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Although Japan is now considered a part of the Western‚ developed world and is a steady member of the United Nations‚ this was not always the case.  In fact‚ the people of Japan remained in isolation for hundreds of years. They barely interacted with the world beyond their borders.  The transition to reopening the borders was chaotic and bloody‚ so the imperial powers decided they needed to create a new group to restore order: the Shinsengumi‚ or the “Newly Elected Corps.” Portrait of Hijikata‚ one of the most famous Shinsengumi members Japanese Isolationism From the early 1600s‚ Japan had remained in isolation from outside nations. This was because of a ruling by the Tokugawa Shogunate‚ the military government of Japan.  This government established a feudal system in Japan‚ with lords at the top‚ then a warrior class of samurai‚ with peasants and farmers below them. In order to maintain power‚ the government restricted access to any foreign contact for two main reasons. One was to prevent the spread of Christianity and the second was to avoid the kind of commercial growth that may empower a lesser lord to overthrow the Tokugawa clan.  Both were a potential threat to the stability of the nation and Tokugawa power. Isolationism did well to prevent either from happening. Isolation also spurred Japan into a period of economic and social growth and political stability for over 200 years.  Opening to the West By the mid-1800s‚ Japan’s isolation was under threat as Western imperial powers began pressuring Asian nations to open for trade. Britain and France had fought two wars with China over the production of opium and were exerting control over the region.  But it wasn’t until Matthew C. Perry‚ brother of the War of 1812 hero General Oliver Hazard Perry‚ sailed across the Pacific that Japan was forced to open. The United States had missed out on the imperial conquests and was looking to carve out its own sphere of influence in the East. Perry arrived in Japan and threatened war with the nation if they did not open trade routes with the United States. After some panicked debate by the government‚ which actually weakened its control over the nation due to its indecisive nature‚ the Japanese and Americans signed the Treaty of Peace and Amity.  It allowed for US trade in specific ports‚ set up a US consulate in Japan‚ and provided assistance for shipwrecked American sailors. The United States was content with the treaty and its results. But‚ little did they know that it would have far-reaching consequences that eventually reshaped Japanese society.  The Beginning of the End Signing the treaty with the United States caused the Tokugawa shogunate to appear weak to the people of Japan. This made them decide to be rid of the feudal system and reinstate the power of the Emperor in Kyoto.  However‚ the Tokugawa were not prepared to give up the power that easily. The shogun traveled to Kyoto to try and negotiate a way to remain in power.  The clan organized a group of soldiers to protect the shogun. They were drawn from local farmhands and ronin (masterless samurai). When the commanding officer was found to be an imperial sympathizer‚ the group was disbanded. However‚ a number remained in Kyoto and formed a new group called the Shinsengumi. The Shinsengumi became an unofficial police force for Kyoto. However‚ the only order they sought to maintain was one that supported the shogun. Hijikata Toshizo and the Shinsengumi code One of the most famous Shinsengumi members was Hijikata Toshizo. He began life as a low-class commoner but quickly worked his way to be a vice-commander.  He was responsible for developing the code that the group lived by. This included not deviating from the samurai code or leaving the Shinsengumi‚ raising money‚ fighting privately‚ or participating in private litigation.  Any breach of this code was harshly enforced. Transgressors were forced to commit seppuku‚ also known as ritual suicide. One of Hiikata’s first portraits‚ circa 1860s Ikeyda Incident The most infamous and telling incident of the Shinsengumi is the Ikeyda incident.  There were rumors that members of the Choshu and Tosa clans were using the local Ikeyda Inn as a meeting point to plot against the shogun. The group of insurgents was supposedly planning to kidnap an important clan leader and set fire to Kyoto. However‚ this information was discovered as the result of a cruel interrogation‚ so there is some doubt as to its validity. As a result of this news though‚ the Shinsengumi raided the inn. They slaughtered everyone involved‚ claiming that they saved the city. The incident raised the notoriety of the group and attracted a number of new recruits to their ranks.  The End of the Shinsengumi From 1867-1869‚ Japan was embroiled in the Boshin Civil War‚ in which the Shinsengumi played a significant role. The central conflict revolved around the modernization of Japan. Opening the country to the west and returning the emperor to power was a culture shock for the nation as technology and trade rapidly developed. The Shinshengumi were shock troops during the war. They were identifiable by their bright uniform and their willingness to fight to the last man.  Hijitaka gained popularity during the war as a leader who cared for his troops and would die for his cause. Eventually‚ he would.  On June 20‚ 1869‚ he was killed by a gunshot wound sustained at the Battle of Hakodate. He famously wrote a short poem before his death‚ which encapsulated his dedication to his cause:  Though my body may decay on the Island of Ezo‚ My spirit guards my lords in the East. – Hijikata Toshizo‚ 1869 The shogunate forces surrendered only a week later‚ ending the war. The Meiji Restoration‚ named for the new leader of Japan‚ would help bring Japan into the modern world.  The Shinsengumi were disbanded‚ as the shogunate they lived to defend was no more. In a decade and a half‚ the entire social‚ political‚ and cultural spheres of Japan were reshaped despite the best efforts of the Shinsengumi.  Their legacy is still contested‚ as their honorable mission of policing Kyoto is marred by their political violence and cruel tactics. References Ballinger Fletcher‚ Zita. “Wolves of Mibu: Japan’s Shinsengumi Police.” History Net‚ May 16‚ 2020. https://www.historynet.com/wolves-of-mibu-japans-shinsengumi-police/.  C.‚ Matt. “Japanese History: Shinsengumi‚ the Wolves of Mibu.” Digitally Downloaded. https://www.digitallydownloaded.net/2017/06/japanese-history-shinsengumi-wolves-of.html.  Roberts‚ Mike. “Shinsengumi – Peace Keepers or Assassins?” Samurai Tours‚ August 20‚ 2023. https://www.samuraitours.com/shinsengumi-peace-keepers-or-assassins/. The post The Shinsengumi: The Most Famous Japanese Samurai Force first appeared on History Defined.

Malinchista is a Mexican slang term for someone who has betrayed their country or culture in favor of another one.  The root of this term has an interesting history that can be traced back to before the founding of the nation. It dates back‚ in fact‚ before the people of that land even spoke Spanish.  During Hernan Cortés’ conquest of Mexico in the early 1500s‚ he met a young woman who would guide him in his journey. She would establish such a reputation that her name would live on as an insult.  As her reputation evolved and transcended cultural boundaries‚ so did her name: Malinal‚ Malintzin‚ Doña Marina‚ and eventually‚ La Malinche.  A painting of La Malinche and Hernán Cortés in In the Exhacienda de San Antonio Chautla in San Martín Texmelucan  Early Enslavement At a young age‚ La Malinche was either captured or sold into slavery. She was eventually trafficked to a group of Maya‚ where she began to learn Mayan as a second language.  This talent would prove to be life-altering for the young woman as the Spanish conquistadors arrived on the continent shortly after. Cortés arrived in South America with his translator Jerónimo de Aguilar in 1519. They quickly had a battle with the Maya at Potonchán. Upon their defeat‚ they gifted Cortés 20 enslaved women‚ one of whom was La Malinche.  The Spanish conquistadors quickly learned that she could communicate with Aguilar in Mayan. But she could also communicate with Nahuatl-speaking natives. This set her up to become the interpreter to new tribes.  She became an invaluable asset to the Spaniards. She used her natural linguistic abilities to quickly learn Spanish and become Cortés’ only translator.  Rise to Power La Malinche became Cortés’ most useful ally and is nearly inseparable from him in the historical record. Both Spanish and Aztec sources include her in every depiction of these societies’ meetings.  She was the key to the Spanish plans to conquer the Aztec empire. She would coordinate every conversation between Cortés and tribal leaders. If a plan to betray or injure Cortés arose‚ she would hear of it and warn him. This led to harsh retaliation against native people.  Within just a couple of years‚ the Spaniards had all but eradicated the Aztec empire with her help. This brought about a new era of Spanish rule.  After the conquest was complete‚ La Malinche gave birth to Cortés’ son‚ Martin. He is said to have been the first mestizo‚ a person with a mix of Spanish and Native blood.  Malinche Caught Between Worlds La Malinche took on a symbolic role in Mexican history. She was the main avenue of communication between the native Nahua people and the Spanish conquistadors who massacred their people. She was also the mother of Cortés’ son.  She was seen as a temptress who betrayed her own people and connived with the enemy for personal gain. Her reputation became so tied to that of Cortés‚ that the Nahua would refer to him as “El Malinche”‚ inseparable from her own name.  Montezuma‚ the head of the Aztec empire‚ even addressed all of his correspondence intended for the Spanish to her. To her native people‚ she became a part of the invading Spanish forces. To the Spanish‚ she was an enslaved woman helping them to conquer a new land.  Caught between two worlds‚ La Malinche did what she could to survive. She was judged for her actions‚ with many condemning her role in the conquest of Mexico.  A painting by Ramón Canto (active 19th Century)‚ Mexican La Malinche‚ 1883 Scholarly Debate Although many hate La Malinche‚ some scholars of the era have offered new perspectives for people to reconsider her role in the Spanish conquest.  Kristina Downs is a folklorist who explored the similarities between Pocahontas and La Malinche. She pointed out that La Malinche’s relationship with Cortés was based on her enslavement.  Even though she bore his child‚ there is no indication that there was any kind of romance or even consent in the process. There was no promise of safety or love inherent to the relationship. Without directly obeying Cortés‚ she ran the risk of personal injury or death.  Cordelia Candelaria‚ another scholar‚ also argues that many of the Aztecs thought that the Spanish may have been divine or immortal. It’s possible they thought that La Malinche may have also gotten absorbed in the mysticism of the Spanish.  It is also important to note that she was a teenage girl when she met Cortés‚ not a grown woman. This is important to remember when considering if someone’s decisions were rational.  Although other scholars have pointed out that if La Malinche was sold into slavery by her family when she was young‚ it is not out of the question that she used the Spanish to seek revenge on her culture.  Was She Evil or Adaptable? Is malinchista a valid insult then? Does this young woman‚ who had a phenomenal self-preservation instinct‚ deserve to be remembered solely as a traitor to her people? Or should she be honored for her intelligence and adaptability in the face of a rapidly changing and confusing world?  The Spanish conquest of Mexico was swift. And yes‚ La Malinche was one of the most influential factors in its progression. However‚ Cortés had come to the West to conquer the land and likely would have found a way to do so with or without La Malinche.  It is a difficult legacy to grapple with since her actions were so influential‚ yet justifiable. But in the end‚ it is undeniable how historically significant La Malinche was in a world that had all but thrown her aside at a young age.  References Aboulhosn‚ Angelica. “La Malinche‚ Hernán Cortés’s Translator and So Much More.” HUMANITIES 44‚ no. 1‚ (Winter 2023). https://www.neh.gov/article/la-malinche-hernan-cortess-translator-and-so-much-more.  Downs‚ Kristina. “Mirrored Archetypes : The Contrasting Cultural Roles of La Malinche and Pocahontas.” Western Folklore 67‚ (2008): 397-414. “Life Story: Malitzen (La Malinche)” Women and the American Story‚ New York Historical Society. https://wams.nyhistory.org/early-encounters/spanish-colonies/malitzen/.  Mohammed‚ Farah. “Who was La Malinche?” JSTOR Daily‚ March 1‚ 2019. https://daily.jstor.org/who-was-la-malinche/. The post La Malinche: A Complicated Legacy and Reputation first appeared on History Defined.

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