The Picasso exhibition in the Soviet Union represents one of the central events and enduring memories of the thawing relations between East and West during the Cold War era. The exhibition coincided with turbulent events within the Soviet Union: mass student protests and the Hungarian revolution. Thus‚ Picasso and his art became symbols of political upheaval and freedom.   The successful completion of the Picasso exhibition was only possible because of Picasso’s commitment to communism after joining the French Communist Party in 1944. Picasso was widely referred to as “the most famous communist in the world after Stalin and Mao Zedong.”   Picasso &; Communism Before the 1956 Picasso Exhibition Picasso Room in Shchukin’s house. Source: Russia Beyond   Pablo Picasso was closely associated with both communism and Russia even before the Picasso Exhibition of 1956 in Moscow.   In 1908‚ famous French artist Henri Matisse visited Picasso’s Montmartre studio in Paris‚ France‚ with a Russian art buyer‚ Sergei Shchukin. Shchukin purchased two paintings (one of which was Queen Isabea) and compensated the artist generously. Shchukin and Picasso became close partners‚ and over the course of the next six years‚ the Russian philanthropist acquired more than 50 of Picasso’s artworks‚ including Woman with a Fan and The Absinthe Drinker.   Prior to the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917‚ Picasso’s two distinguished works‚ Girl on a Ball and Harlequin and His Companion‚ were acquired by Ivan Morozov‚ another well-known Russian art collector.   The collections of Shchukin and Morozov were nationalized by the Bolsheviks after the Revolution. Picasso’s artworks were placed in a newly established Museum of New Western Art. The museum functioned until 1948 when it was dissolved‚ and the collections were redistributed between the Pushkin and the Hermitage Museums.   Pablo Picasso as he created a light drawing by Gjon Mili‚ 1949. Source: The Life   In 1944‚ Pablo Picasso became a member of the Communist Party of France. His decision was an act of protest against the developments in Picasso’s native Spain. The Spanish Civil War and the establishment of General Franco’s fascist dictatorship by forceful measures were in contradiction with Picasso’s anti-military and anti-fascist beliefs. Picasso remained in the communist party for the rest of his life. Once he became a communist‚ the artist was commonly referred to as “Comrade Pablo.”   This period also marked the formation of a close friendship between Pablo Picasso and prominent Soviet writer‚ journalist‚ and historian Ilya Ehrenburg. Ehrenburg was one of the founders of the International Peace Movement‚ established in 1948. Ehrenburg attempted to break the Soviet Union’s grip on Soviet authors and artists while also introducing modern Western art to the Soviet population. He served as a cultural link between the post-World War II West and the Soviet Union. In this context‚ he undertook the responsibility of promoting the peace movement in 1949. Picasso joined the cause and created the well-known “dove” emblem of peace.   Dove by Pablo Picasso‚ 1949. Source: Tate‚ London   After Stalin’s death on March 5‚ 1953‚ Louis Aragon‚ the editor-in-chief of the French newspaper Les Lettres Fran&;ccedil;aises‚ commissioned Pablo Picasso to create a painting of Joseph Stalin. The French Communist Party felt offended when Picasso unveiled a portrait of a young Stalin inspired by an old photo of him (see portrait in the following section). The portrait did not suit the traditional stereotype of Stalin as “the father of the people.” Louis Aragon remarked‚ “Stalin cannot be invented.”   After Stalin’s death‚ Nikita Khrushchev became the new leader of the Soviet Union. Aiming to distance himself from Stalin’s regime‚ Khrushchev embarked on establishing a new form of Soviet governance that was socio-politically and culturally more liberating. Ilya Ehrenburg referred to this shift in Soviet ideology as the “Thaw” and published his famous novel with the same name in the spring of 1954 in the issue of Novy Mir.   As part of Khrushchev Thaw and subsequent rapprochement policy with the West‚ Ehrenburg was instrumental in organizing the first Picasso exhibition at the Pushkin Museum of Fine Art in Moscow‚ Russia‚ on October 16‚ 1956.   The Picasso Exhibition at the Pushkin Museum Cover of Les Lettres Fran&;ccedil;aises‚ featuring Portrait of Stalin by Pablo Picasso‚ 1953. Source: Espionart   In 1956‚ Ehrenburg suggested to the Soviet Union’s Central Committee to hold the Picasso exhibition in Moscow as a way to honor a dedicated international communism advocate for his seventy-fifth birthday.   In 1955‚ as part of the cultural exchange between East and West‚ Picasso’s exhibition was held in East Germany at the National Gallery in East Berlin. Later‚ in 1956‚ Picasso’s works were exhibited at the National Art Museum in the People’s Republic of China. Works of Pablo Picasso often resembled the themes of anti-fascism and social justice and thus resonated with the ideology of communist countries. Following the Cuban Revolution‚ Pablo Picasso’s works were also later exhibited in Cuba in 1959‚ symbolizing political upheavals and revolutionary ideas.   At first‚ the Central Committee declined Ehrenburg’s suggestion. But shortly after‚ at the 20th Party Congress‚ Nikita Khrushchev delivered his “Secret Speech‚” criticizing Stalin and introducing relatively liberal internal and exterior policies. Influenced by Khrushchev’s decisions‚ the Committee agreed to hold the exhibition‚ albeit with limited media coverage and a relatively small collection to limit its impact.   Portrait of Ilya Ehrenburg by Pablo Picasso‚ 1948. Source: Nigel Hall   However‚ Pablo Picasso was not content with this decision. He envisioned the exhibition as an opportunity to make up for his 1951 loss in Korea‚ as his work‚ Massacre in Korea‚ did not triumph‚ particularly within the French Communist Party. Pablo Picasso personally selected 38 of his artworks‚ including ceramics‚ illustrating the diversity of his work from the 1920s to the 1950s‚ to be exhibited in two separate museums: the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and the Hermitage in Leningrad (Saint Petersburg today).   The Pushkin Museum presented Picasso’s Young Acrobat on a Ball‚ Family of Saltimbanques‚ Head of an Old Man in Tiara‚ and Still Life with Violin.   The Hermitage presented Picasso’s earlier and larger works from his “Blue Period.” It included The Absinthe Drinker‚ The Two Sisters‚ Portrait of Soler the Tailor‚ and Woman with a Scarf‚ as well as Dance of the Veils‚ Clarinet and Violin‚ Bowl of Fruit with Bunch of Grapes and Sliced Pear‚ Three Women‚ Woman with a Fan‚ Maternity and Seated Woman with a Book‚ and Musical Instruments.   Even though no advertisement campaign took place in preparation for the Picasso Exhibition‚ hundreds of people flocked to the museum with great enthusiasm. Not only was it a rare opportunity to explore modern Western art‚ but it was also a place to engage in a lively public discussion on art‚ culture‚ and politics—everything the Khrushchev Thaw promised.   Influence of the Picasso Exhibition  Massacre in Korea by Pablo Picasso‚ 1951. Source: Museu Picasso‚ Barcelona   The influence of the Picasso Exhibition can be understood within the wider social context of uncertainty about the effects of the Khrushchev Thaw and subsequent socio-political turbulences in the Soviet Union.   By the time the Picasso Exhibition opened in Moscow‚ Khrushchev’s policies of de-Stalinization had triggered waves of liberation movements across the Soviet Union. On October 23‚ 1956‚ an uprising against Soviet rule began in Hungary and galvanized broader public support in opposition to communist rule in Poland in November. Both attempts at freedom were violently suppressed by the Soviet government‚ yet they made the Picasso exhibition the center of public unrest. The Soviet leadership feared that the exposure to Picasso’s artwork and subsequent public discourse could go beyond art and culture and transform into a political issue.   Simultaneously with the opening of the Picasso Exhibition in Moscow‚ protesters in Warsaw‚ Poland‚ displayed a replica of Picasso’s painting Massacre In Korea at the Academy of Arts‚ a symbolic gesture of support for the Hungarian Uprising. Even though Picasso’s initial purpose of the Massacre In Korea was to oppose United States imperialism‚ Polish protesters presented the artwork in an anti-communist context‚ making communist leaders further question the rightfulness of opening the Iron Curtain to Picasso.   The implications of Picasso’s exhibition became particularly concerning when it moved to the Hermitage. The Central Committee’s Culture Department reported students engaging in politically dangerous debates on artistic freedom while criticizing Soviet art and its Socialist Realism style.   The Face of Peace by Pablo Picasso‚ 1951. Source: Picasso Celebracion   On December 21‚ students attempted to organize an unofficial public discussion in Leningrad. During a three-day conference titled “The Future of Soviet Art‚” the Soviet Academy of Arts was criticized and called a “feudal institution.” Collectivization was denounced as an instrument of Soviet repression. The Committee for State Security (KGB) feared that Picasso and his works were fueling an unhealthy political mood‚ triggering a “little Budapest” in Leningrad. Unsurprisingly‚ the Soviet authorities suppressed the students’ conference and arrested several participants.   Nevertheless‚ Pablo Picasso managed to save himself and his works from the Soviet regime. In 1962‚ he was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize as a “crusader for peace.” Ilya Ehrenburg‚ who had been instrumental in making the Picasso Exhibition a reality in the Soviet Union‚ visited Mougins‚ France‚ to personally hand over the prize. Picasso‚ however‚ refused it. In the following years‚ Picasso’s exhibitions were held several times in the Soviet Union: in 1966‚ 1971‚ and 1988 at the State Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts; in 1982 at the State Hermitage Museum in Leningrad; in 1990 at the Ukrainian National Art Museum in Kyiv‚ and in 1991 in Moscow‚ prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.   Despite the Soviet leadership’s attempts to curtail Picasso’s influence on the socio-political climate of the communist world‚ Picasso’s works were hailed as “the radiance of real art” that would “break through all obstacles” within the Soviet Union. As American historian Eleonory Gilburd noted‚ “At the heart was Soviet art—society—while Picasso was a name metaphor for everything Soviet society was not.”

  In 1955‚ the non-aligned foreign policy was born at the Bandung Conference in Indonesia. The newly independent Asian and African states declared decolonization as their primary foreign policy course. By refusing to align themselves with either of the two superpowers — the United States-led Western bloc and the Soviet Union-led Eastern bloc —non-aligned states tried to maintain their sovereignty. The leaders of Egypt‚ Ghana‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ and Yugoslavia emerged as prominent figures in promoting non-alignment. The Non-Aligned Movement was founded in 1961 at the Belgrade conference in Yugoslavia.   Origins of Non-Alignment During the Cold War Cartoon referring to efforts by the Soviet Union and the United States to win friends during the Cold War‚ 1955. Source: National Library of Wales   Non-alignment as a foreign policy approach originated following the end of World War II‚ the subsequent wave of decolonization‚ and the start of the Cold War.   World War II changed the international environment and encouraged colonies around the world to pursue self-determination. As a result‚ the Asian and African colonies of European colonial powers achieved long-awaited sovereignty and independence between 1945 and 1960.   The period also marked the beginning of the Cold War‚ an intense confrontation for supremacy on the global stage between the two superpowers‚ the Soviet Union and the United States. The Cold War was characterized by the rapid bipolarization of the countries around these two superpowers and their blocs‚ trying to pull states into their spheres of influence. The Soviet Union-dominated bloc was known as the Warsaw Pact‚ and the United States-dominated bloc was the North Atlantic Treaty Organization‚ NATO.   The term “non-alignment” was first used by Indian diplomat V. K. Krishna Menon at the United Nations in 1953. Menon was referring to the new foreign policy approach‚ according to which India refused to side with any political or military alliances involved in the Korean War of 1950–1953.   Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ Ethiopian delegate Yilma Deressa‚ the Gold Coast’s Kojo Botsio‚ and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru (from left to right) attended the Bandung Conference‚ 1955. Source: Zocalo   The first attempt to formalize the non-alignment approach was at the Bandung Conference (Asian-African Conference) held in Indonesia from April 18 to 24‚ 1955. The newly established governments of Burma‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ Pakistan‚ and Sri Lanka sponsored and organized the conference.   A tangible result of the Bandung Conference was a communiqu&;eacute; signed by all 29 representatives of mainly Asian and African countries. The document outlined the objectives of the non-aligned states: the support of cultural and economic cooperation‚ safeguarding the principle of self-determination‚ and protection of human rights‚ including the abolition of racial discrimination. These objectives intended to encourage cooperation among emerging nations by helping them navigate the complex international environment of the Cold War.   The Bandung Conference laid the foundation for establishing the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). The idea of the Non-Aligned Movement further developed during the meeting of the non-aligned states on the Brijuni Islands in July 1956. Yugoslavia’s president‚ Josip Broz Tito‚ India’s prime minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ and Egypt’s president‚ Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ defined the movement by signing the Declaration of Brijuni on July 19 of the same year.   The declaration read:   “Peace cannot be achieved with separation‚ but with the aspiration towards collective security in global terms and the expansion of freedom‚ as well as terminating the domination of one country over another.”   The Principles of Non-Alignment Jawaharlal Nehru with Zhou Enlai in Beijing on October 19‚ 1954. Source: The Hindu   The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence‚ also known as Panchsheel (Five Restraints)‚ represents the base of the non-aligned foreign policy approach. The Panchsheel was first introduced by India’s Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in October 1954 at an official meeting in Colombo‚ Sri Lanka. These principles were intended to guide emerging Sino-Indian relations.   The five principles were the following:   Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; Mutual non-aggression; Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs; Equality and mutual benefit; Peaceful co-existence.   The Five Principles were modified during the Bandung Conference. Based on the Panchsheel‚ the conference adopted a “Declaration on Promotion of World Peace and Cooperation.” The declaration outlined ten principles of the non-alignment policy‚ also known as the “Ten Principles of Bandung.”   Two Worlds‚ 1950. Source: acc. Phillips   These principles entailed the following:   Respecting and defending the fundamental principles of human rights and the Charter of the United Nations; Safeguarding the territorial integrity and independence of all nations; Acknowledgment of the equality of all races and nations‚ regardless of size; Not interfering in another state’s domestic issues; Supporting the state’s right to self-defense in accordance with the United Nations Charter; Refusing to join the collective defense organizations in support of either one of the superpowers; Abstaining from military intervention against the territorial integrity or political stability of any state; Supporting the resolution of conflicts through peaceful means‚ in compliance with the Charter of the United Nations; Encouraging collaboration among all nations; Respecting international law and subsequent obligations.   Adherence to these principles was deemed necessary to become a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and is often referred to as the “quintessence of the movement.”   In the context of Cold War power struggles‚ these principles restricted signing military agreements or joining multilateral military alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact. The principles cemented the perception that newly independent and non-aligned nations would remain weak‚ silent‚ and neutral in international affairs. Contrary to this assessment‚ the stated objectives of the non-alignment policy were to give developing nations a voice‚ particularly at the United Nations‚ and to help shape world politics by assisting them in choosing a middle path in the West-East confrontation.   The First Summit Conference of Belgrade &; the Movement of Non-Aligned Countries (NAM) Jawaharlal Nehru addressing the first Non-Aligned Summit Conference in Belgrade‚ 1961. Source: The Hindu   In 1960‚ the Fifteenth Ordinary Session of the United Nations General Assembly admitted 17 new members from Africa and Asia to the United Nations. The event gave a decisive boost to the development of the non-alignment policy.   From September 1 to 6‚ 1961‚ the First Summit Conference of Belgrade was held‚ also known as the Conference of Heads of State or Government of Non-Aligned Countries. Representatives of 25 states attended the conference. Afghanistan‚ Algeria‚ Yemen‚ Myanmar‚ Cambodia‚ Sri Lanka‚ Congo‚ Cuba‚ Cyprus‚ Egypt‚ Ethiopia‚ Ghana‚ Guinea‚ India‚ Indonesia‚ and Iraq represent the official founders of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).   NAM was declared a movement‚ not an organization‚ as its founding members strived to free themselves from the bureaucratic implications of the organizational agencies. The movement was intended to reflect the interests of each member in international politics without compromising their own independence and sovereignty.   Until the early 1970s‚ NAM was mainly focused on supporting decolonization processes‚ navigating Cold War tensions‚ promoting disarmament‚ particularly nuclear arms control‚ and safeguarding human rights.   International organizations‚ especially the United Nations‚ provided an essential platform for promoting the self-determination of states and decolonization. The movement’s founders spoke up to defend the rights of colonized peoples and denounced the colonial powers’ continued presence in impacted areas. These efforts resulted in the United Nations Resolution 1514‚ widely known as the “Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples‚” adopted in 1960. Non-aligned states actively participated in drafting and then adopting the resolution‚ which reaffirmed the right to self-determination and urged international society to speed up the decolonization processes.   Hall for plenary sessions on the opening day of the Conference of Non-Aligned Movement‚ 1961. Source: DAI Roaming Academy   As part of NAM’s support for decolonization‚ its members expressed solidarity with the national liberation movements of colonized nations‚ particularly in Africa‚ Asia‚ and the Middle East. The members of the movement provided political and diplomatic assistance to struggling nations and promoted the peaceful resolution of conflicts by offering their states a platform for dialogue. NAM also advocated for the diplomatic recognition of the newly independent states by international organizations.   India‚ for example‚ had greatly contributed to the African National Congress in South Asia by building strong diplomatic relations and hosting its leaders in India. Egypt‚ like India‚ assisted the National Liberation Movement of Algeria politically and militarily.   Beginning in the 1970s‚ the Non-Aligned Movement changed its focus from political to economic. Their agenda viewed the existing world economic order as subordinating poor‚ developing nations. During this period‚ the Dependency Theory gained momentum. According to the theory‚ economic growth in leading countries was not accompanied by development in poorer countries. Furthermore‚ the economic activity of wealthy nations frequently caused severe economic issues in the developing world.   To address the issue‚ the non-aligned countries endorsed the so-called New International Economic Order. It called for modifying established trade patterns and introducing improved terms of trade for developed countries‚ including encouraging developing nations to diversify their economies and integrate into regional trade unions‚ lowering trade tariffs‚ and promoting free trade. As a result‚ the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Declaration for the Establishment of a New International Economic Order and its accompanying program of action on May 1‚ 1974.   Challenges of Non-Alignment During the Cold War The 18th Summit of Heads of State and Government of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ 2019. Source: President of the Republic of Azerbaijan   An international arena characterized by rivalry and bipolarity presented the non-aligned nations with persistent challenges. To some degree‚ the non-alignment offered newly independent nations a more flexible course of action and the possibility to bargain for better socio-economic incentives through security guarantees. Even though their stated goal was to maintain independence during the Cold War‚ the dominant powers of the United States and the Soviet Union pressured them to be aligned with their respective blocs.   The means were often in the form of economic incentives‚ military aid‚ and diplomatic and political manipulations‚ including offering favorable trade conditions‚ diplomatic recognition‚ or security guarantees. In many cases‚ these attempts proved successful‚ as many of the newly independent‚ non-aligned states faced internal and regional challenges and lacked adequate resources to cope with these issues independently.   The Sino-Indian War of 1962‚ which occurred just a year after the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ represents the first significant challenge to the movement. The Indian Prime Minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ one of the key figures in the movement‚ turned to the United States for diplomatic and financial assistance.   Anwar El-Sadat‚ Egypt’s newly elected president‚ abruptly turned away from the Soviet Union at the beginning of the 1970s and instituted the Infitah Policy‚ also known as Sadat’s Open Door Policy. It signaled the beginning of a new strategic alliance with the United States.   Other notable examples are the second India-Pakistan conflict in 1965 and the June War of 1967 between Israel and its neighboring states‚ where Egypt was a key belligerent of the conflict. The Iran-Iraq War during 1980-1988 culminated in the United States entering Iraq. These challenges had deeply shaken the unity of the movement.   Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito (right) with Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser (left) and Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru‚ 1956. Source: Radio Free Europe   Nevertheless‚ non-alignment during the Cold War managed to positively influence the decolonization processes‚ supported human rights and the development of more inclusive international law through the United Nations‚ advocated for the equality of newly independent states‚ and provided a platform of discussion for the states with different socio-political and cultural backgrounds.

  With Germany’s unconditional surrender on May 7‚ 1945‚ many influential Nazis were arrested. The Allies set up the International Military Tribunal (IMT) as discussed during wartime meetings. The main powers nominated a judge and a deputy to conduct the trials. In an ironic twist‚ the Allies decided to hold the trials in Nuremberg‚ the center of Nazi ideology. The charges included crimes against humanity‚ against peace‚ and conspiracy. The Nuremberg Trial defendants numbered in the hundreds. Twelve of the worst were hung. To confirm their deaths‚ the Allies cremated the remains‚ scattering the ashes. The Nuremberg Trials began in November 1945‚ with two dozen of the most hardened Nazis being arraigned. The following Nazis were the most insidious.    Herman Goering Goering on Trial Source: U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum   The pompous Herman Goering‚ former head of the Luftwaffe and Hitler’s one-time heir‚ pleaded he only followed orders. As early as 1939‚ Goering knew exterminating Jews would soon start. In 1942‚ following Hitler’s orders‚ he had the SS begin the plan that became the Holocaust. As the Wehrmacht occupied countries‚ Goering plundered rare treasures for himself. The IMT found him guilty‚ sentencing him to death. But Goering cheated the hangman the night before his execution‚ killing himself with poison smuggled into his cell.    Wilhelm Keitel Keitel’s signature Source: Wikimedia Commons   Wilhelm Keitel‚ Chief of the German High Command‚ unlike Goering‚ was executed. Hitler appointed the Great War veteran in 1938. Known as Hitler’s “yes” man‚ Keitel never left the Fuhrer’s inner circle‚ participating in crucial decisions. Fateful orders that earned him his fate included orders to shoot captured commandos‚ signing decrees‚ and urging Army commanders to be harsh in their reprisals. Evidence used against him was many copies of his signed orders. Keitel pleaded that he‚ too‚ only followed orders like Goering.   Arthur Seyss-Inquart Arthur Seyss-Inquart on trial. Source: Alchetron   Nazi government officials likewise faced consequences for their actions. Arthur Seyss-Inquart‚ one of two Austrian defendants‚ came to power just before Germany’s 1938 annexation of Austria. He assisted with the assimilation. In 1939‚ Hitler appointed him the Reichskommisar (governor) of southern Poland. By 1940‚ Seyss-Inquart was again a Reichskommisar but now governed Holland until 1945. Here‚ he ruled with terror and ruthlessness. He shared involvement in deporting 120‚000 Jews to death camps‚ among them Anne Frank. Seyss-Inquart deported thousands of Dutch to Germany for forced labor. He ordered between 800-1500 Dutch executed for resistance‚ strikes‚ or as reprisals. Condemned to death during the Nuremberg Trial‚ he went to the gallows in 1946.   Rudolf Hess Hess at Nuremberg (middle) Source: PICRYL   Of all the Nazi leaders‚ the virulent anti-Semitic but enigmatic Rudolf Hess is more famous than Herman Goering. Born in Egypt‚ Hess became an Anglophile‚ admiring the British Empire. He fought in the Great War and joined the Nazi Party in 1920 as a brawler. Hess helped Hitler draft Mein Kampf‚ the Nazi Party’s ideological text‚ in 1925‚ and Hess drafted the 1935 Nuremberg Laws‚ which stripped Jews of citizenship. 1941‚ he flew to Britain‚ hoping to negotiate peace between Britain and Germany. For his crimes‚ Hess got a life sentence from the Nuremberg Trial and committed suicide in jail in 1987.   Joachin von Ribbentrop Joachin von Ribbentrop. Source: Famous People   No Nazi became more despised by his peers than Foreign Minister Joachin von Ribbentrop. A former champagne salesman‚ he added “von” to his name by marrying into a noble family. Na&;iuml;ve and haughty‚ Ribbentrop used diplomacy to encourage war or pressure neighbors to ally with Germany. He brokered the Axis agreement in 1941 and urged Japan to attack America directly. Once World War II started‚ Hitler didn’t need diplomacy‚ so Von Ribbentrop’s influence declined. He tried to keep Hitler’s attention by urging countries to deport Jews faster. For his efforts‚ Ribbentrop went first to the gallows.   Ernst Kaltenbrunner Karltenbrunner 1945 Source: Public Domain   While Nazis like Goering are well known‚ few would know Ernst Kaltenbrunner. But many feared him as he headed the RHSA‚ Nazi Germany’s security office. The RHSA administered the Third Reich’s law and security group. It also oversaw the death camp. Kaltenbrunner took over in January 1943. Easily identifiable by his height‚ deep facial scars‚ and quick temper‚ Kaltenbrunner ran the RHSA efficiently. Whether deporting Jews from occupied countries‚ arresting and executing resistance fighters‚ or checking death camp status reports‚ he knew about it. Kaltenbrunner looked to intensify all methods‚ especially regarding the “Jewish Question.”   Kaltenbrunner personally got involved twice during the war. After Italy’s 1943 surrender and the 1944 occupation of Hungary‚ he helped organize deportations of Jews‚ of which few survived. At the Nuremberg Trial‚ he claimed the now-dead Himmler was responsible‚ and that his orders were forged. He was executed in 1946.

  After World War II‚ Yugoslavia‚ Indonesia‚ and Egypt emerged as key states pursuing non-alignment policy. It intended to maintain the sovereignty of the newly independent nations by refusing to side with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Jawaharlal Nehru‚ the Indian Prime Minister‚ advocated South-South cooperation. Under Josip Broz Tito‚ Yugoslavia pursued a unique form of socialism independent of Soviet control. Indonesian leader Sukarno promoted anti-colonialism in Asia and Africa. Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ President of Egypt‚ advocated for Pan-Arabism‚ which significantly influenced Arab countries to pursue a non-aligned stance.   1. Yugoslavia Josip Broz Tito in Ethiopia‚ Museum of Yugoslavia‚ 1955. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum‚ Oxford   During the Cold War‚ Yugoslavia played a significant role in initiating and shaping non-alignment. Marshal Josip Broz Tito‚ the president of Yugoslavia‚ proved crucial in the Non-Aligned Movement’s successful formation.   Unlike other non-aligned states‚ Yugoslavia’s commitment to non-alignment was not influenced by decolonization or anti-imperial aspirations. It was the result of Tito’s unique vision of an independent‚ socialist Yugoslavia‚ albeit free from Soviet rule.   Yugoslavia acquired independence after the end of World War II‚ and Tito became the leader of the ruling Yugoslav Communist Party. Unexpectedly for the Soviet Union‚ Tito embraced “Titoism” as the dominant sociopolitical ideological framework for his control over Yugoslavia.   Aiming to assert Yugoslavia’s independence and safeguard it from falling into the Soviet sphere of influence‚ Titoism envisioned a break from Stalin’s oppressive policies. It sought to implement a more humane form of socialism‚ supporting cultural diversity‚ social justice‚ and political freedom. Titoism was dictated by the fact that Yugoslavia‚ as a united state‚ consisted of six different nations with distinct socio-cultural characteristics. According to Tito‚ maintaining peace‚ independence‚ and consolidating power in this diverse environment was only possible by following the principles of Titoism. The shift of Yugoslavia’s Communist Party from Soviet policies resulted in the Cominform Resolution in 1948‚ which expelled Yugoslavia from the Cominform‚ the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers’ Parties.   Sudan‚ People gathered to welcome President Tito in Barakat‚ Museum of Yugoslavia‚ 1959. Source: Pitt Rivers Museum‚ Oxford   According to Tito‚ joining the Western bloc would also undermine Yugoslavia’s independence. Instead‚ he promoted the idea of “positive neutrality‚” which called for developing relations with both the Eastern and Western blocs while preserving their independence in external and internal affairs. Tito believed that non-alignment‚ as a newly emerging political concept‚ would enable Yugoslavia to assume a leadership role in world affairs‚ and its principle of non-interference in the affairs of other countries and non-participation in the military blocs of either the United States or the Soviet Union aligned with Titoism.   During the 1950 session of the United Nations General Assembly‚ the Foreign Minister of Yugoslavia‚ Edvard Kardeji‚ stated that “Yugoslavia cannot accept mankind choosing to be dominated by one power or another.” In a few years‚ on December 22‚ 1954‚ Tito met with the Indian Prime Minister‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ in Delhi and signed a joint agreement‚ formalizing a policy of collective peace through non-alignment. In September 1961‚ Yugoslavia hosted the first summit of the Non-Aligned Movement in the capital city of Belgrade.   Tito’s support for the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement can be seen as a possibility to “exercise their sovereign right to freely choose their internal ways and their own way of socialist development.”   During the following years‚ Yugoslavia‚ under the leadership of Tito‚ became an active member of the United Nations Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples‚ or the Special Committee on Decolonization‚ established in 1961. Within the committee‚ Yugoslavia actively called for working out recommendations on granting independence to the remaining colonies‚ especially colonies of the United Kingdom.   2. Indonesia Portrait of President Sukarno‚ 1949. Source: Leiden University Digital Collections   Indonesia represented a key state in the non-alignment during the Cold War. At the heart of the Indonesian non-alignment lies the policy of Bebas Aktif‚ established in the late 1940s. The policy dictated Indonesian commitment to the principles of independence and neutrality from competing superpower blocs‚ including abstaining from joining military alliances. The policy emerged as a result of nearly 300 years of Dutch colonial rule and Japanese occupation during World War II.   Indonesia’s strive for independence‚ which had already begun under Dutch colonial rule in the early 1940s‚ finally materialized after the end of World War II. The Indonesian independence movement‚ under the leadership of Kusno Sosrodihardjo (Sukarno) and Mohammad Hatta‚ proclaimed independence on August 17‚ 1945. The international community‚ however‚ did not directly acknowledge Indonesia’s sovereignty‚ as the Dutch government refused to recognize its former colony’s independence. The struggle for formal recognition of independence lasted until 1949. The Round Table Conference formally acknowledged Indonesia as an independent nation.   Tanjung Priok by Semsar Siahaan‚ 1992. Source: Moderna Galerija &; Museum of Contemporary Art‚ Ljubljana   The vice president of the new Republic of Indonesia‚ Mohammad Hatta‚ declared on September 2‚ 1948‚ that the main foreign policy direction of Indonesia would be non-alignment as the single most effective tool to avoid involvement in a geopolitical conflict that might disturb national development.   Based on the previous historical experience of the struggle for independence‚ President Sukarno declared that he was willing to develop and support anti-colonialism and elaborate on a framework of an independent and active foreign policy course that would complement the Indonesian national revival without foreign commitments. These developments set the stage for the creation of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ which would also assist Indonesia in obtaining much-needed international recognition.   Bung Karno in the Revolutionary War‚ Photo courtesy of Museum MACAN‚ 1966. Source: Plural Art Magazine   Indonesia was among the first countries to initiate and host one of the founding conferences of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1955‚ the first Asian-African Conference was held in Bandung‚ Indonesia‚ widely known as the Bandung Conference. Twenty-nine participants‚ mainly newly independent states and former colonies of European empires‚ discussed the issues of decolonization‚ anti-imperialism‚ Cold War bipolarity‚ and the means to avoid alignment with one of the superpowers‚ which might have put their sovereignty at risk.   Sukarno‚ the president of Indonesia‚ was seen as a crucial actor in developing the non-alignment principles. Together with other influential leaders‚ including Jawaharlal Nehru of India‚ Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt‚ and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana‚ he actively engaged in diplomatic discussions and laid the groundwork for the Non-Alignment Movement‚ which was formally founded in September 1961 at the first NAM summit in Belgrade‚ Yugoslavia.   3. India Portrait of Jawaharlal Nehru by Yousuf Karsh‚ 1956. Source: Karsh   India’s non-alignment during the Cold War was a result of its colonial past and struggles for independence. And just like other countries‚ upon gaining independence after the end of World War II‚ India’s foreign policy was determined to be free from great power dominance‚ economic dependence‚ and political manipulations.   India‚ and particularly its charismatic leader‚ Jawaharlal Nehru‚ played a decisive role in formulating the founding and governing principles of non-alignment. In April 1954‚ Nehru delivered a speech in Colombo‚ Sri Lanka‚ referring to Indo-China relations and their prospects. He defined five guiding principles‚ also known as Panchsheel‚ for such cooperation. The Panchsheel would become the cornerstone of the movement. The principles were:   Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity and sovereignty; Mutual non-aggression; Mutual non-interference in domestic affairs; Equality and mutual benefit; Peaceful co-existence.   Smaller‚ newly independent states were significantly encouraged to join the movement by India’s public declaration of its commitment to non-alignment. As one of the founders and keen advocates of non-alignment‚ India under Nehru actively engaged in all summits and meetings of the NAM until the 1970s.   The mid-1970s saw a shift in Indian foreign policy towards the Soviet Union. The Soviet authorities provided significant military and financial aid to India and supported it during the Kashmir conflict with Pakistan and the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971. The shift made other states more vulnerable to falling under the influence of either the United States or the Soviet Union and resulted in the weakening of the movement as a whole.   The front page of The Indian Express on March 8‚ 1983. Source: Indian Express   The Sino-Indian War of 1967 and the two wars with Pakistan (1965 and 1971) escalated tensions between the South Asian countries of the NAM as well. For instance‚ Indonesia and Egypt opposed India and declared their support for Pakistan as they believed India only adhered to the non-alignment principles outside of its sphere of influence and not in the South Asian region‚ where it sought to establish dominance.   By the beginning of the 1980s‚ India’s prestige as a committed member of the NAM was already damaged. To reassert its leading role within the movement‚ India’s Prime Minister Indira Gandhi redirected the focus towards the economic development of the NAM members. In 1983‚ the Delhi Summit of the NAM was held in hopes of addressing the economic issues of less developed countries. The Summit did boost India’s influence. However‚ its support for the Soviet Union regarding the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan uncovered India’s pro-Soviet stance.   4. Egypt A poster showcasing Nasser’s economic achievements while in power‚ by Frank Horvat‚ 1962. Source: Egyptian Streets   Egypt was a pioneer in promoting the concept of non-alignment during the Cold War‚ and Gamal Abdel Nasser‚ the charismatic Egyptian revolutionary leader‚ played a crucial role in this endeavor. Even before the 1955 Bandung Conference‚ Nasser was one of the first to “begin to formulate in public statements a number of ideas‚ which he later called neutralism or non-alignment.”   Egypt had a long history of colonial rule‚ similar to other founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement. Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries‚ Egypt was ruled by the British Empire. Located in the Middle East‚ Egypt was rich in oil resources‚ which made it a strategic point for dominance between the United States and the Soviet Union. Non-alignment for Nasser meant safeguarding Egyptian sovereignty and avoiding foreign interference in Egypt’s affairs.   Nasser developed pan-Arabism as a concept of Afro-Asian solidarity. For Nasser‚ since most Arab countries shared a colonial past and were culturally‚ religiously‚ and linguistically close‚ they should be united to become free of Western domination. Pan-Arabism became an influential ideological tool in the hands of the Egyptian president‚ especially after the 1952 Egyptian revolution and Nasser’s consolidation of power. His ideas‚ based on Arab nationalism‚ anti-imperialism‚ and anti-colonialism‚ resonated with those of other newly independent African and Asian colonies‚ which sided with Egypt to oppose foreign dominance in the region.   Due to these developments‚ Egypt became the center of the Middle East rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Suez Crisis of 1956 confirmed Nasser’s belief that non-alignment was the only viable foreign policy path for former colonies.   Entrance to the Suez Canal‚ 1956. Source: National Army Museum   The Suez Canal‚ situated in Egypt‚ held significant strategic value as a direct sea route connecting Europe and Asia. Israel‚ France‚ and Britain attempted to seize control of the Suez Canal in 1956. With the financial and military assistance of the two Cold War rivals‚ the United States and the Soviet Union‚ Egypt was able to resist successfully. The event strengthened Nasser’s belief that non-alignment offered Egypt flexibility and space for political maneuver.   In June 1961‚ Egypt hosted the preparatory meeting of the NAM Summit in Cairo‚ and in October 1964‚ the Second Summit was held with 47 participants.   Following Nasser’s death in 1970‚ Egypt remained an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement‚ with a changed foreign policy course‚ however. Unlike Nasser’s reactionary policies‚ the new leader of Egypt‚ Anwar Sadat‚ chose a more pragmatic course. He signed the peace deal with Israel. The Camp David Accords of 1978 were viewed as Egypt’s shift from its traditional non-aligned policy.

  One of the most famous serial killers of all time‚ Jack the Ripper‚ terrorized the Whitechapel District in London’s East End in the late 1800s. He was never identified‚ and the case was never solved‚ though a litany of suspects have been identified. Since Jack’s identity was never ascertained‚ it is impossible to know for sure how many victims he had. However‚ law enforcement officials have created a list of probable Ripper suspects based on modus operandi and victimology. Who were the women who fell prey to this mysterious killer‚ and what led them to become associated with history’s most notorious murderer&;#63;   1. Early Victims&;#63; A Whitechapel alleyway today. Source: Lisa Haseldine / MyLondon   While experts are in agreement that there are definitely five women who are the “canonical” victims of Jack the Ripper‚ there are some murders that came later that some detectives believe are likely to be Ripper victims as well. In addition‚ forensic professionals believe it is highly unlikely that someone would be able to start killing so effectively (and get away with it so efficiently) as Jack the Ripper did with the canonical five; they think he’d had practice before. So‚ who were the Ripper’s potential first victims&;#63;   Prostitution was a common profession in Whitechapel and other areas of urban Victorian England. Source: The London Economic.   Whitechapel was a notoriously high crime area. It was not unusual for crimes‚ even murder‚ to occur on a regular basis. There were about 1‚200 prostitutes working in Whitechapel in 1888‚ several gangs operating in the area‚ several drinking establishments‚ overcrowded housing‚ and issues with policing.   The murders of the Canonical Five occurred in the autumn of 1888‚ with some experts positing that similar murders occurring earlier that year might be attributed to the Ripper. One such death is that of Annie Millwood‚ who didn’t actually die from her attack but from natural causes after being attacked. Ms. Millwood was admitted to the Whitechapel Workhouse Infirmary with stab wounds to her legs and abdomen on February 25‚ 1888. She stated that she had been attacked by a man she didn’t know who had stabbed her with a knife. The 38-year-old widow later fell and died that evening‚ but after an inquest and autopsy‚ the death was attributed to natural causes.   It has been suggested by some that the location of the attack‚ along with the area of the body targeted‚ makes Millwood a likely Ripper case‚ while others argue there is limited proof that the attack even happened and that the injuries may have even been self-inflicted.   Nineteenth-century Whitechapel citizenry. Source: Old Spitalfields Market   Another suspected victim was Martha Tabram‚ who was found on a first-floor landing of a Whitechapel building in August of 1888. Martha was a local prostitute who had been seen about town the evening before drinking with another working girl. The two had met a pair of men‚ allegedly soldiers‚ and had gone their separate ways with them.   Nothing else was heard from Martha‚ and her body was found the next day. She had been stabbed in the throat and abdomen in a rather frenzied attack. Ripper experts argue that this is unlike the Canonical Five offender‚ who was more precise in his methods. Those who argue for Tabram as a Ripper victim state that this could have been a learning curve for the murderer and that he targeted her neck and abdomen‚ just like the Ripper did in his other victims. Some also propose that this murder helped the Ripper learn to minimize the forensic evidence left at future crime scenes. He most certainly would have been covered in blood after this crime‚ which led him to first asphyxiate future victims and therefore minimize blood spatter.   2. Mary Nichols The Police News of September 8‚ 1888 depicting Mary Ann Nichols. Source: European Writers Tour   Mary Ann Nichols was the first of the Canonical Five and therefore considered by some scholars to be the first Jack the Ripper victim. Nichols was a married mother of six when her husband left her to begin an affair with a neighbor. Alone and destitute‚ Mary turned to alcohol‚ which only worsened her problems.   Eventually‚ she found herself frequenting the East End and turned to prostitution to pay for a bed in a lodging house. She was last seen on August 31‚ 1888 around 2:30 AM‚ when an acquaintance spotted her drunk and walking at the corner of Osborn Street and Whitechapel Road. Just over an hour later‚ two men‚ Charles Cross and Robert Paul‚  were walking along a road called Buck’s Row when they encountered Mary’s body lying on the footpath. Her throat was cut‚ and she was sprawled in her own blood.   When her body was transported to the local mortuary and her clothes removed‚ it was revealed that there were numerous deep incisions to her abdomen‚ so brutal that her intestines were threatening to escape. The heinous nature of this attack set it apart from the usual set of Whitechapel crimes and got the attention of law enforcement.   3. Annie Chapman A retouched image of Annie Chapman clipped from her wedding photo. Source: Foller   Annie Chapman lived a relatively comfortable life with her husband John in Windsor. They had three children; however‚ their oldest‚ Emily Ruth‚ died of meningitis‚ and their son John Alfred was “a cripple” who was sent to a convalescent home to live. With these losses and other troubles‚ including alcoholism on both of their parts‚ Annie and John separated in 1884 or 1885. John would continue to support his ex-wife until his death at the end of 1886. She then started selling flowers and crochet work to get by‚ but eventually turned to prostitution to make a living and fund her alcoholism.   A memorial sign to Annie Chapman in Manor Park Cemetery. Her actual grave has been buried over. Source: Jack the Ripper 1888   Chapman was killed early in the morning of September 8th‚ 1888. She was seen multiple times by different people throughout the night of the 7th-8th‚ for the last time at 5:30 AM‚ speaking to a man. Her body was discovered just before 6:00. At the coroner’s inquest‚ her body was described as “terribly mutilated‚” with injuries consistent with a surgical instrument.   The doctor stated that Chapman was not a healthy woman but that her medical issues had not contributed to her death. She did not appear to have been drunk at the time of her death. Her throat was cut quite severely‚ and the abdomen laid open entirely. Several of her organs had been lifted from the cavity and placed on the upper portion of the body‚ but the uterus and its appendages had been removed and could not be located. The coroner felt that it would take a trained surgeon such as himself about 15 minutes to perform the injuries described and someone not trained in these practices over an hour. This led to the first supposition that Jack the Ripper may have ties to the medical field.   4. Elizabeth Stride Elizabeth Stride in life (left) and death (right). Source: VPics   Swedish by birth‚ Elizabeth “Long Liz ” Stride (n&;eacute;e Gustafdotter) moved to London in 1866. She had previously worked as a prostitute in her home country‚ but in London‚ she married a man named John Stride and opened a coffee shop. The business failed‚ and her husband died in 1884. After the death of her husband‚ she lived in poverty and had trouble with alcohol. Liz was arrested several times for drunk and disorderly conduct. She took up with a man named Michael Kidney‚ with whom she had a “stormy” relationship and whose relationship was on and off for several years.   Stride was killed on September 30‚ 1888. Her throat was cut‚ but her abdomen was not mutilated as the previous victims had been. Some believe that this means that the offender was interrupted in his actions.   5. Catherine Eddowes Catherine Eddowes in life (left) and her mortuary photo on the right. Source: Spiderman Animated Wikia   Perhaps because he was interrupted in his murder of Elizabeth Stride‚ the Ripper would take a second victim on the night of September 30th. Catherine Eddowes had actually been released from jail at the approximate time that Liz Stride was being murdered. Eddowes had been taken into custody after a display of public drunkenness but was released around 1 AM when the officer on duty determined she had sobered up enough to do so.   The Illustrated Police News. Source: ThoughtCo   Catherine would be killed by a cut to the throat in Mitre Square‚ less than ten minutes walking distance from the police station. Three men spotted Catherine in Mitre Square with a man‚ and one of the passersby got a good look at her companion. He was able to give the police what is considered to be a description of the man who is highly likely to be Jack the Ripper: about 30 years of age‚ about 5′ 9”‚ medium build‚ fair‚ with “the appearance of a sailor.”   Catherine Eddowes’ shawl was auctioned in 2007 and then DNA tested in 2011. The DNA matched a suspect‚ but experts feel this is inconclusive proof given Eddowes’ profession and the lack of proper evidence handling. Source: Russell Edwards photo via ArtNet   Other clues to Catherine’s killer were left behind. A piece of her apron‚ bloodstained‚ was cut and found in a doorway‚ where above‚ anti-Semitic graffiti had been scrawled. A shawl belonging to Eddowes was also found at the scene‚ stained with blood and semen‚ though the DNA provided by these biological clues would not be useful until decades later. Catherine’s murder was exceptionally heinous‚ as she was not only eviscerated but cut on her face as well.   6. Mary Kelly Mary Kelly was the 5th and most brutally killed victim. Source: All That’s Interesting   Shocking the public and police alike‚ the murder of Mary Kelly would top even that of Catherine Eddowes in brutality. The entire month of October would pass without any murderous events‚ and Whitechapel breathed a sigh of relief‚ many believing that Jack’s reign of terror had come to an end. However‚ on November 9th‚ the Ripper returned and took his crimes indoors for the first time on record‚ killing Mary Kelly in her room. Blood saturated the bed and floor beneath her. She was completely eviscerated‚ and her organs were placed around her body. Her breasts were sliced off‚ her arms cut all over‚ and her face slashed multiple times. Her neck was cut to the vertebrae.   Little was known about Mary’s life. Most of what is recorded about her history was hearsay from an off-and-on boyfriend named Joseph Barnett‚ and he got his information from Mary herself. Some of the information conflicts and is believed to be embellished or even fabricated. However‚ she was believed to have originally been from Ireland. She was about 25 years old and had been living in London for about four years‚ working in a brothel and as a maid. She was last spotted at about 3:00 that morning‚ accompanied by a man. Approximately an hour later‚ two women heard the faint cry of “Oh murder&;#33;” from their beds in neighboring buildings but thought nothing of it due to the high crime rate in Whitechapel.   7. The Ripper Returns&;#63; London newspapers wondered if the Ripper had returned. Source: Jack the Ripper Tour   Just as with potential earlier victims‚ there is some doubt as to whether Jack the Ripper had any more victims after the Canonical Five. However‚ murder in Whitechapel did not cease after the death of Mary Kelly‚ and law enforcement and the citizens of London could not help but wonder if he was still out there. The day after Mary Kelly’s burial‚ a woman named Annie Farmer was attacked by a client who had engaged her for sex‚ and her throat was lightly cut. However‚ her injuries were superficial‚ and the blade blunt‚ very dissimilar to the injuries left by the Ripper. The police failed to take Annie’s claim that she had been attacked by the Ripper seriously and did not investigate‚ though she never would recant her story.   Mary Evans and her murderer. Source: National Geographic   Prostitute Alice McKenzie was murdered eight months after the last canonical victim‚ in July 1889. She had a zig-zag wound from her chest to her abdomen‚ and some speculated that the Ripper had returned. The new police commissioner‚ who was not in office during the Canonical Five‚ felt that the murder was similar to the Ripper cases‚ as did the coroner. However‚ Dr. George Phillips‚ who was involved in or attended the autopsies of four of the five canonical victims‚ did not believe this murder was consistent with Jack’s M.O.   A political cartoon from the era wearing a cap labeled “crime.” Source: Future Zone   Was Jack back&;#63; It would remain a mystery. Other murders were attributed to him in the years that followed‚ but none with certainty. The world remains at a loss regarding Jack the Ripper’s identity and motive. This mystery adds to the impression he left on England and the world‚ from the nineteenth century echoing into today.

  The ubiquitous catchphrase ‘Keep Calm and Carry On’ has become the quintessential symbol of the United Kingdom‚ representing stoical resolve and restraint in the face of hardship and struggle. Today the phrase appears everywhere from posters and mugs to tea towels. Often printed in a vintage font and featuring the British crown‚ the phrase conjures up the plucky‚ patriotic determination expected of Brits during World War II under the leadership of Winston Churchill‚ a sentiment that can also be applied to a myriad of new situations today. But where did the phrase actually come from‚ and how did it become so widespread&;#63;   Wartime Propaganda Your Courage… Will Bring Us Victory‚ World War II propaganda. Source: Heritage Posters   During the buildup to World War II‚ the British Government established the Ministry of Information (MOI) to produce a series of morale boosting posters for display across Britain. Designed with bold‚ big text‚ and catchy slogans‚ alongside the British crown‚ the aim was to capture as many Britons as possible. Of the slogans the team came up with were ‘Freedom Is in Peril – Defend it With All Your Might”‚ along with “Your Courage‚ Your Cheerfulness‚ Your Resolution Will Bring Us Victory.” The third‚ perhaps unsurprisingly‚ read “Keep Calm and Carry On.”   Freedom Is in Peril‚ poster in situ in London during World War II. Source: TIME Magazine   However‚ the third ‘Keep Calm” poster was never officially sanctioned for display. Instead‚ although it was printed‚ it was kept in reserve‚ while the other two were more widely circulated throughout notice boards‚ public transport and hoardings across the UK.    A Wartime Reserve Front cover for Keep Calm and Carry on: The Truth Behind the Poster (2017)‚ by Bex Lewis. Source: Manchester Metropolitan University   The MOI had originally envisioned the ‘Keep Calm and Carry On” as a fitting message which would only be issued if Britain faced a ground invasion by Germany‚ which would have resulted in widespread panic. As this never happened‚ the poster never made its way out into the public eye. Meanwhile the other two posters were deemed a more suitable message of courage and fortitude. In 1945‚ the majority of the reserve ‘Keep Calm’ posters were destroyed after the war in 1945. Author Bex Lewis‚ who Wrote Keep Calm and Carry on: The Truth Behind the Poster (2017) noted‚ “There was a fear that morale would fall apart‚ but it turned out that people didn’t need to be told to keep their chins up – they just wanted to be told what to do.”   Rediscovery in the Early Aughts Inside Barter Books in Northumberland‚ England. Source: Visit Alnwick   Some 60 years later‚ during the early aughts‚ one of the few remaining Keep Calm and Carry On posters was rediscovered by a bookseller from Barter Books hidden in amongst a pile of books in an auction. The bookseller hung the poster over the cash register of their store in Northumberland‚ where customers began asking where they could buy their own copy. Shop owners Stuart and Mary Manley began printing their own copies due to popular demand‚ but they had no idea just how widespread the catchphrase would become.    Recent Times The Keep Calm and Carry On emblem has appeared on a wide range of merchandise. Source: suwalls.com   It wasn’t until 2008 that the Keep Calm and Carry On slogan became mass-produced‚ and by the following year it was firmly in place across British society. The shop at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London played a significant role in bringing the caption out into the public eye. For some‚ it encapsulated the instability of the banking crash‚ when an age of austerity was suddenly being ushered in by politicians (who weren’t following the same rules themselves)‚ followed by the looming threat of terrorism. The term ‘austerity nostalgia’ as been applied to the rising interest in such wartime memorabilia as the ‘Keep Calm’ slogan‚ symbolizing a popular desire to resurrect some idealized version of modernist times‚ when it seemed as though British people had the grit and reserve to weather any storm.   Rosie the Riveter poster titled “We Can Do It&;#33;” by J. Howard Miller‚ 1942. Source: US Department of Defense   Nowadays‚ you can still expect to find the phrase printed on merchandise in museums stores‚ gift shops and tourist attractions across the UK‚ where it has become as familiar and overused as the Coca-Cola emblem‚ or perhaps the similar wartime vintage poster featuring ‘Rosie the Riveter’. Meanwhile‚ several copies of the original belong to the National Archives and The Imperial War Museum in London. In fact‚ the phrase is now so well-known and cliched across the UK and beyond that it has been parodied many times over‚ from ‘Keep Calm and Save the NHS’‚ to the more playful ‘Freak Out and Run.’

  Radclyffe Hall’s 1928 novel The Well of Loneliness made her an icon of queer literature and went on to herald a wave of pulp lesbian fiction later in the twentieth century – but not without serious legal battles. Tried for obscenity in both the UK and the US legal systems‚ Hall’s novel was alternately vilified as dangerous propaganda that would corrupt the morals of its readers and championed as a necessary plea for tolerance and acceptance (as opposed to fear and hatred) of lesbian relationships. Here‚ we will explore Hall’s landmark novel‚ where the UK law stood on same-sex relationships between women in the early twentieth century‚ the outcome of the UK trial‚ and the ways in which it differed from the US trial that followed shortly after.   Background: Radclyffe Hall and a Summary of The Well of Loneliness UK first edition of The Well of Loneliness‚ 1928. Source: Swann Galleries   Born Marguerite Antonia Radclyffe Hall‚ the writer Radclyffe Hall was a woman of considerable fortune‚ which she had inherited from her womanizing father and which freed her from any financial incentives to marry. Instead‚ Hall‚ an out lesbian who dressed in traditionally masculine clothes‚ spent much of her twenties in relationships with other young women before meeting Mabel Batten‚ an older married woman with an adult daughter‚ and later (through Batten) Una Trourbridge‚ Batten’s cousin‚ with whom Hall would remain until her death.   Like Hall‚ Stephen Gordon‚ the protagonist of The Well of Loneliness‚ is a masculine-presenting lesbian who enjoys typically male sporting pursuits‚ hates wearing women’s clothing and wearing her hair long‚ and is attracted to other women. Named Stephen as her parents had been hoping for a boy‚ even as a child‚ she is described as “narrow-hipped” and “wide-shouldered‚” and she longs to be a boy. She is doted on by her father‚ who understands her homosexuality‚ though he dies without ever stating as much.   Spurned by society and her own mother‚ Stephen’s quest for love and acceptance takes her to the battlefields of World War I (based heavily on the lived experiences of Hall’s friend Toupie Lowther within the only women’s unit to serve on the French frontline) and to Paris‚ where there were no laws prohibiting same-sex relationships between men (unlike in the United Kingdom) and so gay subculture thrives. Yet Stephen finds that society’s view of sexuality is at odds with her happiness‚ and the novel ends with Stephen’s earnest prayer to God to “[g]ive us also the right to our existence.”   The Case for the Prosecution: Why Was The Well of Loneliness Put on Trial&;#63; Photograph of Radclyffe Hall. Source: Literature Cambridge   Before the novel came to publication‚ Hall knew she was dealing with dangerous material and was‚ by her own admission‚ attempting something never before broached in literary fiction. She wrote to her publisher‚ Jonathan Cape‚ earlier in 1928‚ stating that she had “put [her] pen at the service of some of the most persecuted and misunderstood people in the world” – a group to which Hall‚ as an out lesbian‚ herself belonged. Jonathan Cape‚ however‚ was not to be deterred‚ and the novel was published in July 1928.   In describing the life and experiences of her out lesbian protagonist‚ Stephen Gordon‚ Hall was dealing with subject matter that was not only considered taboo but unnatural among more conservative circles (whose views are echoed by the character of Stephen’s own mother‚ who tells her that “[t]his thing [she is] is a sin against creation”). Though the Labouchere Amendment had criminalized all sexual acts between two men‚ homosexual acts between women were not‚ strictly speaking‚ classed as criminal acts – though that does not mean the law did not find ways of punishing lesbian couples. For instance‚ Caroline Derry notes that‚ during the eighteenth century‚ there were cases of marriage between outwardly heterosexual couples in which the “husband” was later found to be legally a woman.   Photograph of D. H. Lawrence. Source: Biography   It was on these grounds‚ then‚ that James Douglas‚ the editor of the Sunday Express‚ vociferously objected to Hall’s novel‚ arguing that it was a work of propaganda mislabeled as fiction. He even went so far as to state that he would sooner “give a healthy boy or a healthy girl a phial of prussic acid than this novel” – statements that implied that The Well of Loneliness had the capacity (if not the outright intention) of corrupting the morals of young men and women‚ or‚ to borrow Douglas’ own phrase‚ of “defiling young souls.” Douglas’ wording is pointed‚ as‚ according to the Hicklin test‚ a work could be deemed obscene on the basis that it might “deprave and corrupt those whose minds are open to such immoral influences.”   Such was Douglas’ loathing of The Well of Loneliness that he pushed for the British Home Secretary to have the novel suppressed. Douglas and William Joynson-Hicks‚ the Home Secretary at the time‚ were well-matched in their conservative sensibilities. Joynson-Hicks also seized typescripts of D. H. Lawrence’s poetry collection Pansies in 1929‚ suppressed birth control publications‚ and had designs to crack down on nightclubs by organizing raids. Hall and The Well of Loneliness were thus duly taken to court over charges of obscenity‚ with the trial commencing on November 28‚ 1928.   The Defense Sunday Express headline covering their public campaign against The Well of Loneliness (1928). Source: Historic England   In early reviews of the novel – before the trial had even been mooted – many fellow writers had praised Hall’s frankness‚ including the writer Vera Brittain‚ who observed that The Well of Loneliness was further proof “that there is no problem which is not better stated frankly than concealed‚” since “persecution and disgusted ostracism have never saved any difficult in the world.”   Moreover‚ Leonard Woolf and E. M. Forster co-drafted a letter protesting against the suppression of Hall’s novel‚ which bore signatures from the likes of T. S. Eliot‚ Arnold Bennett‚ Ethel Smyth‚ and the aforementioned Vera Brittain. However‚ the letter was never published‚ as Hall wanted Woolf and Forster to argue that the novel was a work of literary genius – a view they did not share.   Photograph of Vita Sackville-West. Source: The Paris Review   Confident‚ therefore‚ of the support of the day’s writers and intellectuals‚ Hall’s publishers sent 160 letters to those they felt would likely bear witness in the trial against the novel’s censorship. Not as many writers and thinkers as they had hoped‚ however‚ were forthcoming – which Virginia Woolf lambasted in a letter to her nephew: “Most of our friends are trying to evade the witness box; for reasons you may guess. But they generally put it down to the weak heart of a father‚ or a cousin who is about to have twins.”   The trial‚ however‚ did put some queer members of the Bloomsbury Group in something of a bind. While Woolf’s lover Vita Sackville-West was prepared to testify‚ she was also a married woman of wealth‚ power‚ and connections‚ being married to the diplomat (and later Labour politician) Harold Nicolson.   Photograph of T. S. Eliot‚ who supported Hall’s novel and opposed the charge of obscenity. Source: The Poetry Foundation   Lytton Strachey‚ a fellow queer member of the Bloomsbury Group‚ was also willing to testify‚ though he wrote to E. M. Forster that he personally thought the literary quality of the novel was “pretty dreadful.” These sentiments were echoed by Woolf herself‚ who dismissed The Well of Loneliness as a “pale tepid vapid book.”   The judge’s ruling that fellow writers of fiction could only make pronouncements on a work’s artistic value rather than its obscenity thus rescued Woolf and her contemporary writers from taking the stand. Nonetheless‚ 57 writers‚ intellectuals‚ and scientists did agree to take the stand in defense of The Well of Loneliness.   The Verdict &; Aftermath Photograph of Ernest Hemingway‚ who took part in the US trial in support of Hall’s novel. Source: Biography   A week after the trial had begun‚ the judge‚ Sir Chartres Biron‚ ruled that The Well of Loneliness was indeed obscene‚ copies of the novel were to be confiscated and destroyed‚ and the defendants were to cover all legal fees incurred by the trial. Though this ruling was appealed‚ Biron’s ruling was upheld by five other magistrates.   Initially‚ US publishers were somewhat cowed by the UK trial‚ so though Alfred A. Knopf had acquired the rights to the novel‚ they declined to publish it. However‚ Pascale Covici and Donald Friede took out a $10‚000 bank loan in order to buy the rights to the novel from Jonathan Cape. Having secured the rights‚ they then took preemptive measures to defend the novel against similar accusations of obscenity. For example‚ they contacted the head of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice with the offer of selling him a copy of the novel.   By the time the NYPD confiscated 865 copies of the novel at the publisher’s office‚ the novel had been in circulation in the States for a year‚ selling 100‚000 copies‚ thanks in no small part to the hint of infamy attached to it following the UK trial. Unlike in the UK‚ however‚ under US federal law‚ the argument of literary merit was permitted as mitigation against the charge of obscenity – a fact that the defense used to their advantage this time around. Among those who took to the stand to defend Hall’s novel were Ernest Hemingway‚ F. Scott Fitzgerald‚ Sherwood Anderson‚ Upton Sinclair‚ John Dos Passos‚ and Edna St. Vincent Millay.   Photograph of Virginia Woolf‚ by Man Ray‚ November 27‚ 1934. Source: AnOther Magazine   On August 19‚ 1929‚ New York’s Court of Special Sessions ruled that‚ in grappling with what it termed “a delicate social problem‚” the novel had not‚ in fact‚ broken the law. The charges against The Well of Loneliness were dropped‚ and the novel could therefore be circulated freely.   It is noteworthy that three other novels that deal with lesbianism were also published in the UK in 1928: Elizabeth Bowen’s The Hotel‚ Compton Mackenzie’s Extraordinary Women‚ and Virginia Woolf’s Orlando. Woolf and Mackenzie both adopt a more playful tone than that of Hall‚ while Bowen’s treatment of same-sex relationships is far more oblique.   In the aftermath of the UK trial’s guilty verdict‚ Woolf expressed her fear that‚ since writers can only “produce great literature” if they have “free minds” and as nothing prevents freedom of thought like a “taboo‚” writing itself would become “cramped” and overly cautious. The publication of Orlando‚ The Hotel‚ and Extraordinary Women‚ however‚ would suggest that the trial of The Well of Loneliness did not have entirely the chilling effect she had feared.   Nonetheless‚ The Well of Loneliness remains a landmark work of lesbian fiction as the first work to depict‚ openly and earnestly‚ the lived experience of a lesbian woman in the early twentieth century‚ during a time when homosexual acts between men were illegal in the United Kingdom‚ and to call for social change. The UK trial and the verdict Sir Biron reached was therefore every bit as illiberal as Woolf had feared. Yet‚ thanks to Covici and Friede‚ even a guilty verdict could not stop Hall from becoming an icon of queer literature.

  Mayday‚ also commonly known as Labor Day‚ or International Workers’ Day‚ is a public holiday for many that takes place on the 1st of May each year. Celebrated across parts of Europe‚ the United States‚ Canada and Asia‚ this day of celebration has a long history connected to the celebration of spring‚ the advancement of warmer weather‚ and the coming together of communities. We track the long history of Mayday and spring celebrations‚ which date as far back as ancient times.   Rites of Spring Detail of Flora from Primavera by Sandro Botticelli‚ 1480. Source: Uffizi Gallery‚ Florence   Some of the earliest May celebrations took place in ancient Rome‚ most notably The Floralia‚ or the Festival of Flora‚ a tribute to the goddess of spring‚ flowers and fertility which took place from the 28th of April to the 3rd of May. Along with civilized events including theatre and athletic games‚ Romans also carried out raucous affairs such as throwing vegetables at one another and releasing wild hares and deer into unsuspecting crowds.    The Beltane Festival Beltane fire celebrations. Source: Lux Heart   The Beltane Festival was a Gaelic celebration for the warmer months of spring and summer‚ dating back to at least as far as the early medieval period. The festival typically involved fire displays and bonfires which communities believed had special protective powers‚ along with the adorning of doors and windows with wild flowers. While the festival waned in popularity during the early 20th century‚ some have resurrected Beltane in recent years as part of Pagan celebrations that connect with the forces of the natural world.    Mayday The Procession of the May Queen‚ by Herbert Wilson Foster (1846–1929). Source: Rushcliffe Borough Council/Art UK   The 1st of May emerged as a Mayday celebration during the medieval period throughout the British Isles‚ when a series of eccentric community-led activities took place. A random ‘lord and lady’ would be picked out from the crowd to rule the town for the entire day. Eventually over time the tradition changed to involve just the ‘lady’‚ who became known as the ‘May Queen.’ During the Victorian era the May Queen was typically a young girl‚ who wore a white dress and a floral crown‚ who came to embody the innocent and hopeful beauty of spring‚ surrounded by a ‘court’ of other girls dressed in similar attire. Meanwhile‚ the practice of dancing around the maypole with long ribbons that has become so synonymous with Mayday today first emerged out of 14th century Wales‚ before being adopted across much of England and beyond.    International Workers’ Day (or Labor Day) Source: BC Federation of Students   In 1891‚ the first day in May was selected during the Marxist International Socialist Congress in Paris to be International Workers’ Day‚ a time when workers could unite and bring together industrial action. The first protest that took place was on the 1st of May 1886‚ when many workers went on strike across the United States‚ demanding an eight-hour working day. They chose this date because it was most commonly the start of the accounting year for American businesses. The event ended tragically with violence and several deaths‚ and became known as The Haymarket Affair.   Across the world‚ the shock of the event led the date of May 1st to become a time for socialist parties and trade unions to carry out peaceful protests‚ arguing for the 8-hour working day. Once this battle was finally successfully won for approximately 200‚000 workers‚ the day became a special date when workers would stage strikes and protests for all kinds of different rights. People from a range of professional backgrounds would take the day off as an act of resistance and solidarity.    Continuing Relevance Today Mayday celebrations. Source: History.com   The date remained a popular time for protest amongst socialists across the US‚ but as the Cold War progressed‚ the date’s association with socialism became politically fraught‚ prompting International Workers’ Day‚ (or Labor Day as it is now commonly known)‚ to be moved to the first Monday in September throughout the US and numerous other nations‚ a practice which continues to this day. However‚ many other nations held on to the 1st of May as Labor Day‚ including the United Kingdom. Meanwhile‚ Mayday was introduced as a Bank Holiday in the United Kingdom by Michael Foot‚ the Labor Employment Secretary in 1978‚ and it remains in place across the UK and Ireland today‚ when traditional celebrations continue to be carried out in many towns and villages‚ including‚ of course‚ the maypole dance.

  Throughout the history of warfare‚ perhaps no theme has remained as constant as the semi-mythical bond shared between brothers in arms. From the heavily armored hoplite of ancient Greece to the defenders of Ukraine‚ the shared hardships of military life have forged an unparalleled bond among warriors.   But the nature of that bond has been drastically different throughout history. Relationships between comrades have been platonic and‚ on occasion‚ romantic.   But how did those relationships work in one of the most homophobic societies—Adolf Hitler’s Germany—of the 20th century&;#63;   This article will examine the complex history of same-sex relations in 20th-century Germany until the end of World War II and how various political and cultural groups viewed homosexuality.   The Backdrop: Sexuality in the Imperial German Military  A French propaganda postcard depicting the Kaiser as a cross-dresser. The homosexuality of the officer corps was the source of several scandals in the decades leading up to the war. Source: LGBTQ Nation   By the end of the First World War‚ the world that had started the conflict was gone. It had been destroyed in revolutions that toppled empires and shook societies to their very core.   When the conflict began‚ masculinity was inextricably linked with soldierly stoicism‚ bravery‚ and moral cleanliness. This ideal picture of the German soldier was rooted in “Prussian discipline‚” which called for order‚ diligence‚ emotional self-control‚ and duty to one’s nation.   The soldier who did his duty‚ controlled his emotions‚ and served his nation was the highest aspiration for a German of the early 20th century.   But this ideal was shattered by storms of lead and clouds of gas.   Many soldiers could not cope with the stresses of modern war; as a result‚ they looked for an outlet‚ a way to escape the carnage and industrial-scale slaughter that surrounded them.   For many‚ this escape came in relationships with local women or a trip to the military-organized brothel.   A British army propaganda poster trying to warn its troops about the dangers of venereal disease in army brothels 1916. Source: Buzzfeed   For others‚ this release came from their comrades. This escape could be something as simple as playing cards or as “scandalous” as an affair.   One officer‚ writing to sexologist Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld‚ recounted his experiences during the war:   “One day‚ there came an ensign from the cadet corps‚ Count L.‚ with whom I immediately fell in love… He returned my love entirely. Soon‚ we became inseparable friends‚ and the major and other older officers rejoiced at the splendid relationship which had grown up between superior and subordinate… When we didn’t go out of an evening‚ we dismissed the servants and sat for a long time arm in arm‚ in close embrace‚ saying many tender and lovely things to each other… For two whole months we enjoyed our love [and] happiness together.” (Cited from Jason Crouthamel’s excellent work An Intimate History of the Front: Masculinity‚ Sexuality‚ and German Soldiers in the First World War)   And as the guns fell silent and the soldiers returned home to a new Germany‚ they brought with them a very new view of masculine identity.   Sexuality in the Weimar Republic Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld‚ a leading German sexologist and gay rights advocate during Weimar‚ n.d. Source: Scientific American   Weimar has sometimes been portrayed as a veritable paradise for LGBTQ individuals. This generalization‚ however‚ misses the mark.   Despite being the home of the modern world’s first homosexual rights movement‚ same-sex relations remained illegal under Paragraph 175 of the criminal code‚ at least for men. Additionally‚ most Germans viewed the LGBTQ minority with disdain‚ only tacitly approving sexual freedom if it was confined to the bedroom.   Nonetheless‚ Weimar’s “relative” openness allowed for a cultural debate on the “morality” of homosexuality across the political divide.   One side of the spectrum was best represented by Dr. Magnus Hirschfeld‚ a sexologist and the founder of Berlin’s Institute for the Science of Sexuality in 1919. Hirschfeld argued that homosexual men embodied a “third sex” that combined masculinity and femininity. Many homosexual veterans embraced his concept‚ arguing that their ability to maintain both a “hard” masculine side and a “soft” feminine side made them the ideal comrade.   Not everyone shared Hirschfeld’s views‚ of course‚ including other LGBTQ activists. Adolf Brand began publishing Der Eigene (“The Own”) in 1896. Brand agreed with Hirschfeld’s belief that homosexuality should be decriminalized and society should be more tolerant.   Despite their vision of a better future for homosexual men‚ Brand vehemently opposed Hirschfeld’s claim that homosexual men were more effeminate than straight men. Brand argued homosexual men were essentially bisexual‚ equally capable of loving both men and women.   Adolf Brand in a 1924 engraving. Source: Torpedo the Ark   Brand and his followers strongly advocated a “return to the Greek ideal” as the mainstay of same-sex relationships. Pederasty—which literally translates as “love of boys”—was a practice in ancient Greece where a young boy (at or over the age of 16) would be paired with an older man who would educate them on all matters.   These lessons could range from philosophical debates‚ how to hunt‚ perform a trade‚ conduct themselves as a citizen‚ and engage in sexual activity. To Brand and his followers‚ these intergenerational relationships would help create a more cohesive and unified society.   Another strand of thought was popularized by Major Ernst R&;ouml;hm‚ the leader of the Nazi Party’s paramilitary wing‚ the brown-shirted Sturmabteilung. R&;ouml;hm’s conception of homosexuality can best be described as a hyper-masculine bond between brothers in arms. One way to express that bond was through sex.   R&;ouml;hm vehemently rejected Hirschfeld’s view that homosexual men were effeminate. To him‚ homosexual men who had fought in the trenches of the Great War had learned the one universal truth of mankind: “only the real‚ the true‚ the masculine [ideal] held its value.”   Ernst R&;ouml;hm‚ the openly gay leader of the Sturmabteilung‚ the Nazi Party’s paramilitary organization‚ 1933. Source: IMDB   As Nazism transformed from a Bavarian fringe movement to a national political juggernaut in the late 1920s and early 1930s‚ political opponents on all sides attacked R&;ouml;hm for his sexuality.   The veteran defended himself‚ viciously attacking the upholders of the traditional status quo. As he wrote in his memoirs‚ published during the Nazi’s rise to power:   “Nothing is more phony than the so-called morality of society. The term shelters every kind of loose conduct. I want to state straight away that I am no goody-goody and I do not wish to be considered as such‚ and neither am I ‘morally upright‚’ for in my experience the morals of the morally upright are not so far removed from looseness.”   With his power as the undisputed leader of the SA‚ R&;ouml;hm went about creating an organization that mirrored his image. The young‚ ultra-nationalistic recruits of the brownshirts were taught that homosocial relations were the bedrock of society. These relations often manifested in violence‚ sport‚ or training—all of which had a high degree of homoeroticism and male closeness.   Shared physical activity was a favorite tact of the Hitlerite regime to build a sense of community. R&;ouml;hm’s SA took this to extremes‚ 1937. Source: British Path&;eacute;   Hitler and the other Nazi elites tolerated R&;ouml;hm and the SA for as long as they were useful. After Hitler became Chancellor‚ however‚ R&;ouml;hm continued clamoring for a violent national revolution in which his brownshirts‚ the pinnacle of masculinity and Germanic society‚ would reign.   R&;ouml;hm refused to back down throughout 1933 and into early 1934‚ preventing Hitler from reaching a compromise with the conservative officer’s corps that controlled the Reichswehr.   After much prodding by Heinrich Himmler‚ the leader of the SS‚ and President of the Reichstag Hermann Goering‚ Hitler infamously purged the SA during the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934.   R&;ouml;hm’s homosexuality‚ long-known to the elites of the NSDAP‚ was publicly revealed in the aftermath to partially justify the slaughter of the “ludicrous apes” of the SA.   However‚ the death of R&;ouml;hm and the dismantling of the SA was just the beginning of Nazism’s odd relationship with homosexuality.   A Political Issue: Homosexuality vs. Lesbianism  Police guarding the Eldorado nightclub in Berlin‚ 1933. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   Shortly after the Nazi seizure of power‚ they began clamping down on the gay rights movement that had sprung up in Weimar. Newspapers‚ journals‚ and publishing houses were closed. Organizations (such as Hirschfeld’s Institute for the Sexual Sciences) were dissolved‚ and their property was seized by the state.   The police (augmented by the regime’s political police‚ the infamous Gestapo) began standing watch at nightclubs‚ bars‚ and other gathering places frequented by the LGBTQ community.   All levels of government vehemently enforced paragraph 175. Local police forces had kept a list of men they believed to be engaging in same-sex relations; by order of the Party‚ these lists were sent to the Gestapo. Men were detained and questioned. Some were beaten; others were sent to concentration camps.   At the camps‚ homosexual prisoners (identified by a pink triangle) were abused by their fellow prisoners and the guards.   Wilhelm Frick‚ Reich Minister of the Interior from 1933-1943 and the Reichsprotektor (Governor) of Bohemia and Moravia from 1943 until the end of the war‚ 1933. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum‚ Washington DC   While lesbianism was forbidden‚ it was not technically illegal. No legislation (like Paragraph 175) outlawed same-sex relations between women. So why did the Nazis seemingly crack down on homosexuality and only pursue lesbians half-heartedly&;#63;   This is because Nazi ideology believed that Germanic men were the future of their state (and race’s) survival. To survive‚ their race needed‚ in their eyes‚ Lebensraum (living space). The only way to acquire land was by force. This meant war.   If there was to be another major contest of arms (as the Nazis always wished there to be)‚ then the state couldn’t risk their men being unprepared for war. They could not allow them to become “emasculated” through homosexuality.   Wilhelm Frick‚ the Reich Minister for the Interior‚ expressed this sentiment quite clearly when he said‚ “men practicing unnatural lechery between men must be persecuted with utmost severity. Such vices will lead to the disintegration of the German people.”   Homosexuality was‚ in the Nazi psyche‚ a weakness that‚ if left unchecked‚ could cause the ultimate destruction of the Aryan Race.   Homoerotic Comradeship in Hitler’s Germany A poster promoting the comradery among German youth. The caption reads‚ “We build body and soul‚” mid-1930s. Source: Calvin University   Perhaps paradoxically‚ despite the Party’s fear of homosexuality‚ homoerotic worship of the male body remained a constant in Nazi media. The fit‚ young‚ blonde-haired‚ blue-eyed Aryan was‚ in the eyes of the Nazis‚ the future of Western civilization. The ideal German everyone should aspire to be.   Good German boys‚ whether as members of the Hitler Youth‚ laborers in the Reich Forestry Service‚ or as soldiers in the Wehrmacht‚ were expected to bond with their comrades   But what was acceptable behavior&;#63;   The matter was concerning enough that‚ during the Second World War:   “Medical personnel (in the Wehrmacht) received detailed instructions for preventing homosexual acts from taking place in communal quarters at the front; officers‚ for their part‚ were instructed to keep an eye out for sexual horseplay‚ nude swimming‚ and ‘an overheated sexual atmosphere.’”   But what constituted “an overheated sexual atmosphere”&;#63; The regulations continued explaining that “sexual jokes‚ songs‚ and stories [are an] integral part of comradely bonding.” But at no point should this “degenerate into “sexual aberrations.”   The vagueness of the directive left much room for commanders to interpret what was merely comradery or sexual deviance. But what happened when soldiers were found engaging in sexual deviance&;#63;   Sexual Deviance and Forgiveness&;#63; Josef Thorak’s Comradeship‚ presented at the Paris World Exhibition in 1937. Source: J. Willard Marriot Digital Library   It’s impossible to know the experiences of most German soldiers during the Second World War. Anywhere from 3.4 to 3.8 million German soldiers were killed or missing by the end of hostilities. Many millions of survivors never talked about their experiences. Plus‚ engaging in sexual activities with their comrades was‚ at the time‚ illegal. Many men may have also been ashamed of their actions. Nonetheless‚ the few German military documents investigating §175 violations provide valuable insight into this fascinating topic.   In early 1940‚ two SS recruits—aged 17 and 18—were found lying naked in bed together. At their court-martial‚ the SS tribunal found that “lying side by side in a bed does not in itself constitute an indecent act in the sense of the criminal code.” The men went unpunished‚ and the investigation was immediately closed.   Rather than being convicted in a show trial before the People’s Court (pictured here)‚ the recruits went unpunished‚ 1944. Source: Holocaust Memorial &; Tolerance Center of Nassau County   Another SS man‚ a sergeant‚ was a guard at SS headquarters in Berlin. One evening in March 1941‚ the sergeant invited his male lover to join him on duty. During the night‚ the two stopped the elevator between the floors and had sex in the confines of SS headquarters. Despite investigating the incident‚ the sergeant had friends in high places. The investigation was closed when the sergeant was promoted later that year.   In early 1945‚ a Wehrmacht officer was convicted of violating §175 and executed—one of the few instances in which soldiers tried for “immoral acts” were executed. But the court martial did not sentence the officer to death for sleeping with his men. He was executed because he used his rank to force himself on his men; the abuse of his station‚ not his sexuality‚ was the impetus behind his fate.   The previous year‚ in late 1944‚ an SS soldier‚ Hans G.‚ was sentenced to death for “five completed and two attempted homosexual acts.”   Major General Felix Steiner‚ the commander of the Third SS-Panzer Corps‚ wrote directly to Heinrich Himmler to appeal for mercy on behalf of Hans G.‚ 1944. Source: World War II in Color   Despite the initial sentence‚ the commander of the Third SS-Panzer Corps‚ Lieutenant General Felix Steiner‚ wrote a letter of appeal to Heinrich Himmler:   “I do not believe his action can be judged to be the consequence of a sick or depraved disposition‚ because he has never before come under suspicion of similar offenses or a similar disposition. Rather‚ this really does seem to be an example of sexual deprivation… In my opinion we have here a strong psychic and erotic aberration that has been formed by the conditions of war. The accused is certainly no national parasite‚ since he has continuously been in action of the most dangerous kind for his country.”   The outcome of the case is ultimately unknown. Nonetheless‚ in Steiner’s letter‚ he claims that Hans is not an “effeminate” homosexual because “he has continuously been in action of the most dangerous kind for his country.”   He was‚ therefore‚ not the person who would bring about “the disintegration of the German people‚” as Frick put it a decade and a half earlier. He was a good German who deserved to redeem himself through combat.   Conclusion: The Complicated Case of Homosexuality in Nazi Germany A propaganda poster praising comradeship during the First World War disseminated by Goebbels shortly after he became Minister of Propaganda‚ 1933. Source: Calvin University   Ideas of culture‚ sexuality‚ and identity are never easy to pin down‚ especially in a hyper-masculine‚ authoritarian‚ and destructive society like Nazi Germany‚ where being outed as a homosexual or lesbian could carry draconian punishment.   Nonetheless‚ the rather odd politicization of homosexuality in Nazism provides another lens through which to view one of the most destructive societies the world has ever seen.

  One of the pastimes of medieval nobility was building a grander empire‚ a strength never before seen by the world. This‚ of course‚ meant searching for more land and more subjects. The places that housed such subjects became major urban developments and became symbols of power that benefited their rulers. These eight cities were not necessarily the largest in terms of land area or even population in some cases‚ but they were large in their sense of importance to the medieval era.   1. Angkor Angkor Wat‚ the largest temple of medieval Angkor. Source: Lonely Planet   Ankor was once the jewel of the Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia. The city was massive‚ both in land and population and in 1100 CE‚ it was considered the largest city in the world. The metropolis sprawled over 1‚000 square kilometers (390 square miles) and housed around one million people.   While the only thing remaining from the grand city today is its central temple‚ Angkor Wat‚ the capital city of the Khmer Empire was once a modern urban center‚ with roads as wide as airplane runways‚ canals‚ rice farms‚ the world’s largest hand-cut water reservoir‚ and an intricate system of working with the monsoon season to make its harvests bountiful.   The city of Angkor was a city of god-kings‚ who all were supposed earthly incarnations of the Hindu God Shiva. The city’s population flourished‚ with schools‚ public hospitals‚ and an intricate irrigation system that allowed rice cultivation on a massive level.   The “temple city‚” as it is called today‚ was abandoned around the 1400s‚ but today is still an incredibly popular tourist site. However‚ several conflicts throughout the past few hundred years have made the excavation and analysis of the site difficult‚ so archaeological work is still ongoing.   2. Baghdad A map of Baghdad between the 8th and 10th centuries by William Muir‚ 1883. Source: Muhammadism.org   Baghdad‚ in modern Iraq‚ was the capital city of the Abbasid Caliphate beginning in the early Middle Ages. Construction on the city began in 762 CE‚ and by the end of the eighth century‚ the city was already home to half a million residents. It was the political and cultural center of the Middle East during its height‚ and between the 700s and 900s‚ approximately one million people lived in Baghdad or its suburbs.   The city was built in two semi-circles on either side of the Tigris River. The infrastructure of the city was modern‚ with aqueducts and sewage systems‚ several public squares and gardens‚ and wide avenues. According to Yaqut‚ an Arabic scholar who lived a few centuries after the city’s heyday‚ the avenues of the city were built to be 40 cubits (60 feet) wide‚ and the city did not allow garbage or refuse to collect within the walls.   While Baghdad remained important throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern day‚ the Abbasid Caliphate was not what it once was after the 10th century‚ and the city declined. Two major attacks occurred during the Middle Ages‚ one in 1258 and one in 1401. Today‚ it is still the capital of modern Iraq and is the second-largest city in the Arab world.   3. Constantinople Constantinople‚ as it would have looked around the 10th century‚ rendering by Antoine Helbert. Source: Vivid Maps   Constantinople served‚ and continues to serve‚ as the great epicenter of the Byzantine Empire. Though it was founded in 330 CE by the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great‚ the city reached its zenith in the early medieval period. The fall of the Western Roman Empire shifted global focus to the Eastern Roman Empire‚ with its Emperor‚ Justinian‚ ruling from Constantinople.   The city itself was large throughout the transitions it faced‚ from Roman to Byzantine to Ottoman and back again. The population‚ at various periods in history‚ was approximately one million people‚ and it served as a major hub for trade. Constantinople’s unique position that straddled Europe and Asia poised the city to become a key player in international affairs and commerce. The Venetians‚ along with traders and merchants from the Middle and Far East‚ came to the city to do business‚ making its economy boom.   However‚ Constantinople faced near-constant challenges‚ with sieges and battles often threatening to wipe it away. However the city endured throughout the age of great medieval cities‚ becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453. The city would remain a key player throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern period. Today‚ Constantinople is known as Istanbul in modern-day Turkey and is still a huge city with strategic importance in the international affairs of both Europe and Asia.   4. Cairo Cairo’s Citadel‚ built in the 12th century. Source: medievalists.net   Cairo‚ Egypt‚ was built in 969 CE by the Fatimid Dynasty to rival Baghdad as the largest city in the Islamic world. It was the capital of the dynasty‚ and served as an example of the power and enlightenment of Islam during the Middle Ages.   Cairo is known as “The City of a Thousand Minarets” for good reason. A truly Islamic city‚ the number is not fabricated‚ and some claim that there are even more than 1‚000 mosques throughout the city. These places of worship‚ however‚ also served as places of administration and learning in the medieval city of Cairo. The Al-Hassan Mosque‚ Cairo’s first‚ was a center of education where thousands of young Egyptians and foreigners could learn‚ whether they were rich or poor.   When the city was taken over by the Mamluk Dynasty‚ mosques also served as hospitals and centers of community. The rulers‚ who had risen from slavery to power‚ cared for the lower classes of the city‚ and helped fortify the city as an Islamic stronghold against the Crusades. Cairo was also a key hub of commerce‚ as it sat at the confluence of European‚ African‚ and Asian trade. This position would make Cairo one of the world’s wealthiest medieval cities.   Today‚ Cairo is still the capital of Egypt‚ and is the largest city in the Arab world. It is a center of Islamic power in Northern Africa‚ despite several modern conflicts.   5. Hangzhou Leifeng Pagoda‚ built in the 10th century in Hangzhou. Source: Hangzhou Tours   One of the seven ancient capitals of China‚ Hangzhou may have been one of the largest cities in the world in the twelfth century. With a population of at least one million people and its position at the end of the Grand Canal‚ Hangzhou thrived as a capital for several Chinese dynasties.   Hangzhou’s location was paramount to its prosperity‚ as it sat directly within the Silk Road trade network. It flourished as a trading city‚ with archaeological evidence of products from Hangzhou being found as far away as Iran. It was the capital for both the Wuyue Kingdom and the Southern Song Dynasty. Even when it was not serving as a capital city‚ the strategic location of Hangzhou made it a powerful city.   Though it was well known for its wealth‚ Hangzhou was also a great center of Chinese culture‚ especially as it related to early literature and Buddhism. Its cultural and economic prowess attracted travelers like Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta‚ who wrote of the city in grandiose terms. Marco Polo declared that it was “without a doubt the finest and most splendid city in the world‚” and he marveled at the city’s paved streets and numerous bridges. Polo’s writings elucidate the splendor of Hangzhou in the 13th century‚ when it was still the largest city in the world.   Hangzhou is still an important economic and cultural center today‚ with thriving rice and silk production. Though it is no longer a capital‚ it is still a metropolis with a modern population of at least ten million people.   6. Paris The Right Hand of God Protecting the Faithful against the Demons by Jean Fouquet‚ ca. 1452-1460. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art‚ New York   Still the capital of France today‚ Paris came out of relative obscurity and developed into the large‚ cosmopolitan city we know today beginning in the Middle Ages. In the 10th century‚ Paris was considered little more than a provincial city that housed a cathedral and not much else. This changed‚ however‚ when the Capetian Kings decided to rule France from the &;Icirc;le de la Cit&;eacute;‚ not only making it the site of their royal palace‚ but also of the new Notre Dame Cathedral.   Under the Capetians‚ Paris became a city that was important on three fronts: religious‚ educational‚ and commercial. The Left Bank of the Seine was a hub for important French monasteries‚ as well as several colleges‚ which‚ at the time‚ became the leading educational institutions in Europe. On the Right Bank‚ the ports‚ merchants‚ and markets made the city into a commercial hub. Its prosperity‚ combined with a focus on religion and education‚ led to Paris becoming an important center of illuminated manuscripts and the first city to develop buildings in the Gothic style.   Before 1328‚ there were no concrete numbers of people living in Paris. However‚ the census of that year counted over 61‚000 households within the city‚ making the population estimate anywhere from 210‚000 to 270‚000. Though the city faced several hardships‚ including sieges and the Bubonic plague‚ it recovered to become one of the most populous cities in the western world during the Middle Ages.   7. Tenochtitlan A map of Tenochtitlan‚ published in Nuremberg in 1524. Source: Dumbarton Oaks   Perhaps the largest city in pre-Columbian America‚ Tenochtitlan was the capital of the expanding Aztec Empire from the 14th to the 15th century. It was built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco and was the site of royal palaces‚ temples‚ markets‚ and other public buildings that served the Aztec people well and contributed to the prosperity of the city and the empire.   The Aztec Empire‚ from Tenochtitlan‚ had vast trade networks from the Gulf of Mexico and possibly into the Inca Empire. The population was probably around 200‚000 people‚ and was split into complex social classes‚ the most complex in the Mesoamerican world.   When Spanish conquistadors arrived in the capital‚ they found a thriving city that was rivaled in population only by Paris or Venice in Europe. The palace of the emperor‚ Moctezuma II‚ was a sprawling complex that boasted zoos‚ botanical gardens‚ and aquariums. The city was‚ however‚ conquered by the Spanish‚ led by Hernan Cortes‚ and turned into a municipality of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.   While the city remained under Spanish rule for several hundred years‚ the capital of Mexico did not move‚ and was built around the medieval capital. Tenochtitlan sits at the historic center of modern day Mexico City and is still one of the most populous cities in the Americas‚ with a population of almost ten million people.   8. Venice The Miracle of the Relic of the True Cross on the Rialto Bridge by Vittore Carpaccio‚ 1494. Source: British Library   Considered by many to be the greatest maritime power of the Middle Ages‚ Venice began as a safe haven for refugees fleeing from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The marshy lagoon would serve as an important strategic location for what would become the Republic of Venice‚ as its access to the Mediterranean Sea allowed trade on a wider scope than the rest of Europe.   The city-state of Venice began conquering areas within the Western Mediterranean while it retained a high level of independence‚ both in religion and government‚ from Rome and other powers on the Italian peninsula. Venice was ruled by a doge‚ or a duke‚ who served for life and was elected by the Great Council of Venice. It was billed as a republic but was‚ in practice‚ ruled by oligarchs of the merchant classes.   The city-state of Venice grew steadily and became a great center of art‚ architecture‚ and publishing during the Middle Ages. Its Renaissance‚ considered to have begun before the general Italian Renaissance‚ was a direct result of its economic prowess and fostering of the arts in service to the maritime republic. Venice’s power was relatively unchecked until trade routes to the East Indies and Americas opened in the 16th century‚ granting other European powers the same ability to foster effective trade as Venice.   Venice was incorporated into a unified Italy in the late 19th century‚ and though it is still a center of culture within Italy‚ it is not considered the power that it once was. Venice was a unique and completely maritime-focused power‚ thanks to its canals‚ which are now used for the likes of tourist gondola rides and water taxis rather than vast naval fleets.