The Celtic invasion of Greece and Macedonia in 280-79 BCE is less famous than the Persian Wars. This assault from the West in many ways echoed that from the East. The Greeks themselves certainly saw the similarities between the two and celebrated their victories over the East and West as the triumph of civilization over barbarians. At the beginning of the Hellenistic Age, the Celts swept down into the Hellenic world. The collision of these two worlds would have profound effects on both.   Celts, Gauls, and Galatians   Celtic Warriors, by Angus McBride, Source: Arthive   The events of 280-79 BCE go by a variety of names. The invasion can be described as coming from the Celts, the Gauls, or the Galatians. These different terms are used to describe the same people who operated across a large span of time and terrain.   What we now refer to as the “La Tène culture” consisted of a group of similar communities spread across central Europe, from modern France to the Danube and beyond. Covering the late Iron Age from roughly the 5th-1st centuries BCE, the term La Tène culture is an archaeological designation based on a similar material culture found across a wide area. Given the absence of written records, our sources are either archaeological or else come from the accounts of the Greeks and Romans.   Those Greeks and Romans ultimately defeated the Celts and left us with the image of a typical “barbarian.” To their enemies, the Celts were not without nobility and virtue but they were generally wild, ill-disciplined, fickle, and almost childishly simple people. While trade and contact were common over the centuries, the main meeting place between the Celtic and Mediterranean worlds that survives in our histories was the battlefield. The Romans never forgot the sack of Rome by the Gauls under Brennos in 390 BCE. Having inflicted damage and defeats on the Greeks and the Romans it is not surprising that the Celts gained such a negative image but we should bear in mind that Celtic society grew and evolved in parallel with those around it and its people were often capable of coming out on top.   Celtic expansion during the Iron Age, Source: Wikimedia Commons   At the same time that the Greeks were colonizing the Mediterranean and the Romans were spreading across Italy, the Celts were migrating across Europe. From their heartlands around Switzerland, Germany, and eastern France, the Celts raided and migrated, as groups merged, split, and conquered over a vast area. This created a dispersed network of connected groups rather than one united political entity. Having established new communities in the northern Balkans and around the modern areas of Hungary and Serbia in the 4th century, there was no obvious reason why the Celts would not continue their movements further south.   The Celtic groups in the Balkans do not seem to have shown any interest in challenging the strong, world-conquering Macedonia of Alexander. The first contact between Celts and Macedonians was likely a diplomatic exchange in 335 BCE during Alexander the Great’s campaign in the Balkans. This first contact was followed by a generation of peace. Once the situation changed, however, with the turn of the 3rd century, new opportunities suddenly opened up.   The Invasion of Macedonia The Battersea Shield, La Tène object found in London, 350-50 BCE, Source: The British Museum   The Celts kept their distance from Alexander’s Macedonia but the decades of war that followed his death left the country vulnerable. Several kings and contenders had come and gone over the years and many of the country’s soldiers were drawn away to new opportunities or had died on battlefields across Asia. In 280 BCE, the new King of Macedonia was an exiled opportunist.   Ptolemy Keraunos was an exiled former heir to the throne of the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt. He owed the nickname Keraunos (Thunderbolt) to his recklessness and impatience. He seized the throne by treacherously murdering Seleucus I who was then on the verge of taking control of Macedonia. More deaths followed, and, as Keraunos consolidated his hold but barely a year into his reign, a new threat emerged.   With its armies depleted, frequent civil wars, and a rash unpopular king, Macedonia must have looked vulnerable in 280 BCE. For the Celts, who had already started looking south, the moment was not to be missed. According to our main source for these years, the later writer Pausanias (10.19), the Celts were motivated by the desire for plunder. There is no reason to doubt this motive but the Celts may well have had other goals in mind as a combination of raiding and settling had brought them from Western Europe to the Balkans.   Tempting as Macedonia was, it was not the only target. Three attacks were planned across the Balkans with one force heading east against the Thracians, and another aimed at the Paionians, while a third force under the leadership of Bolgios struck Macedonia.   Gold Stater of Ptolemy Keraunos, Source: Classical Numismatic Group   Not much is known about the other sections of the Celtic force but those soldiers under Bolgios reached Macedonia and confronted Keraunos’ army. Bolgios offered peace in exchange for being paid off. Keraunos refused and met the Celts in battle (Justin, 24.4-5).   The outcome was a disaster, with the Macedonians defeated and Keraunos himself killed and beheaded. The Celts did not push their advantage, however. Pausanias states that they lacked the numbers to continue to plunder Macedonia and Bolgios’ army would have struggled to take the cities the remaining Macedonian soldiers retreated into (Pausanias, 10.19.4). The invasion of Macedonia may have been limited but the defeat of Keraunos removed an obstacle. There was now little standing between the Celts and the rich cities of Greece.   The Battle of Thermopylae The Ludovisi Gaul, 2nd century CE, Source: Arthive   Having swept aside the Macedonians the Celts were now a major threat to Greece. Bolgios had not capitalized on his victory but others would not let the moment slip. The Celts in the Balkans seem to have been led by a warrior aristocracy that could gather an army around themselves and they did not have a monarch. One of these leaders was a particularly charismatic man the Greeks knew as Brennos.   In the councils of the Celts, Brennos argued for an invasion of Greece and successfully brought together a huge army. Numbers in ancient literature are unreliable and Pausanias’ figure of 152,000 infantry and 20,400 cavalry can be doubted (Pausanias, 10.19.6). Even if overestimated, this army outnumbered the Greeks and likely drew on the wider Celtic networks stretching into Germany and Italy. Later stories would link the invaders of Greece with Gallic groups in southern France. Other communities in the Balkans would also have joined, willingly or not, the advancing Celtic band.   Gaulish mercenary, from Egypt, 220-180 BCE, Source: The British Museum   The multitude of Greek states south of Macedonia now faced their greatest external challenge since the great Persian invasions two hundred years before. This was a Greece that had been struggling with mixed results for half a century to free itself from Macedonian control. Just like Keraunos’ kingdom, the Greek states were depleted by these long wars and were more divided than ever. The obvious danger though left the Greeks with no choice but to mount a defence.   There was a natural rallying point for those Greeks willing to resist the Celtic advance: Thermopylae. The narrow road between the mountains and the sea at Thermopylae had been made famous by the Spartan last stand against the Persians in 480 BCE. The pass forced any army invading from the north through a narrow gap only 300 feet wide. Thermopylae was by no means impossible to take and there were ways around the pass but all large armies had to get through here somehow and the advantage would always be with the defender.   In 279 BCE, those defenders were a coalition of central Greek states. To hold back Brennos’ army of over 150,000 the Greeks mustered between 25-30,000 with the main contingents coming from the central Greek states immediately in the firing line, the Aitolians, Boiotians, and Phokians. It has been suggested that Pausanias went too far in imitating the narrative of the Persian Wars by giving a prominent role to the Athenians. While certainly joining the defense, the Athenians of 279 BCE were a shadow of their former power and the leadership of the coalition was most likely with the Aitolians who held much of central Greece.   A view of Thermopylae, Source: Livius.org   Brennos reached Thermopylae with little difficulty, as many of the surrounding Greek communities had little choice but to surrender. The battle of Thermopylae began early in the morning as the Celts massed and charged at the Greek heavy infantry. The Celts preferred tactic involved a mass charge of sword-wielding warriors. In the open spaces of Macedonia, this had been enough to overwhelm Keraunos’ army, but in the narrow confines of Thermopylae the Greek hoplites held their ground while light infantry showered down missiles. After several charges, the Celts fell back with heavy losses while only 40 Greeks were killed.   If a frontal assault would not work Brennos had another idea. With the key contingent in the Greek army being the Aitolians, Brennos sent around 40,000 of his men to attack Aitolia directly. The Celts moved quickly and brutally, sacking the Aitolian city of Kallion and massacring men, women, and children. This display of ferocity was effective and the Aitolians left Thermopylae to defend their homes.   In this desperate moment, the Aitolian population mobilized en masse with men and women taking to the mountains to fight the Celts. The Aitolians had long been adept at warfare in their native mountains and the invading force quickly began to suffer. Attacking from the high ground the women and men of Aitolia destroyed a large part of the force sent out by Brennos.   Despite the heavy losses Brennos’ move had worked. With the Aitolian departure reducing the number of defenders at Thermopylae, Brennos found the paths through the mountains and got around the Greek defenses. Before they were surrounded the remaining Greek coalition soldiers withdrew. The Celts had breached Thermopylae and Brennos knew exactly where he wanted to target next.   The Assault on Delphi   Temple of Apollo, Delphi, author’s photo   The obvious place to head to when looking for portable wealth in Greece was the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. One of the most renowned religious sites in the whole Mediterranean, it had for centuries housed precious dedications from the Greek world’s wealthiest. How much of this wealth was still present in the 3rd century is debatable but for Brennos it was an opportunity not to be missed.   After dislodging the Greeks from Thermopylae, Brennos took a part of his forces and headed straight to Delphi. The Aitolians were mostly occupied with skirmishing, with the remaining Celtic groups leaving the defence of Delphi in the hands of a smaller Aitiolian contingent, the Delphians and the Phokians. The Greeks would later recount the battle around Delphi as a miraculous event in which gods and heroes joined the ranks of the defenders. Disentangling the mythology from the reality of events is not possible at this distance.   Reconstruction of the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, by Albert Tournaire, 1894, Source: Wikimedia Commons   In Pausanias’ account the gods made their presence felt as Brennos climbed Mt Parnassus (Pausanias, 10.23.3). First there were earthquakes. Storms and lightning followed, greatly confusing the Celts. There may then have been an attempt to storm Delphi which failed as the priests and priestesses encouraged the defenders and claimed to see apparitions of gods and heroes joining the battle (Justin, 24.8). So mixed with myth did the story become that it is not clear whether the Celts managed to plunder the sanctuary or not. Frost, snow, and rockfalls now made themselves felt as the elements turned on the Celts.   At dawn, the Greeks used their knowledge of the terrain to attack the Celts from the mountain heights, raining down arrows and javelins. The Celts suffered heavily and would have struggled to come to grips with their assailants. Brennos himself was wounded a number of times. Demoralised and perhaps in retreat, a night of chaos followed the day of battle. As they camped for the night some kind of tumult broke up the Celtic force. The Greeks explained this as a divinely inspired panic or the effect of large amounts of wine the gods had cunningly placed in the Celts’ path (Justin, 24.7).   The Dying Gaul, Roman marble copy of Hellenistic original, Capitoline Museum Rome, author’s photo   The Celtic army was badly battered in the mountains around Delphi and either split into smaller groups to retreat or become disunited. Brennos had survived the battle but, badly wounded, urged his followers to leave behind the dying and flee while he killed himself. The Greeks continuously harassed the weakened and divided Celtic force. As news of the victory spread, more Greek forces arrived to finish off the Celts from Athens and Boeotia. The remaining Celtic bands seem to have been isolated and starved. Pausanias (10.23.6) estimated that more than 20,000 Celts had died in the attack on Delphi and the subsequent retreat. The remaining Celts fell back north, harassed all the way by the Greeks.   Aftermath: Glory and Galatians Pergamon Altar, 2nd century BCE monument commemorating Pergamon’s victories, Pergamon Museum Berlin, Author’s photo   The Celtic invasion of Greece was over, but the Celtic presence would persist. Having failed to plunder Greece, future movements were directed eastwards. Within a few years the Celts had crossed the Hellespont into Asia and went on to found a new state in the heart of Anatolia: Galatia. The Galatians continued to speak their Celtic language in their new home in Asia for centuries. Celtic mercenaries became a common part of many Hellenistic armies. The Galatians remained a presence in the region when it came under Roman control in the 1st century BCE.   The experience of 280-79 BCE had a profound impact on the Greeks and Macedonians. In Macedonia a new king, Antigonus Gonatas, would finally emerge and found a dynasty in part due to a victory over a small Celtic group. Having played a leading role in the victory, the Aitolians became the principal power in central Greece for the next century.   With the Celtic invasion being seen as a replay of the Persian Wars, there was a rush to share in the glory. Each community that won a battle against a Celtic band turned the event into a focal point for their propaganda, making the figure of the Celt a central part of Hellenistic art. Though the invasions of 280-79 BCE were brief affairs, they led to an intertwining of the Celtic and Hellenic worlds which lasted for centuries.

A Prayer for GrowthBy Vivian Bricker "But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be glory both now and forever! Amen" (2 Peter 3:18). Attending a wedding many years ago, I was struck by the idea of growth in the heart of the believer. After a new friend of mine had been made fun of by other "Christians" for not coming to know the Lord until high school, I started thinking about what it meant to actually have Christian growth. My new friend had only been a Christian for a few years, yet he showed much growth in that short of time. The "Christians" who had laughed at him had claimed to be Christians since they were a few years old, yet they showed no growth in their Christian walk-as evident by their joyous fun at making fun of my friend.  As I was sitting there and listening to their hurtful comments to my friend, I started thinking of how I was a new Christian too. I did not place faith in Jesus until my first year of college. I thought, "Did this mean I was an immature Christian too? Would they make fun of me too?" My friend and I chose to move away from this crowd and started talking about what it actually meant to be a Christian. Being a Christian does not mean you were saved by the age of two, three, or four. While there might be a select few who come to know Jesus this young, it isn't practical for most. Children cannot understand redemption and salvation fully at such a young age. Nonetheless, my friend and I reminded ourselves that being a Christian meant placing faith in Jesus. There is not a "cut-off" date when it comes to salvation. The believing thief on the cross was told by Jesus that on that very day, he would be with Him in Paradise (Luke 23:43). You don't have to be a believer from the time of a young child in order to be saved. God calls people to Him at various ages and no age is superior to another. If you have placed faith in Jesus, you are a Christian. It doesn't matter if you are ten or if you are ninety.  "So then, just as you received Christ Jesus as Lord, continue to live your lives in him, rooted and built up in him, strengthened in the faith as you were taught, and overflowing with thankfulness" (Colossians 2:6-7).  What my friend and I told each other that night, I share with you: A person can be a Christian for many years, yet have no growth in their walk with Christ. In the same way, a person who has only been a believer for a few years can show much growth in their walk with the Lord.  The growth you have in your walk with Jesus will be dependent on your obedience to Him, if you are going to Him in prayer, and if you are active in Bible reading. Throughout our lives, we will be growing in our walk with the Lord. We can continue to cultivate healthy growth by following, obeying, and loving the Lord. Growth can be painful at times, but it is worth it in order to know the Lord better. As you continue to grow in your Christian walk, you will start seeing things more like Jesus does. This will cause you to have a more tender heart toward others as well as it will ensure you are extending Jesus' love in your actions. In other words, you will be reflecting Jesus to the lost world. There is nothing that makes God happier than to know that His children are extending His love and grace to the world.  If you feel you are stuck in your walk with God, know that you can turn to Him anytime. Instead of trying to work out growth on your own, turn to the Lord in prayer. Let's pray: Dear Lord, please help me to have Christian growth in my own life. At times, I feel as though I am not growing at all. Please help me to start growing in my walk with you today. Help me to be motivated to read the Bible, go to you in prayer, and obey You every day. I want to help others to know about You and to continue to reflect Your beautiful light to the world. Growth is hard, but I know you can help me. I trust You Lord and I thank you.In Jesus' Name, I pray, Amen."  Photo credit: ©GettyImages/Sarayut Teach Us to Pray is a FREE prayer podcast hosted by iBelieve writer Christina Patterson. Each week, she gives you practical, real-life tips on how to grow your faith and relationship with God through the power of prayer. To listen to her episode on What to Pray in the Morning for a Worry-Free Day, click below! Now that you’ve prayed, are you in need of someone to pray for YOU? Click the button below! Visit iBelieve.com for more inspiring prayer content. The post A Prayer for Growth – Your Daily Prayer – July 3 appeared first on GodUpdates.

The Danger of Many Bible ‘Experts' See to it that no one takes you captive through hollow and deceptive philosophy, which depends on human tradition and the elemental spiritual forcesof this world rather than on Christ. – Colossians 2:8 While enjoying a transatlantic ocean trip, a famous Hollywood actress noticed a gentleman sitting at the next table suffering from a bad cold. So she looked over at him and asked, "Sir, are you uncomfortable?" The man looked back at her and gave a nod. "I'll tell you just what to do for that cold," she said. "Go back to your room, drink lots of orange juice, and take two aspirin. Then cover yourself with every blanket you can find and sweat the cold out. I know what I'm talking about. I'm an actress." The man smiled warmly and said, "Thank you. But I'm a doctor." These days, it seems everyone considers themselves experts even if they've only read an article or seen something online about a particular subject. And while the recent information explosion we've seen around the world has its benefits, one drawback is that there's so much misinformation out there, it's hard to know whom to trust. This is especially true when it comes to biblical teaching, as many of the so-called "preachers" and "theologians" today have gained a platform by teaching things that run counter to biblical doctrine. So be careful of letting charisma and charm determine what teaching you accept. Make sure you're putting yourself under solid, biblical teaching and you'll grow rock-solid in your faith! Prayer Challenge Ask God to guide you to the right teachers and to give you discernment to recognize when you're hearing false teachings. Questions for Thought False teaching will almost always give glory to man instead of to God. Read the serpent's words in Genesis 3:5. Was the temptation of Satan to exalt man or God? Think of a time when you heard teaching you knew wasn't biblical. What was it about that teaching that caused you to recognize it as false? Visit the Senior Living Ministries website The post The Danger of Many Bible ‘Experts’- Senior Living – July 3 appeared first on GodUpdates.

A Prayer for GrowthBy Vivian Bricker "But grow in the grace and knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ. To him be glory both now and forever! Amen" (2 Peter 3:18). Attending a wedding many years ago, I was struck by the idea of growth in the heart of the believer. After a new friend of mine had been made fun of by other "Christians" for not coming to know the Lord until high school, I started thinking about what it meant to actually have Christian growth. My new friend had only been a Christian for a few years, yet he showed much growth in that short of time. The "Christians" who had laughed at him had claimed to be Christians since they were a few years old, yet they showed no growth in their Christian walk-as evident by their joyous fun at making fun of my friend.  As I was sitting there and listening to their hurtful comments to my friend, I started thinking of how I was a new Christian too. I did not place faith in Jesus until my first year of college. I thought, "Did this mean I was an immature Christian too? Would they make fun of me too?" My friend and I chose to move away from this crowd and started talking about what it actually meant to be a Christian. Being a Christian does not mean you were saved by the age of two, three, or four. While there might be a select few who come to know Jesus this young, it isn't practical for most. Children cannot understand redemption and salvation fully at such a young age. Nonetheless, my friend and I reminded ourselves that being a Christian meant placing faith in Jesus. There is not a "cut-off" date when it comes to salvation. The believing thief on the cross was told by Jesus that on that very day, he would be with Him in Paradise (Luke 23:43). You don't have to be a believer from the time of a young child in order to be saved. God calls people to Him at various ages and no age is superior to another. If you have placed faith in Jesus, you are a Christian. It doesn't matter if you are ten or if you are ninety.  "So then, just as you received Christ Jesus as Lord, continue to live your lives in him, rooted and built up in him, strengthened in the faith as you were taught, and overflowing with thankfulness" (Colossians 2:6-7).  What my friend and I told each other that night, I share with you: A person can be a Christian for many years, yet have no growth in their walk with Christ. In the same way, a person who has only been a believer for a few years can show much growth in their walk with the Lord.  The growth you have in your walk with Jesus will be dependent on your obedience to Him, if you are going to Him in prayer, and if you are active in Bible reading. Throughout our lives, we will be growing in our walk with the Lord. We can continue to cultivate healthy growth by following, obeying, and loving the Lord. Growth can be painful at times, but it is worth it in order to know the Lord better. As you continue to grow in your Christian walk, you will start seeing things more like Jesus does. This will cause you to have a more tender heart toward others as well as it will ensure you are extending Jesus' love in your actions. In other words, you will be reflecting Jesus to the lost world. There is nothing that makes God happier than to know that His children are extending His love and grace to the world.  If you feel you are stuck in your walk with God, know that you can turn to Him anytime. Instead of trying to work out growth on your own, turn to the Lord in prayer. Let's pray: Dear Lord, please help me to have Christian growth in my own life. At times, I feel as though I am not growing at all. Please help me to start growing in my walk with you today. Help me to be motivated to read the Bible, go to you in prayer, and obey You every day. I want to help others to know about You and to continue to reflect Your beautiful light to the world. Growth is hard, but I know you can help me. I trust You Lord and I thank you.In Jesus' Name, I pray, Amen."  Photo credit: ©GettyImages/Sarayut Teach Us to Pray is a FREE prayer podcast hosted by iBelieve writer Christina Patterson. Each week, she gives you practical, real-life tips on how to grow your faith and relationship with God through the power of prayer. To listen to her episode on What to Pray in the Morning for a Worry-Free Day, click below! Now that you’ve prayed, are you in need of someone to pray for YOU? Click the button below! Visit iBelieve.com for more inspiring prayer content. The post A Prayer for Growth – Your Daily Prayer – July 3 appeared first on GodUpdates.

Historical Events 1814 - Americans capture Fort Erie, Canada (War of 1812) 1890 - Idaho admitted as 43rd US state 1959 - Wimbledon Men's Tennis: American-based Peruvian Alex Olmedo wins his only Wimbledon title beating Rod Laver of Australia 6-4, 6-3, 6-4 1976 - Adolfo Suárez becomes premier of Spain 1988 - US Vincennes in Strait of Hormoez shoots Iran Airbus A300, kills 290 1999 - Wimbledon Women's Tennis: Lindsay Davenport beats Steffi Graf 6-4, 7-5 for her only Wimbledon singles title More Historical Events » Famous Birthdays 1907 - Arthur Staal, Dutch architect (Group '32), born in Amsterdam, Netherlands (d. 1993) 1913 - William Deakin, British historian and warden (St Anthony's College Oxford), born in London (d. 2005) 1920 - Louise Allbritton, American actress (The Egg and I, Stage Door, Got a Secret), born in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma (d. 1979) 1940 - Lance Larson, American swimmer (Olympic gold 4x100m freestyle relay, silver 100m freestyle 1960; WR 100m butterfly 58.7s 1960), born in Monterey Park, California (d. 2024) 1946 - Johnny Lee [Ham], American country music singer ("Lookin' For Love"), born in Texas City, Texas 1961 - Vince Clarke [Martin], British rock keyboardist, and songwriter (Depeche Mode; Erasure), born in South Woodford, Essex, England More Famous Birthdays » Famous Deaths 1863 - Alonzo Cushing, American Union officer, dies at the Battle of Gettsburg at about 22 1904 - Edouard Beaupré, Canadian giant and strongman (b. 1881) 1918 - Mehmed V, 35th Ottoman Sultan (1909-18), dies at 73 1966 - André Gailhard, French classical music composer, dies at 81 1985 - Cooney Weiland, Canadian ice hockey coach (Stanley Cup 1941 Boston Bruins; Harvard Uni) and NHL forward (Boston Bruins, Detroit Red Wings), dies at 80 1993 - Don Drysdale, American Baseball Hall of Fame pitcher (World Series 1959, 63, 65; 9 x MLB All Star; Cy Young Award 1962; Brooklyn/LA Dodgers), dies of a heart attack at 56 More Famous Deaths »

Many women, including me, endure the tragic experience of Scripture being misused against them, often by men. It can be difficult to untangle Scripture’s truth from man’s manipulation. But even when the Word is handled rightly, some passages are difficult to engage as a woman. They seem unfair or even cruel. Could any passage be as troubling for women as Deuteronomy 22? A decade ago, Rachel Held Evans raised this passage in A Year of Biblical Womanhood. To be biblical, Held argued, women had to marry their rapists. To be biblical, Christians should stone anyone caught in an adulterous affair. To be biblical, Christians should kill a woman who didn’t cry out as she was being raped. To fully engage Evans’s argument would require dealing with her definition of “biblical,” which is outside the scope of this article. Nevertheless, she raised legitimate questions: How should we understand Deuteronomy 22? And does its inclusion in the Scriptures mean the Bible cannot be trusted to guide and direct women today? These questions can’t be completely answered in a single article. But we can begin to make sense of them by considering both history and hermeneutics. We’ll start by looking at the specific situations described in light of their historical context. Then we’ll zoom out to consider this passage in Scripture’s larger story. As we do, please keep in mind that this article is addressing a specific textual question rather than offering counsel for victims of sexual assault. Questions about Deuteronomy 22—as much as questions around eschatology, soteriology, or ecclesiology—require a hermeneutic. We need a holistic way of reading Scripture’s long story to understand this chapter. Jesus is that hermeneutic, the lens through which we must read the Bible. Let’s consider what Deuteronomy 22 says and then seek to understand what it means for women today. Laws on Sexual Ethics Deuteronomy 22:13 begins a section of the law on sexual ethics. It first deals with a husband’s false accusation that his wife had sex before marriage. Verses 15–19 outline a process for the wife to prove her innocence and, if this is found true, for the husband to be punished. The law protected women in this situation from false accusations. Verse 22 then deals with a man and woman caught in adultery. They must have been found in the act, so they’re protected from false accusations based only on hearsay. The penalty was stark—the couple would be stoned to death—but it was the same for both the man and the woman. Verses 23–27 then deal with the rape of a woman engaged to another man. The man who raped her was to be stoned to death. The Scriptures say violating a woman in this way is akin to a man murdering his neighbor. If the sexual act occurred outside of town, it was assumed the woman didn’t consent and she was protected from punishment. But here’s where the tricky part comes in—if the act occurred within the city, it was labeled as rape only if the woman cried out. This is worth a brief excursion. Remember the Law’s Purpose A 2023 New York Times article highlighted the number of women who, as a response to the trauma of rape, shut down rather than cried out during the act. Though I’ve never experienced rape, I’ve had this response to other trauma in my life. I sink into myself and have been accused of not caring in times of crisis. But sometimes I can’t process what’s happening. Mentally, I descend into a bunker and close the door, slowly opening it inch by inch over time to take in the circumstances that forced me into my mental fortress. Not everyone reacts this way to trauma, but many naturally do, and it can be a helpful coping mechanism in some situations. At first reading, Deuteronomy 22 seems unfair for requiring a woman to cry out. But it’s important to remember the law wasn’t only given to prescribe punishments for violations; it was given to teach God’s people how to live before the violation ever happens. Deuteronomy 6 explains that these commandments, rules, and statutes were given to God’s people so that “it may go well with [them]” and “that [their] days may be long” (vv. 1–3). Parents were instructed, “Repeat them to your children. Talk about them when you sit in your house and when you walk along the road, when you lie down and when you get up” (v. 7, CSB). When my sons were 2 and 4 years old, we attended a cooperative preschool. The teachers taught a safety curriculum, and one lesson was on abduction. We taught the kids to yell and scream nonstop until someone came to help. We practiced, and we repeated the instructions. Similarly, in Moses’s time, if Jewish moms and dads were teaching their children God’s law, their daughters were taught through Deuteronomy 22 to cry out if they were taken against their will. They were taught they didn’t have to submit to rape, that someone would come to help. The law wasn’t only given to prescribe punishments for violations; it was given to teach God’s people how to live before the violation ever happens. Don’t read this explanation as blaming rape survivors or their parents. I’m not saying that if a woman doesn’t cry out during rape, she must not have been trained by trusted adults ahead of time. And I’m not saying that being trained would guarantee a woman would cry out. Individual responses to trauma are complicated. The point is much bigger—in an unjust world where women seemed to experience harsher consequences if they resisted rape than if they gave in, God’s law taught daughters to resist and call for help. This law was an aid to a broader world that had no protections for women at all, where rape, apart from such laws, was an acceptable norm. It taught fathers and society to protect women, it taught women they had agency when attacked, and it punished those who violated them. Understand the Law in Its Own Culture This leads to verses 28–29. If a man raped a woman who wasn’t engaged, the rapist was commanded to marry his victim. Note this law wasn’t directed to a woman to marry her rapist, because, in ancient cultures, a woman had few rights about such things. Apart from the law, she was powerless to affect the outcome either way. This passage doesn’t reflect a Western cultural understanding of choice in marriage. The individualistic mindset predominant throughout Western culture has a hard time grasping the value of marriage decisions made for the good of the community as a whole rather than the individual alone. When the community flourished, particularly in rugged settings without modern conveniences, the individual flourished, and vice versa. Many Eastern and African cultures today still reflect such a communal understanding of marriage. The common practice outside of God’s law for a rape survivor was that her family killed her because of the resulting shame (a practice still occurring in some cultures today). Mankind was bent far away from basic human dignity at this point in history, some 1,400 years before Jesus’s birth. If a rape survivor’s family didn’t kill her, she was left to live in shame with no options for a future life with a family. Often, the only way she could support herself was through prostitution. When Deuteronomy 22 was written, there were few sexual protections for women. This law therefore moved culture forward by giving women some protection, creating a counterculture in its wake. It held the man responsible for the consequences he created in his sin against the woman. He had to pay her father a price worthy of the woman he violated, and he could never divorce her. The law required him to remove the victim’s public shame and restore her to a position of dignity in her community through marriage. The abuser was made to value what he took by force. I’m thankful to live in a culture that doesn’t cast on a woman the same shame and condemnation that was the norm in ancient times (and is still the norm in parts of the world). But in that culture, God pressed on his people a way forward that didn’t just make the victim marry; it also required a sizable payment for the privilege of marrying her. God’s plan didn’t just remove the woman’s public shame; it also provided for her security by requiring a monetary commitment to her and her family. See the Law in Light of Jesus Considering the historical context of Deuteronomy 22 helps us begin to make sense of its challenges. Let’s now consider it within the context of the whole Bible and how Jesus taught us to understand the Old Testament law. After Jesus’s resurrection, he met his disciples on the Emmaus road and began to explain to them everything from the Old Testament that pointed to his life, death, and resurrection. He included the law of Moses in his explanation (Luke 24). Did he specifically include Deuteronomy 22 in that discussion? We don’t know, but it’s possible. Regardless, he made clear that the law as a whole pointed to him. Jesus gave additional information in Matthew 5:17. He said he didn’t come to abolish the law but to fulfill it. John 8 gives us a real-time illustration of what he meant. The religious elite threw at Jesus’s feet a woman who had been caught in adultery—she’d violated the laws in Deuteronomy 22. Though the pair was caught in the act, the man wasn’t thrown at Jesus’s feet as the law instructed. It’s not surprising that sinful hearts had perverted the law at this point to favor the man over the woman. God’s law taught daughters to resist and call for help. Jesus then wrote something in the dirt. Was it the name of the man caught with her? Was it the names of women the male scribes and Pharisees had sinned with? Whatever Jesus wrote, the woman’s accusers fell away one by one. Jesus then told her, “Neither do I condemn you; go, and from now on sin no more” (John 8:11). Jesus didn’t tell her that her sin of adultery didn’t matter, that it was no longer a problem to break the law in that way. He didn’t abolish the law. Instead, he fulfilled it in a way no one else could: by obeying the law perfectly himself. And he didn’t condemn the woman because, in a short time, he’d hang on a cross paying for the very violation of the law of Deuteronomy 22 for which she’d been thrown at his feet. Even Hard Laws Reflect a Good God Paul later taught in Galatians, “The law was our guardian until Christ came, in order that we might be justified by faith. But now that faith has come, we are no longer under a guardian” (Gal. 3:24–25). The law was good, but it wasn’t everything. The law was good, but it wasn’t final. The law was good, but Jesus is better. This is the general context, the hermeneutic, through which we must approach Deuteronomy 22. This chapter’s laws on sexual faithfulness are hard, but they reflect a good God who is faithful to his vows. He told his people through the prophet Hosea, I will take you to be my wife forever. I will take you to be my wife in righteousness, justice, love, and compassion. I will take you to be my wife in faithfulness, and you will know the LORD. (Hos. 2:19–20, CSB) Some modern scholars don’t believe John 8’s story of the woman caught in adultery was part of the original text (see the notes in modern Bible translations like the ESV and NIV), but we see the same theology here in the book of Hosea. Hosea’s bride committed adultery, yet God told the prophet not to stone her as the law instructed but to pursue her. God told Hosea to redeem her, to buy her back from her sexual slavery, and to restore her to an honored position in his home—because God also does this for us. God’s faithfulness is good for us, and because we’re created in his image, our faithfulness to our vows is good as well. God is good, and his Scriptures are good. Stay engaged with the hard parts. Wrestle with them. Pray through them. They tell a long but good story, fulfilled in Jesus Christ. O daughter of God and member of the Bride of Christ, don’t let anyone convince you God’s Word isn’t good for you.

It’s an exciting time to do theology. Technology allows unprecedented access to vast deposits of historical resources. Scholars across disciplines are talking to one another in new ways. Conversations across traditional divides enable both interdisciplinary and ecumenical sharpening of iron by iron. For those faithfully listening to God speaking in Scripture, these are encouraging developments that have yielded fruit in recent theological publications. In Systematic Theology: From Canon to Concept, Stephen J. Wellum leverages these trends to make a strong case for the importance of careful and cohesive theological reflection on Scripture. Like his earlier work on biblical theology, this text is thoughtful and clearly written. Wellum sets out in this text—the first of two planned volumes—to introduce the task of systematic theology and explore the doctrines of revelation, Scripture, God, creation, and providence. Coherence of Biblical and Systematic Theology The church’s health depends on careful systematic theology. As Wellum notes, “Systematic theology is not optional for the church; it is fundamental to our thinking rightly about God, the self, and the world.” Everyone does systematic theology. The real question is “whether our theology is true to Scripture or not” (4). Therefore, wisdom calls us to conform our systematic theology to Scripture’s teaching. Healthy theology involves both reading Scripture and thinking about how to follow it. Therefore, Wellum refuses the false choice sometimes posed between biblical theology and systematic theology. Referring to the Great Commission, he observes, “To obey our Lord’s command requires careful biblical and theological thinking; knowing the Scripture, thinking rightly about who the Father, Son, and Spirit are; and faithfully applying all of Scripture to people’s lives. This is what theology is” (5). Healthy theology involves both reading Scripture and thinking about how to follow it. The task of systematic theology is essential for Christians as we read and apply the biblical text. It does not supersede or replace biblical theology. Instead, when systematic theology builds on the task of scriptural exegesis and biblical theology, it helps us to read Scripture more profitably. In other words, like biblical theology, systematic theology is essential to healthy theology. It is indispensable because “theology does not merely repeat Scripture; it seeks ‘to understand’ Scripture in terms of application, logical implications, and metaphysical entailments as a ‘constructive’ exercise in ‘faith seeking understanding.’” Theology must move beyond interpreting passages, chapters, or even books to fit all of Scripture together into one coherent picture. In doing so, “theology constructs and defends sound doctrine so that the church is not ‘blown around by every wind of teaching’ (Eph 4:14), but is instead ‘rooted and built up in Christ’ (Col 2:7)” (108).  Historical Theology’s Contribution Wisdom requires admitting we are not the first to ask questions about what Scripture teaches. Such wisdom acknowledges at least two potential problems. On the one hand, raising the authority of theological tradition to that of Scripture confuses the Church’s voice with God’s voice. On the other hand, refusing to listen carefully to the wisdom accrued through centuries of the church’s reading and reflecting on God’s Word confuses the individual’s interpretation with God’s voice. Wellum seeks to navigate a narrow channel between these twin errors. He does so by listening to a range of theological voices from the church’s past and constructively evaluating them in dialogue with sound biblical exegesis. The dual emphasis on eclectic theological retrieval and meticulous attention to the detail of biblical theology makes for some especially strong chapters on the doctrines of revelation, Scripture, and God. Wellum’s emphasis on the inseparability and interdependence of these topics is a strength of the book. He observes that “from Genesis to Revelation, Scripture claims to be the product of triune communicative agency in and through human authors. And given who the triune God is, Scripture speaks with absolute authority. Even though Scripture is written by human authors, its message, truth, and reliability are not lessened” (287). In a cultural climate characterized by skepticism about the existence and knowability of truth, the chapters on these subjects repay careful reading. Furthermore, Wellum’s treatment of natural theology, his retrieval of the patristic and medieval categories for understanding the doctrine of the Trinity, and his discussion of the classical categories of God’s attributes reflect a close interaction with biblical theology and constructive engagement with other theological traditions. Thus, this is an edifying volume for any Christian reader. Precision and Consistency This first installment of Wellum’s Systematic Theology leaves me anticipating how he will handle even more controversial subjects in the second volume. This unashamedly Presbyterian reviewer hopes his “unashamedly Baptist” brother will continue to place the precision of biblical theology in conversation with the retrieval efforts of historical theology to build even more bridges for constructive rapprochement between our respective “rooms” in God’s household. Unsurprisingly, given our different backgrounds, I have some points of friendly critique. In a cultural climate characterized by skepticism about the existence and knowability of truth, the chapters on these subjects repay careful reading. First, despite Wellum’s emphasis on categorical precision and retrieval through historical theology, he seems to adopt a grand narrative of decline regarding the Enlightenment, overlooking important historical discussions about how Christians both contributed to the development of modern thought and received critique during the transition to modernity. There is room for refinement here. For example, Wellum acknowledges that skepticism toward the “the truth of the gospel has existed in every age of the church” but then asserts that a “full-blown assault begins in the Enlightenment and continues today unabated” (41). The tactics for attacking the gospel may have changed, but the world, the flesh, and the devil have always strenuously opposed the truth according to the spirit of every age. Grand narratives of cultural progress and decline typically falsify as much as they clarify, and they lead to abuse by both cultural conservatives and progressives. Second, it would help to set forth a more explicit account of how the retrieval efforts of historical theology work and to ask why it is more operative in some chapters of Wellum’s work than in others. Recent discussions of such retrieval lead us to ask, Why should we listen to some authors from the past more than others? Why should we follow an author in one area but not in others? What principles do we utilize when our historical sources and traditions disagree? Thickening the engagement with such questions might help enrich the work’s ecumenical potential. Covenantal Debate Finally, this book would have benefited from greater nuance about the diversity within covenant theologies to better account for continuity and discontinuity between patristic, medieval, Reformation, and modern approaches to the subject. There are points within Wellum’s account of progressive covenantalism that sound more like historic Reformation accounts of covenant theology than he acknowledges. For example, as someone who fully subscribes to the doctrine of the covenants in the Westminster Confession of Faith, I am pleased to endorse the summary of the biblical narrative in Wellum’s definition of progressive covenantalism: It is better to think of God’s one redemptive plan, grounded in the “covenant of redemption” (pactum salutis, revealed through a plurality of covenants (e.g., Gal 4:24; Eph 2:12; Heb 8:7–13), all of which reach their fulfillment in Christ and the new covenant. Post-fall and due to God’s promise (Gen 3:15), God’s one redemptive plan is revealed through the covenants as the new covenant is progressively unveiled. This allows us to think of the continuity of God’s plan across time, now fulfilled in Christ, and it also helps us avoid “flattening” the differences between the covenants, which directly impacts a number of theological issues, specifically ecclesiology and eschatology. Each covenant, then, directs the life of those under it, but each covenant is also revelatory and prophetic of who and what is to come, namely Christ and the new covenant. (436) Wellum’s affirmation of the intra-Trinitarian pactum salutis, or covenant of redemption, makes his presentation more like historic Reformation accounts of covenant theology than many recent “Reformed” populizers, including several of the conversation partners that appear in his footnotes. He also affirms that the “creation covenant” with Adam was “temporary,” a “probation,” and required “covenantal obedience” to obtain “eternal life,” which, in spite of his claims to the contrary, sounds exactly like the doctrine of the “covenant of works” in the Westminster Confession (442). Wellum expresses his substantive affirmation of the covenants of redemption, works, and grace with thoughtfulness and concern for careful biblical exegesis. The primary caveat to my substantive agreement on the biblical narrative relates to the status of the new covenant and whether there is unresolved tension between his claims that “the fullness of new covenant blessings is still future” and that “all new covenant realities are now here and applied to the church in principle” (528). As Wellum explores the doctrines of the church, sacraments, and eschatology in the second volume, it will be interesting to see how he negotiates this tension. If the fullness of new covenant blessings is still in the future, this should inform theological reflection on these topics. In the meantime, Wellum helps us to see what careful biblical and theological thinking can look like. In this first volume of his Systematic Theology, Wellum displays the Bible’s primary message, the revelation of God, the story of redemption, and the meaning of all things in relation to God. I look forward to the expansion of the project in the next volume.

In this lecture on 1 John, Don Carson calls Christians to maintain gospel centrality, cautioning against an excessive focus on peripheral issues. He explores the details of John’s letter, emphasizing our need for salvation through Christ, walking in the light of his righteousness, and demonstrating genuine love for others as evidence of true faith. Carson also teaches on confession, repentance, and how we’re forgiven and reconciled to God through Christ’s sacrifice.

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