On Throwing Soup at the Mona Lisa

The Fatwa That Did Not Bark

Bombshell House Committee Report on DEI‚ The FBI‚ and National Security

from Mr Reagan: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

by Peter Koenig‚ Activist Post: Remember Klaus Schwab’s interview of 2016 with a Swiss French TV moderator‚ in which Schwab said something to the extent‚ “Imagine by 2025 we may all have a chip implanted somewhere in our body or brain‚ and we may be able to communicate with each other without a telephone‚ even without […]

by Michael Snyder‚ The Economic Collapse Blog: U.S. lawmakers are calling for military strikes inside Iran in the aftermath of a horrific terror attack that left three U.S. service members dead and dozens wounded.  So if the U.S. does hit targets inside Iranian territory‚ how will the Iranians respond?  It is theoretically possible that they […]

by Jeff Thomas‚ International Man: Klaus Schwab was born in Nazi Germany in 1938. Little information is available as to his upbringing – i.e.‚ the degree to which he was educated to believe in Nazi doctrine – but whatever he was taught in his youth‚ he is‚ today‚ one of the most ardent believers in‚ […]

  The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World were a series of remarkable architectural feats famous among ancient Greek travelers. The list included the Pyramid of Giza‚ the Hanging Gardens of Babylon‚ the Statue of Zeus at Olympia‚ the temple of Artemis‚ the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus‚ the Colossus of Rhodes‚ and the Lighthouse of Alexandria. Read on to learn more about these grand-scale monuments that captured the imagination of artists and scholars for centuries.   1. Great Pyramid of Giza Pyramid of Khufu in Giza‚ Egypt‚ via Wikimedia Commons   The Great Pyramid of Giza in Ancient Egypt is the only one of the Seven Wonders to have passed the test of time. The pyramid is a monumental tomb (146‚5 meters tall) built around 2500 BCE for Pharaoh Khufu and is still standing‚ even after 4500 years. Its making was a true marvel of ancient engineering; a demanding endeavor that required more than 2.3 million blocks of stone to be quarried and transported from different locations. In addition‚ the pyramid had a casing of white limestone‚ giving it a different appearance than the one we are used to seeing today.   The Pyramids of Giza‚ August Albert Zimmermann‚ 19th century‚ Bradford Museums and Galleries.   The Great Pyramid (also known as the Pyramid of Khufu) is not the only pyramid in Giza. Khufu’s successors‚ Khafre (his son) and Menkaure (his grandson)‚ built their own tombs next to the Great Pyramid. The tombs of the three kings make a unique sight‚ a sort of artificial mountain‚ that has been attracting crowds of tourists since ancient times. The Great Pyramid included two mortuary temples next to the rooms where the Pharaoh and his wife were buried. Together the pyramids and the Egyptian Sphinx make the Giza Pyramid complex.   2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon Hanging Gardens of Babylon‚ Decker Coenraet‚ 1679‚ New York Public Library.   According to ancient sources‚ the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built by King Nebuchadnezzar II around 605 and 652 BCE. There was also an ancient legend that the Gardens were built by the mythical queen Semiramis. As a result‚ they were also called the Gardens of Semiramis. The Gardens were a series of terraces containing fauna and flora. The most impressive thing about them‚ except for their size‚ was that they were self-watering. It is not known for certain how this worked. However‚ there are many different suggestions as to how ancient engineers could have managed it.   According to the legend‚ the Hanging Gardens were a gift by Nebuchadnezzar II to his wife Amtis of Media‚ who was missing the green mountains of her homeland. The king ordered the construction of large artificial mountains filled with plants and trees to make the queen feel at home.   Hanging Gardens of Semiramis‚ H. Waldeck‚ ca 1900‚ private collection.   The existence of the Hanging Gardens has been long disputed by historians. That is because the wonder is not mentioned by Babylonian and major Greek historians‚ like Herodotus. According to a fascinating theory by Oxford University Assyriologist‚ Stephanie Dalley‚ the gardens were actually built by Sennacherib at Nineveh. Dalley argues that earlier Akkadian inscriptions were misunderstood‚ thus confusing Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon with Sennacherib’s Nineveh. The main reason would be that after the Assyrians took Babylon in the 7th century‚ Nineveh was referred to as the New Babylon. In contrast to Babylon‚ Sennacherib’s gardens were actually well-documented and are supported by archaeological finds such as an impressive system of ancient aqueducts. In any case‚ the wonder was destroyed in the 1st century CE by an earthquake.   3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus The Temple of Artemis‚ Philip Galle‚ 1572‚ via Wikimedia Commons.   The temple of Artemis or Artemiseion at Ephesus was a temple devoted to the cult of the Goddess Artemis or Diana‚ and should not be confused with the temple of Artemis in Corfu. The first temple was destroyed in a flood at some point in the 7th century and was rebuilt in the 6th century BCE. It is said that King Croesus of Lydia funded a great part of the temple’s reconstruction‚ which reached 115 meters in length and 55 meters in width.   The second temple was burned in 356 BCE by Herostratus‚ a man who wanted to destroy the monument in order to earn easy fame. His action triggered a damnatio memoriae‚ but in the end‚ Herostratus was right. Destroying the temple did earn him a spot in the history books‚ and his story remains known as one of the most famous examples of destruction of cultural heritage in history.   The Temple of Diana at Ephesus‚ Salvador Dali‚ c. 1954‚ via Fundació Gala-Salvador Dalí.   After Herostratus’ arson‚ the temple was rebuilt and took an even more grandiose form. It was this new version of the temple that was commemorated as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Antipater of Sidon‚ who flourished at the end of the 2nd century BCE‚ was particularly impressed by the temple and even wrote that it was the most remarkable of the Wonders. Eventually‚ the temple was destroyed with the coming of Christianity.   “I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots‚ and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus‚ and the hanging gardens‚ and the colossus of the Sun‚ and the huge labour of the high pyramids‚ and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds‚ those other marvels lost their brilliancy‚ and I said‚ ‘Lo‚ apart from Olympus‚ the Sun never looked on aught so grand.'”  (Antipater of Sidon‚ Greek Anthology IX.58)   4. Statue of Zeus at Olympia The Statue of Olympian Zeus‚ Salvador Dali‚ c. 1954‚ Morohashi Museum of Modern Art.   Phidias‚ one of antiquity’s greatest sculptors‚ created the statue of Zeus at Olympia in the 5th century BCE. The statue was made of gold and ivory. It depicted the father of gods‚ Zeus‚ sitting on his throne‚ holding the sculpture of the victory goddess Nike and a scepter with an eagle at the top. The statue was placed inside the temple of Zeus at Olympia‚ and it was so large (almost 12.5 meters) that people joked that if Zeus wanted to stand up‚ he would hit his head on the ceiling. In front of the statue‚ there was a reservoir filled with oil. That helped preserve the statue in good condition by balancing the humidity levels inside the room.   Allegedly‚ the Roman emperor Caligula wanted to transport the statue to Rome and have Zeus’ head replaced with his own bust. Caligula’s death in 41 CE was a twist of luck that allowed the statue to survive a bit longer. Eventually‚ it was moved to Constantinople‚ where it was destroyed in a fire in the fifth century CE.   5. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus The Tomb of Mausolus at Halicarnassus‚ Philip Galle‚ 1572‚ National Gallery of Art.   Just like the pharaohs of Egypt built monumental pyramids as their tombs‚ a Persian satrap of Caria called Mausolus decided to build a tomb for himself and his sister and wife Artemisia II that no one would forget. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus would have been around 45 meters in height. It was the work of the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene. The four sides of the massive structure were decorated with sculptural reliefs by four famous Greek sculptors: Leochares‚ Bryaxis‚ Scopas‚ and Timotheus.   Mausoleum of Halicarnassus‚ Salvador Dali‚ 1955‚ private collection‚ via Christie’s.   Artemisia continued the work after Mausolus’ passing but also died before the monument was finished. In the end‚ the architects and sculptors agreed to finish the work thinking that this was not simply a tomb for the rulers of Caria but also a monument to their own art. The Mausoleum was the second-longest surviving of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World‚ after the Great Pyramid of Giza. It was destroyed after a series of earthquakes in the 15th century.   6. Colossus of Rhodes: The Shortest-Lived Wonder Colossus of Rhodes‚ Philip Galle‚ 1572‚ via British Museum.   As the name suggests‚ the Colossus of Rhodes was a colossal statue of the god Helios (Sun) on the island of Rhodes. The sculptor Chares of Lindus was the creator of this monument that came to be known as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The sculpture was said to be 32 meters high and to have taken 12 years to build (ca. 294-282).   The Colossus was so large that the structure did not manage to stand for a long time. An earthquake around 225/226 BCE toppled the sculpture. The ruins were left in place until the Arab invasion of 654 CE. Then the invaders used the remnants of the statue as a source of bronze that took 900 camels to transport. The statue was the tallest sculpture in the ancient world and a common theme in the coinage of the Rhodians.   7. Lighthouse of Alexandria The Lighthouse‚ by Jean Golvin‚ via JeanClaudeGolvin.com   The last one on the list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World was the Lighthouse of Alexandria. This was also the most famous lighthouse in antiquity. The building was the work of Sostrates of Cnidus. It was standing on the island of Pharos (lighthouse in Greek) in the harbor of Alexandria. If the estimates are correct and its height surpassed 110 meters‚ it would have been the second tallest building of its time after the Great Pyramid of Giza.   Lighthouse of Alexandria‚ Philip Galle‚ 1572‚ via Rijksmuseum.   The Lighthouse was built in three stages‚ with a fire burning on the top. It is also quite possible that there was a colossal statue of Alexander the Great‚ Ptolemy I Soter‚ or the god Helios standing on top of the building. The lighthouse was still in place in the 12th century CE. It is said that Ahmad ibn Toulon replaced the beacon with a mosque. However‚ the monumental building had collapsed by the 14th century‚ and only parts of it survived. At around 1480‚ its ruins were used in the construction of the Citadel of Qaitbay.   The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World The Canopic Way‚ the main street of ancient Alexandria‚ running through the Greek district‚ by Jean Golvin‚ via Jeanclaudegolvin.com   During the Hellenistic period‚ the known world (the Mediterranean and the Middle East) was opened to Greek travelers. As they began exploring the world‚ travel guides became more and more necessary‚ and travelers began recording their journeys and compiling lists of impressive monuments they encountered. These must-see destinations were initially known as “theamata” (sights) and eventually as “thaumata” (wonders).   With time‚ the lists were limited to seven wonders‚ with each traveler having their own special preferences‚ based on the places they visited. As a result‚ there was some variation as to the monuments that went on these lists. For instance‚ some included the walls of Babylon‚ while others replaced them with the Lighthouse of Alexandria or‚ later‚ even the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.   Herodotus (5th century BCE) and Callimachus of Cyrene (3rd century BCE) were the first to compile lists of Seven Wonders. However‚ their lists were not preserved. As a result‚ the list with the monuments that we now recognize as the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World belongs to Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BCE) and Antipater of Sidon (around 2nd century BCE).   If the list had been created by someone living in another part of the world‚ it would certainly be different‚ as explained in our lesser-known Wonders article. So if you wonder why the Great Wall of China or the Colosseum were not included in the list‚ the answer is simple. The Colosseum was not built until after the end of the Hellenistic period‚ and the Great Wall was out of the Greek travelers’ reach.   Legacy of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World The Great Wall of China‚ photo by Hung Chung Chih‚ via National Geographic   The original list of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World that dates back to Antipater and Philo proved to be particularly influential. Subsequent writers compiled their own lists of Wonders‚ based on their respective culture‚ education‚ and geographic location. For example‚ in the second century CE‚ when Rome was the center of the known world‚ the Roman poet Martial added the Colosseum of Rome in his version of the list. Christian writers‚ notably Gregory of Tours (6th century CE)‚ would add the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem and Noah’s Ark‚ and make lists with natural wonders.   During the 19th and 20th centuries‚ multiple lists made their appearance. Monuments like the Kom-El-Shoqafa in Alexandria‚ the Hagia Sofia in Istanbul‚ and the Great Wall of China were listed among others as the Seven Wonders of the Medieval World‚ while Mount Everest and the Grand Canyon were featured in lists of the Seven Wonders of the Natural World.   New Seven Wonders of the World Temple of Kukulkan‚ via Wikimedia Commons   In 2001‚ the Swiss NewWonders Foundation compiled a list of the New Wonders of the World through an online vote‚ including monuments from all around the world. The only ancient wonder that made it into this new list was the Pyramid of Khufu. Interestingly the Pyramid was not voted in but was added as an honorary entry. The list included the following seven wonders:   The Colosseum‚ Italy The Great Wall of China The Taj Mahal‚ India Christ the Redeemer‚ Brazil Machu Picchu‚ Peru Chichén Itzá‚ Mexico Petra‚ Jordan   The same foundation has also compiled a list with the New Seven Wonders of the Natural World‚ and there are multiple different lists focusing on different areas‚ like wonders of modern engineering‚ the solar system‚ and more.

  A Pyrrhic victory is defined by the Cambridge dictionary as “a victory that is not worth winning because the winner has lost so much in winning it.” It is the kind of victory no one would celebrate and ultimately leads to defeat. Behind the phrase is Pyrrhus of Epirus (319-272 BCE)‚ a ruler of the northern Greek region of Epirus in the years following the death of Alexander the Great. While the phrase in many ways sums up his life‚ it originates in the first clash of Greeks and Romans during Pyrrhus’ invasion of Italy. The story of the phrase’s origins reveals much about Pyrrhus‚ his pursuit of glory‚ and the era he lived in.   Who Was Pyrrhus?  Bust of Pyrrhus. Source: National Archaeological Museum Naples   Pyrrhus was king‚ and the most famous son‚ of the northwestern Greek region of Epirus. This mountainous region formed the edges of the Greek world in the Balkans and‚ much like its eastern neighbor‚ Macedonia‚ was often considered a backwater. By the middle of the fourth century BCE‚ Epirus was very much tied to the rising power of Macedonia. Alexander the Great’s mother Olympias came from Epirus‚ and this link involved Epirus in the Wars of the Successors that followed Alexander’s death.   Pyrrhus’ life was shaped by this tumultuous age. His early life alternated between periods of rule and exile. Having been thrown out of Epirus‚ he participated in the wars raging around the Greek world and earned a reputation for courage at the battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. The fortunes of war brought him to the Ptolemaic court at Alexandria as a hostage. A position he later transformed into Ptolemaic support for a return to power in Epirus in 297 BCE.   Pyrrhus when a child brought to Glaucias King of Illyria for protection‚ John Hall‚ 1769. Source: British Museum   Once back in power‚ the constant changes of fortune did not end. Several times he carried out raids and invasions of Macedonia‚ often capturing large swathes of land. As an Epirote rather than a Macedonian‚ Pyrrhus could never hope to hold Macedonia‚ and each time he was forced out once the tides of war changed. However‚ as the world started to stabilize into the famous Hellenistic kingdoms of Antigonid Macedonia‚ Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria‚ around 280 BCE‚ Pyrrhus had succeeded in turning Epirus into a significant player with a strong well-led army.   By 280 BCE‚ Pyrrhus had built himself a reputation as a skillful and brave warrior king. Epirus could hold its own against the emerging major powers‚ but a new opportunity presented itself in the West when the Greek city of Tarentum in Italy called for aid.   The Character of Pyrrhus  Bust of Plutarch‚ Chaeronea‚ Greece‚ author’s photo   Sometimes historical figures have their name or their memory unjustly associated with one moment or incident‚ but in the case of Pyrrhus‚ his connection with costly‚ wasteful victories seems appropriate. Pyrrhus was said to be brave‚ capable‚ and not without genuine achievements‚ but his restlessness and near addiction to war undermined him.   One of our main sources for Pyrrhus is the biography written centuries later by Plutarch. Frustratingly for historians‚ Plutarch was a biographer and so focused on stories and incidents that illuminate the character of this subject rather than giving a detailed narrative. In the case of Pyrrhus‚ though‚ this gives us an insight into his life and the phrase that bears his name.   According to Plutarch’s Pyrrhus‚ among the kings of his era‚ Pyrrhus was the one who most resembled Alexander the Great. Other kings imitated Alexander in style and appearance‚ but Pyrrhus alone was said to match him in battle. War was his sole focus. Not only did he go to war frequently‚ but he studied and wrote about it as well. Such was his obsession with war that Pyrrhus was said to be unable to bear the boredom of peace. This was a reputation he maintained down the ages‚ as he was often considered one of the greatest generals of the ancient world.   Paintings of ancient Macedonian soldiers‚ last quarter of the fourth century BCE‚ Macedonian Tomb of Agios Athanasios tomb. Source: Wikimedia Commons   To illustrate Pyrrhus’ fatal flaw‚ Plutarch tells the story of a conversation with a wise man on the eve of the invasion of Italy (Plutarch‚ Pyrrhus‚ 14.2-8). Stories pitting a king against a philosopher‚ with the latter often winning‚ were common in the ancient world and are unlikely to always be true. In this version‚ Pyrrhus discusses his plans with his advisor Cineas‚ an orator from Thessaly. Cineas opens the discussion by asking Pyrrhus what he will do once he has conquered Italy. Pyrrhus replies that Sicily would be easy to take after that. Cineas agrees and asks Pyrrhus what would be next‚ to which the king points out that North Africa and Carthage would naturally follow.   Turning the conversation now to his point‚ Cineas asks Pyrrhus what he would do once all these conquests were secured. After all those trials‚ Pyrrhus says he would be at ease and pass the time happily with his friends and companions. The king was said to be disturbed when Cineas pointed out that such an ultimate goal was already well within Pyrrhus’ reach and did not need the difficulties‚ dangers‚ and destruction he was embarking on.   Whether the conversation ever happened or not‚ we can never know‚ but if it did‚ it certainly did not stop Pyrrhus. Having spent much of his life fighting across the eastern Mediterranean‚ he seized the opportunity presented in Italy and headed west in 280 BCE.   War in Italy Illustration to accompany the works of Plutarch‚ Aegidius Paulus Dumesnil‚ 1721-1735. Source: British Museum   Tarentum was one of a number of Greek cities that had spread across southern Italy since the 8th century BCE. At the start of the third century BCE‚ Tarentum was under pressure from the Romans‚ who were pushing south.   To aid Tarentum‚ Pyrrhus brought his growing reputation and 20‚000 infantry‚ 3‚000 cavalry and 20 elephants. Shortly after arriving in Tarentum‚ Pyrrhus got word that the Romans were advancing with a significantly larger army under Valerius Laevinus. In talks‚ the Romans refused to allow Pyrrhus any role in Italian politics and so the two armies advanced to meet each other in battle near the city of Heraclea.   Statue of Pyrrhus in Arta‚ Greece. Source: equestrianstatue.org   The battle of Heraclea in 280 BCE saw Pyrrhus’ Epirote army engage a larger Roman force. The battle appears to have been hard fought‚ with Pyrrhus himself in the thick of the action and targeted by the Romans. For a long time‚ the momentum in the battle went back and forth until Pyrrhus’ elephants and cavalry finally broke the Romans. Plutarch reports casualty figures ranging from 15-7‚000 Romans and 13-4‚000 Epirotes.   While we cannot know the true number of dead and wounded‚ it is clear that both sides suffered heavily. This was unusual in ancient battles‚ which normally resulted in lopsided casualties as one side lost thousands and the victor just hundreds or even dozens‚ as most killing happened once one army broke and ran. At Heraclea‚ it is clear that the battle was‚ for a long time evenly matched and difficult. Worse still was that Pyrrhus’ casualties were said to have been among his best soldiers. Pyrrhus had his first Pyrrhic victory.   Pyrrhus tried to use his victory to negotiate with the Romans and bring a successful end to the conflict. However‚ the Romans refused and as other enemies of Rome would find out in the centuries to come‚ the Roman reaction to losing a battle was often to draw on the manpower resources of Italy and simply come back with new armies. 279 BCE saw Pyrrhus again engage a Roman army. The battle of Asculum was another hard-fought‚ bloody affair with the two armies closely matched and Pyrrhus reliant on his elephants to make the difference. Roman losses were said to be high‚ but once again‚ Pyrrhus may have lost around 3‚500 men.   Map of Roman expansion in Italy. Source: West Point   This battle at Asculum is the origin of the Pyrrhic victory phrase. While being congratulated on this second victory over the Romans‚ Pyrrhus is reported as saying‚   “If we are victorious in one more battle with the Romans‚ we shall be utterly ruined.” (Plutarch‚ Pyrrhus‚ 21.9).   In the two years Pyrrhus had been in Italy‚ his army had won two major victories. However‚ these victories came at a great cost‚ a cost which was extremely damaging for Pyrrhus. Each victory made his Epirote army weaker. Pyrrhus could not easily replace his losses‚ while the Romans were able to rebuild their armies after each defeat. Despite winning the battles‚ Pyrrhus was slowly losing the war.   Characteristically Pyrrhus then broke off the war for several years to pursue a new opportunity in Sicily. However‚ this campaign followed a similar pattern to that in Italy as initial success eventually turned into an unprofitable stalemate followed by retreat.   This threw Pyrrhus back into the war with the Romans. His Italian allies had suffered in his absence in Sicily. In 275 BCE‚ Pyrrhus advanced to meet a Roman army at Beneventum. When an attempt to take the Romans by surprise with a night attack failed‚ another closely fought battle ensued. This time the battle was close enough for the Romans to later claim a victory. After years of fighting in Italy and Sicily‚ Pyrrhus finally withdrew and returned to Epirus after Beneventum. Plutarch states he brought home only 8‚500 soldiers and arrived short of money. Three years after the battle of Beneventum‚ Tarentum fell to the Romans.   The End of Pyrrhus and His Legacy  The Triumph of Manius Curius Dentatus at Beneventum‚ Giovanni Battista Tiepolo‚ 1730. Source: Hermitage Museum   Despite the ultimate failure of his projects in the West‚ Pyrrhus did not‚ perhaps could not‚ end his wars. 274 BCE brought another invasion of Macedonia‚ which again saw early victories ultimately squandered. Still‚ the wars continued and in 272 BCE‚ Pyrrhus and his army were in the Peloponnese in southern Greece.   He launched an attack on Sparta‚ which failed due to the heroic resistance shown by the Spartans and cost Pyrrhus the life of his son. The setback at Sparta only sent Pyrrhus in another direction. The city of Argos was divided‚ and Pyrrhus seized the chance to try and remove the faction supported by his rival‚ King Antigonus of Macedonia. This adventure at Argos would be Pyrrhus’ last.   The death of Pyrrhus‚ by Bertholet Flémal‚ 1675. Source: Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium   His army managed to enter the city at night but got trapped fighting street to street as the armies of Antigonus and the Spartans approached. Pyrrhus was as ever in the thick of this confused fight. In a narrow street‚ one of the greatest Hellenistic kings found himself confronted with a common Argive soldier‚ unnamed but said to be the son of a poor woman (Plutarch‚ Pyrrhus‚ 34.2). As Pyrrhus turned to overcome this opponent‚ the soldier’s mother watching from the rooftop of their house hurled a roof tile which caught Pyrrhus on the neck. The king was dazed and fell from his horse. Once on the ground‚ he was surrounded by enemy soldiers. Pyrrhus recovered just in time to see a soldier of Antigonus cut off his head.   For a man devoted to war‚ it was perhaps a fitting end. In the ancient world‚ Pyrrhus was remembered as one of the greatest warriors and generals of any age. As a commander‚ he certainly had many qualities and was one of the few Hellenistic leaders to defeat the Romans. It is suitable‚ however‚ that in the modern world‚ his name is associated mainly with victories so costly they were in fact defeats. Pyrrhus turned Epirus into a major force in the turbulent decades following the death of Alexander the Great‚ but this position was ephemeral and did not survive the king’s death at Argos. He conquered numerous territories but just as quickly lost them. His devotion to war earned his name a place in history‚ but this is a legacy that reveals the often self-defeating nature of such glory.

  Nero’s controversial reign ended in 68 CE‚ after the hapless emperor‚ abandoned by all his allies and facing an open revolt‚ committed suicide. It was a fitting end for a man widely considered one of Rome’s worst emperors. This negative image of a tyrant‚ madman‚ abuser‚ murderer‚ arsonist‚ and antichrist is nowadays challenged by historians. Yet‚ the fact remains that Emperor Nero was wholly unprepared for the demanding task of ruling the Roman Empire. The circumstances of Nero’s death reflect the tumultuous political climate of ancient Rome‚ where power struggles between the ruler and the Senate played a pivotal role. And a political vacuum caused by the emperor’s violent demise would lead to the end of the first imperial dynasty‚ plunging Rome into a bloody civil war.   Emperor Nero Waged War With the Senate Agrippina the Younger crowns her son Nero emperor‚ relief from the Sebasteion at Aphrodisias‚ ca. 54 – 59 CE‚ Sebasteion-Sevgi Gönül Gallery‚ Aphrodisias. Source: Oxford University Open Content   It might seem hard to believe‚ but Nero came to the throne as an unwilling emperor. Nero would probably never take the purple if not for his ambitious mother – Agrippina the Younger – who secured the support of Emperor Claudius and the recognition of the Senate and the Roman army. While initially‚ the two ruled in harmony‚ Nero’s attempts to assert independence from his overbearing mother and be the sole ruler led to a conflict between mother and son‚ eventually ending in Agrippina’s death. The involvement in matricide further worsened relations with the Senate‚ who already considered Nero a threat to their power. It did not help that Nero did nothing to appease the worried senators. Nero was‚ first and foremost‚ an autocrat‚ and to attain his goals‚ he was ready to engage in an open war with the Senate.   He Was Blamed for the Great Fire of Rome Nero walks on Rome’s cinders‚ by Karl Theodor von Piloty‚ 1861. Source: The Hungarian National Gallery‚ Budapest   Nero’s reputation was further tarnished by his involvement in the assassination of his stepbrother Britannicus and the murder of his second wife‚ Poppea Sabina. The latter’s death was probably a result of complications related to the empress’ pregnancy‚ but Nero’s enemies readily exploited Poppaea’s demise to undermine the hated emperor. The situation between Nero and the Senate was so tense that when the Great Fire of Rome devastated the capital in 64 CE‚ Nero was blamed for the catastrophe. Nero‚ however‚ was far from Rome at the time of the outbreak‚ in his villa at Anzio. As soon as he was notified of the fire‚ the emperor immediately hurried back to the capital‚ where he personally led the rescue efforts‚ assisting the victims.    Nero’s Lavish Lifestyle Worsened the Situation Visual reconstruction of the Domus Aurea‚ built after the Fire of Rome in 64 CE   Nero’s reputation as an arsonist was not helped by an ambitious building project the emperor embarked on immediately after the fire. The Senate rallied against Nero’s masterpiece – the Domus Aurea. They perceived the colossal and opulent palatial complex‚ featuring the man-made lake and the circular rotating dining room‚ as a waste of money and the ultimate illustration of the tyrant’s megalomania. Another bone of discontent was the emperor’s artistic lifestyle. For the senators‚ Nero’s obsession with Greece and the Hellenistic East‚ and his direct participation in various plays and contests‚ including the Olympics‚ was a direct affront to traditional Roman values. However‚ while elites detested the absolutist emperor‚ the populace adored him.    Loss of the Army’s Support Led to Nero’s Death Head of Nero‚ from a larger than life statue‚ after 64 CE‚ Glyptothek‚ Munich   The Senate had money and connections‚ but Nero enjoyed the support of the people and‚ more importantly‚ the Roman army. In 65 CE‚ the so-called Pisonian conspiracy failed to kill the emperor‚ leading to brutal reprisals. Among those killed was Nero’s old advisor‚ the philosopher Seneca. Nero’s luck‚ however‚ ran out when‚ in March 68‚ the governor of Gaul rebelled‚ declaring his support of Galba‚ the governor of Spain. Nero’s loyalists managed to defeat the Gallic troops‚ but the emperor’s enemies now had the favor of the major part of the military. When legions in Egypt halted the vital grain fleet‚ Nero lost the support of the people of Rome.   Nero’s Reign Ended With His Suicide Death of Nero‚ by Vasily. S. Smirnov‚ 1888‚ State Russian Museum‚ St. Petersburg   After the Senate declared him the enemy of the state‚ Nero fled the capital. Cornered and with no ally in sight‚ Nero faced a grim fate – arrest‚ trial‚ and almost certain execution. In a final‚ dramatic act‚ Nero chose to take control of his destiny‚ committing suicide. Or to be more precise‚ the emperor forced one of the few who remained loyal – his secretary Epaphroditus – to perform the task. According to Suetonius‚ Nero’s last words were: “What an artist dies in me!” What followed was the established Roman protocol of damnatio memoriae. Due to dwindling popular support‚ a private funeral took place‚ and Nero’s ashes were placed in the family tomb.   Emperor Nero’s Death Plunged Rome into Civil War Gold coin of Vespasian‚ commemorating the restoration of peace‚ 71 CE. Source: The British Museum‚ London   Nero’s violent death extinguished the first Roman imperial dynasty‚ going back to Emperor Augustus. The empty throne immediately became the target of most powerful figures in the empire. A bloody civil war followed‚ known as the Year of Four Emperors. Ultimately‚ Vespasian emerged victorious‚ establishing the new Flavian dynasty. However‚ this was not the end of Nero’s story‚ as several pretenders – Pseudo-Neros – rose in different parts of the Roman Empire‚ the last of them appearing during the reign of Domitian – twenty years after the emperor’s death! This is further evidence of Nero’s support among the common people‚ who considered him their champion and protector. However‚ the elites (the senators in particular) were the ones writing history‚ and they did their best to make their hated rival appear to be a tyrant and a madman. Meanwhile‚ the early Christian historians blamed Nero for persecuting Christians‚ making him an antichrist.