amarna for her reign.   We know nothing of the circumstances of her death. Although her tomb has never been found‚ many burial goods of Neferneferuaten are known. These goods come almost entirely from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Several items — perhaps including Tut’s iconic burial mask — show traces of Neferneferuaten’s name before being reworked for the boy king.   The reason for this is unclear. The fact that these goods were available suggests they either weren’t used for Nefettiti’s burial or were taken out of that burial to be reused for Tut. Both possibilities are a bad sign for Nefertiti. To be denied a royal burial or have it pillaged was a tremendous insult and was tantamount to being erased from history.   Therefore‚ did Nefertiti do something that caused her burial to be denied or desecrated? Her links with the hated Atenist revolution and Akhenaten himself could have exposed her to backlash. The immediate conservative pivot of Tut’s reign also hints at some sort of visceral reaction to the Atenist project. Was she a victim of anti-Atenist persecution? Was her reign one of unrest and resentment from a populace that hated her solar religion? Even if she did roll back those reforms‚ it might have been too little too late. When she died – however she died — it seems she had not earned much respect from those who laid her to rest.   Forgetting Nefertiti The defacement of the Amarna-era KV55 coffin was typical of anti-Amarna erasure efforts. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Nefertiti and the entire Amarna period were erased from history by later Pharaohs who wanted to expunge the blot of the heretical Atenist experiment from the records. Every name‚ every inscription‚ every painting referencing Nefertiti was destroyed or dismantled‚ condemning her to oblivion for millennia.   Nefertiti was lost to history for three thousand years until excavations at Amarna rediscovered her in the late 19th century. Unorthodox as her life may have been‚ even the archaeologists re-discovering her probably only expected Nefertiti to become another one of thousands of names known to Egyptology — pulled from the abyss of history but then condemned to scholarly tomes and the curiosity of Egyptophiles forever more‚ but thanks to a single discovery‚ that was not going to happen.   The Iconic Nefertiti Bust Visitors view the Nefertiti Bust in Berlin. Source: Staatliche Museen zu Berli   On 6th December 1912‚ excavators in Amarna were uncovering a sculptor’s workshop when they found something remarkable. Buried upside down in the sand was an unprecedented example of ancient Egyptian portraiture. A bust‚ still brightly painted‚ depicting Queen Nefertiti in her prime.   The Nefertiti Bust is one of the most iconic images of Egyptology and has made her an eminently recognizable figure well beyond Egyptology. Nefertiti’s name and image are a byword for beauty and feminine power‚ inspiring novels‚ artwork‚ fashion‚ music‚ and more. The later discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb and the continual fascination with Akhenaten and the Atenist phenomenon over the past century have only raised her profile.   The Nefertiti Bust now sits in the Neues Museum in Berlin‚ where its presence continues to cause friction between Egypt and Germany. Adolf Hitler was once advised to return the bust to Egypt as a sign of goodwill and to secure a potential alliance against the British. The dictator refused‚ stating plainly that‚ “I will never relinquish the head of the Queen.”   Nefertiti’s secrets still grab headlines. Scholar Nicholas Reeves has gained much attention in recent years with claims that Neferiti’s tomb lies in a secret chamber behind the walls of King Tut’s resting place. Other scholars like Dr Zahi Hawass have continued their own searches for the tomb of Egypt’s most recognizable Queen.   From Akhenaten to Hitler‚ from the workshop of Thutmose to the museums of Berlin‚ Nefertiti has an indefatigable power to fascinate and inspire. Half a million people go to visit her bust every year‚ and many more gander at the Amarna artifacts strewn about in museums across the globe. But beyond the famous art lies a remarkable woman‚ a revolutionary‚ a visionary‚ a ruler‚ a mother‚ and a mystery that continues to enthrall people. ‘The Beautiful One Has Come’ indeed‚ and she is not going anywhere any time soon.

It was something straight out of a movie — literally. Continue reading…