Dead on! https://t.co/iqnnryqxsS — Alex Jones (@RealAlexJones) September 1, 2025

from 21st Century Wire: A gloomy vision for Gaza’s future is reportedly in the works, as officials from the Trump administration team up with Israeli genocidal strategists to explore post-conflict real estate opportunities. According to a recent report by The Washington Post, this ambitious plan involves the temporary relocation of Gaza’s entire population to pave the […]

from RT: Ukrainian leader Vladimir Zelensky has threatened new strikes into Russia, days after claiming that Kiev possessed a brand-new long-range missile capable of reaching Moscow. Zelensky wrote on Telegram that he had been briefed by Ukraine’s commander-in-chief, Aleksandr Syrsky, on the current battlefield situation. “We will continue our active actions exactly as needed to […]

from Daniel Davis / Deep Dive: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

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  Books are deeply embedded in what we refer to as human culture. They have been so since ancient times. However, one of the main developments that influenced how we relate to and work with books occurred during the 15th century when the German inventor Johannes Gutenberg developed the printing press prototype. The printing press changed book production deeply. What was before the press, a long and expensive process, became faster and accessible. Books were produced faster, and the printing press gave the middle-class access to books.   Who Was Johannes Gutenberg? Johannes Gutenberg: Commemorative of the Erection in New York by Robert Hoe of a Statue of Gutenberg in 1889, Anton Scharff, ca. 1889. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Johannes Gutenberg (ca. 1400-1468) is considered the main inventor of the printing press. He was born in Germany during the 14th century and worked as a craftsman and inventor. Unfortunately, both the life of Gutenberg and his process of inventing the printing press are not clear. Few documents can offer information regarding his early years. It’s only through some transactions and correspondence that we know most of the information regarding his activities.   He was the son of a patrician who seems to have been from Mainz. Besides this, transaction documents reveal that he was trained in metalwork, most likely from a young age. During the earlier stages of his career, we know that Gutenberg was exiled from Mainz. Most historians agree that this most likely happened between 1428 and 1430, when there were a lot of tensions between the guilds in Mainz. After being exiled, he moved to Strasbourg.   From 1444 onwards, his activity is recorded once again in Mainz, where he worked as a gem cutter, taking on students to train in this craft. Besides his official activities, Gutenberg is reported as having been involved in work that he kept secret from others. He most likely kept his inventions and prototypes secret because he feared that his ideas might be stolen.   The Historical Context of Johannes Gutenberg’s Invention New Inventions of Modern Times, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The invention of the printing press in Europe emerged in a historical context where manuscript culture was already well-established across most European countries. Before its arrival, the primary method of disseminating information to a wider audience was through the painstaking creation of handwritten manuscripts. This meant that a book had to be copied by hand, and this process of copying was usually undertaken in special workshops where individuals had undergone training as copyists and scribes. The practice of copying material in an orderly manner originated in medieval monasteries, where monks would be trained to do this. They would copy books from the monastery’s collection, and then these newly copied books could be kept or sold for extra income. The model of a copying workshop originated thus in this practice initiated by monks and entered the secular world once books became sought after.   During Gutenberg’s time, copying was happening in a secular setting, with workshops in most towns dedicated to this. However, because replicating the contents of a book was a laborious process, books weren’t accessible to everyone. The final price of the book was, most of the time, quite high for the common individual as it involved sourcing materials, paying the copyist, and then arranging for a proper binding of the book. Despite the problem of the price, books were highly valued by most city inhabitants and were seen as luxury objects that could prove someone’s status and erudition.   The First Printing Press The Illustrated Tale of Genji, Yamamoto Shunsho, ca. 1650. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Although the common impression is that the printing press appeared for the first time in Europe, this assessment is inaccurate. For example, the oldest printed text, dating back to ca. 868 AD, was found in the Dunhuang area in China. The printing press that was most likely used to print this text involved pressing paper on hand-carved blocks with reverse characters. The blocks could be made out of wood or metal. During the 10th and 11th centuries, the movable printer was documented in China in the Hubei province. In the work Dream Pool Essays, we are told that the craftsman Bi Sheng molded moveable letters from clay, which he carved and then arranged on an iron plate. He preferred this method as clay didn’t absorb as much ink as wood did.   Despite Bi Sheng’s revolutionary inventions, it didn’t gain much popularity. In the 13th century, people in China used a printing press with wooden movable characters, while Korea adopted the metal movable type in the 14th century. Despite the many alternative methods of the movable press, these inventions in Asia were not met with the enthusiasm of Gutenberg’s press. They didn’t have wide usage and remained slightly isolated, while Gutenberg’s invention became widespread throughout Europe quite fast, changing the fate of manuscript workshops.   How Did the Gutenberg Press Work? The Invention of Book Printing, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Gutenberg’s printing press featured a hand-moulded metal matrix for every necessary character. He used the moveable printing system to ensure a shorter production time because this made moving the letters around easy. Another important point of this printing press model was the use of a special ink which was developed to prevent smudging and the ink from running out too fast. The ink that Gutenberg opted for was a type of ink made out of linseed oil and soot. This helped the ink get fixed to the moulds that would then be imprinted on the paper.   The process of producing a book was still a complicated one. An entire workshop would work to operate the press. The paper for the pages would be prepared and cut according to the size. Then, another person would make sure that the page of text to be printed would be fixed on the press frame. This would be done letter by letter to arrange the sentences on the page. Once this was done, someone else would verify whether the ordering was correct and according to the model. The final step would be to set the press and start printing. This process would be repeated for every page of the book. Finally, the book would be bound once the pages were dry.   The first book which Gutenberg printed was the Bible. This project was financed by Gutenberg and Johann Fust (ca. 1400-1466). This Bible was an instant hit and it effectively launched Gutenberg’s press.   Patent Dispute: Gutenberg vs. Fust Gutenberg Bible, ca. 1454-55. Source: University of Cambridge   The documents recorded Gutenberg back in Mainz in 1448 where he borrowed money from a relative for his printing press project. Only by the 1450s did his printing press prototype reach a level of functionality, making it an attractive venture for others besides Gutenberg. As briefly mentioned before, the prototype attracted the attention of Johann Fust, who became a money lender for Gutenberg’s press. He lent around 800 guilders, which was a substantial sum at the time. To make sure that his money would be returned, Fust agreed to lend the sum only if the printing press and all related tools acted as collateral. Besides this initial sum being lent, Fust is reported to have invested another 800 guilders a few years later. This time, not as a sum to be borrowed but as an investment to make him a partner in the print business.   Fust’s association with the printing press business became an important factor that led to the dispute between Fust and Gutenberg. After investing 1,600 guilders in the prototype, Fust grew impatient and wished to get his investment back as profit. After all, the printing press had the potential to generate that type of profit. Unlike Fust, Gutenberg was keen on perfecting the prototype even further to make sure it reached its best possible technical form. This made Fust sue Gutenberg, eventually winning the process against the inventor. This meant that, according to the initial terms, Gutenberg had to hand the printing press and the tools.   The Gutenberg Press Under Fust New Inventions of Modern Times, The Invention of Copper Engraving, Jan Collaert, ca. 1600. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Unfortunately, it is uncertain why the trial between the two ended as it did. Some historians believe that the number of printed Bibles should have covered Fust’s investment and, therefore, provided the means for this dispute to be settled peacefully. However, this wasn’t the case, as the printed books that Gutenberg owned were not taken into account as part of his property. Due to this, he lost the printing press to Fust. As odd as it may seem today, when the trial took place, there was no legal framework for dealing with printed material. It was a new type of object that could not be readily classified by the existing laws.   After the settlement, Fust became the possessor of the printing press. The other title printed beside the Bible was a Psalter, which was also quite successful. In order to keep on operating Gutenberg’s workshop, Fust hired his son-in-law Peter Schöffer who was skilled with the printing press. Schöffer was used to the process because he was one of Gutenberg’s best workers. Interestingly enough, Schöffer also acted as a witness against Gutenberg during his trial with Fust. Because of this animosity, the Psalter only mentions the two men as makers and has no mention of Gutenberg or his contribution on the first page. The Psalter was popular because it imitated the decorations of a manuscript, with two-color initial letters and beautiful decorative page borders.   The Historical Impact of Johannes Gutenberg’s Model Recueil de planches, sur les sciences, les arts libéraux, et les arts méchaniques : avec leur explication, Denis Diderot, Jean Le Rond d’Alembert, Pierre Mouchon, 1762-72. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The invention of the printing press in Europe changed how information traveled. The importance of Gutenberg’s press is visible from its success in the decades and centuries following its invention. This fast-paced change in how information was reproduced and shared stirred excitement and fear in those witnessing its rise. Among those who were worried about the possible negative effects of the printing press the Catholic Church was one of them. For example, Pope Alexander VI threatened to excommunicate those who would print books without the Church’s approval, fearing that this might lead to heresy. In part, he was right. After all, it was the rise of the printing press that enabled the Reformation to spread so quickly and successfully almost a century later under Luther and Calvin.   Despite this, there was enough enthusiasm to support and use the new technology. After all, pillars of scientific discovery like Copernicus or Galileo printed their work instead of writing it in manuscript form. Because of the printing press, most of Europe got to read Copernicus’ important theory on the movement of heavenly bodies, changing science forever. It’s also in print that Newton’s discoveries became widespread and debated around the continent, and the importance that the printing press held for knowledge is still visible today. We owe the idea of publishing books to this entire process of the printing press’ creation in both Asia and Europe.   When talking about Gutenberg’s historical importance, it’s difficult to mention all the ways in which the printing press changed the world. The trial between him and Fust was also an important element in popularizing the invention through the controversy it created. Moreover, it was also the first trial where the judges had to decide how to judge printed paper, thus creating a precedent for future laws involving copyright and printed material.

  The Muslim conquest of Iberia began as an intervention. Under Visigoth rule since Rome’s fall, a fractious civil war broke out by the early 700s. Sensing an opportunity, in 7ll CE the Umayyad Caliphate’s army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. At the Battle of Guadalete, the Muslims destroyed the Visigoth army and king, causing all organized resistance to collapse afterwards. By 718, the Umayyad Caliphate controlled the Iberian Peninsula, except for Basque-controlled regions and a small northern part called Asturia.   The First Decades Led to a Caliphate Caliphate Map c. 1000. Source: Wikimedia   Post 718 saw Iberia become a Umayyad Caliphate province with Cordoba as its capital. The enduring name of Al-Andalus emerged for the region, a translation of the Latin name Spania into Arabic. The rise now began.   The Umayyad Caliphate’s hold on Al-Andalus lasted until 750. Overthrown by the Abbasids, one Umayyad prince, Abd al-Rahman I, fled to Cordoba, establishing the Umayyad Emirate. The Emirate remained independent due to remoteness and a Berber population.   The Golden Age Begins Mosque-Cathedral of Córdoba. Source: UNESCO   Al-Rahman’s reign corresponded roughly with the Islamic Golden Age (750 CE-1258 CE). Like similar Muslim areas, a wave of knowledge, enlightenment, and preservation occurred—centers of learning developed in larger cities, like Baghdad or Cordoba.   929 CE witnessed the Emirate’s change to the Caliphate of Cordoba under Al-Rahman III. As the Golden Age flourished, Cordoba transpired into one of Europe’s greatest cities. The city’s libraries became international centers of knowledge, matching Baghdad’s House of Wisdom. Advancements in algebra, medicine, philosophy, and astronomy occurred concurrently. Islamic scholars made their contributions or updated Greek or Roman knowledge. Scholars like Averroes or A-Zahrawi contributed to scholarly knowledge and medicine. Further achievements by Andalusians also refined astrolabes and contributed to algebra.   The Marvel of Cordoba Spain in 1037. Source: University of Texas   Of Al-Andalus’s cities like Seville, Cordoba became a vibrant, multicultural hub. The Umayyad rulers made Cordoba a jewel. By the 10th century, estimates reached over 500,000, with people dwelling around the city, making this one of Europe’s largest. With lavish gardens, paved streets and even street lighting Cordoba stood apart.   Cordoba grew famous for its Moorish architecture, specifically the Great Mosque of Cordoba. Renowned for its unique red and white arches, the Umayyad rulers built the mosque in 786 with later additions.   Al-Andalus, and especially Cordoba, exemplified the Spanish term “convivencia,” or roughly, peaceful coexistence. Muslims, Mozarabs (Christians under Muslim rule), and Jews intermingled on city streets. The city boasted a Juderia, or Jewish Quarter, known for its patios. Other important Andalusian cities included Toledo, Seville, Cadiz, and Granada.   Commerce and Dissemination Sassanid Mural. Source: BBC   The Moors settling in Iberia placed them within the Mediterranean trading network. Like the Byzantines, the Andalusians connected North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East economically. Luxury, agricultural, and manufactured goods originated or changed hands in the Caliphate.   Al-Andalus’s location, combined with such a mix of peoples, led to social and cultural exchanges. Ancient Greek, Roman, Indian, and Persian knowledge passed into Christian Europe. This dissemination would later contribute to Europe’s Renaissance.   The Fracture, Decline, and Fall  The Capitulation of Granada, by Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz, 1888. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Moor’s rise and stability ended in 1031. In the Caliphate of Cordoba, the Caliph’s assassination by a rival faction caused a twenty-year civil war. The Caliphate fractured into numerous principalities termed “taifas.” Though independent, each territory now became vulnerable to the growing Christian Reconquista. This not-quite-named crusade’s first major victory came in 1085 with Toledo’s fall. The Moor’s woes in al-Andalus only grew.   The Inquisition Tribunal by Francisco Goya, 1808-1812. Source: Public Domain via Bates College   The Taifa royals invited the North African Almoravid dynasty in to fight. These new Muslim forces did, stopping the Christians in 1086. Yet the Reconquista kept gathering momentum, capturing Moorish territory.   In 1147, a second Berber Muslim dynasty, the Almohads, seized control of al-Andalus. These stricter yet tougher Muslims stabilized the conflict, if temporarily. Yet Christian victories kept coming after the 1212 loss at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. This defeat opened Iberia for further conquest. Important centers quickly fell, such as Cordoba (1236) and Seville (1248).   The Nasrid dynasty, founded in 1232, established the Nasrid Emirate of Granada, al-Andalus’s last Muslim unit. The Christian forces continually chipped away during the 13th and 14th centuries. All effective Muslim resistance ended at the 1340 Battle of Rio Salado. Only Granada in southern Iberia stood until the final battles of 1492.   The Last Chapter The Civilization of Cordoba in the Time of Abd-al-Rahman III, by Dionisio Baixeras Verdaguer, 1885. Source: University of Barcelona   Al-Andalus’s final story played out in the last few decades of the 15th century. Granada craftily paid tribute to Christian kingdoms to buy time. The Reconquista’s final push started in 1482, inexorably grinding towards Granada’s defenses. The resulting siege ended on January 2, 1492, with Granada’s surrender. With this last Muslim bastion gone, and Spain under Christian rule, 700 years of al-Andalus ended.

  A member of the Bagrationi Dynasty that ruled Georgia for a thousand years, King Tamar the Great’s reign (1184-1213) marked the zenith of Georgia’s Golden Age. The first female monarch in Georgian history, Tamar skillfully overcame opposition among her nobles to consolidate her power. She then launched a series of victorious military campaigns that consolidated Georgia’s dominance of the Caucasus. The renown of Tamar’s cosmopolitan court at Tbilisi spread far and wide, and she continues to be remembered by Georgians as an ideal ruler.   Tamar the Great: A Golden Inheritance King David IV of Georgia (David the Builder). Copy of a fresco from Gelati Monastery. National Historical Museum, Tbilisi, Georgia. Source: Jimmy Chen   Georgia’s Golden Age was inaugurated in the late 11th century by King David IV, also known as David the Builder, for his efforts in reuniting the country. When David succeeded to the throne in 1089, his power was limited to Western Georgia. The rest of historical Georgia, including the ancient capitals of Mtskheta and Tbilisi, were under the control of Muslim vassals of the Seljuk Turks.   After consolidating power internally in the 1090s, David took advantage of the Muslim powers’ preoccupation with defending the Holy Land during the First Crusade to reunite most of Georgia by 1105. Several fortresses remained under Seljuk control, and it was only after defeating the Seljuks at the Battle of Didgori in 1121 that David was able to regain Tbilisi and transfer his capital there.   Victory at Didgori allowed the Georgians to dominate the southern Caucasus for a century, and David was also recognized as King of Armenia. The conquest of the emirate of Shirvan in present-day Azerbaijan brought Persian influences to the Georgian court.   Upon his death in 1125, David was succeeded by his eldest son, Demetre. Demetre spent much of his reign struggling to defend his realm from various Muslim threats on the southern frontier, including the loss of Armenia. In 1155, Demetre was dethroned by his son David V, who was poisoned within a few months. While David left behind a young son, he was succeeded by his younger brother, Giorgi III.   During the 1160s and 1170s, King Giorgi launched several military campaigns which restored Armenia to Georgian rule. In 1177, Giorgi put down a rebellion by his commander Ivane Orbeli, who sought to place David V’s son Demna on the throne. The brutal punishment inflicted on Demna claimed his life.   A Female King Tamar and her father King Giorgi III. 19th century reproduction of 12th century wall painting from Betania Monastery in Tbilisi. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After putting down the Orbeli rebellion, King Giorgi took steps to secure the succession for his progeny. While Giorgi had no sons, he had two daughters with his wife, Queen Burdukhan. In 1178, Giorgi arranged to crown his eldest daughter Tamar as his co-ruler.   The 18-year-old Tamar was recognized as mepe, the title held by previous (male) kings of Georgia. While Tamar is often called a queen in other languages, the Georgian word dedopali is used for a queen consort. Although Tamar is occasionally referred to as dedopali in the historical record, she is more frequently known as mepe or king, making her one of the few female kings in world history.   Tamar’s coronation at the ancient cave citadel of Uplistsikhe as her father’s co-ruler was intended to affirm her status as Giorgi III’s heir. When Giorgi died in 1184, the Georgian nobility insisted on a second coronation for Tamar at the Gelati Monastery in Kutaisi.   While Tamar acquiesced to noble demands for the dismissal of low-born ministers appointed by her father, she resisted efforts to establish a permanent noble council with the sole right to appoint ministers and enact laws. She arrested the rebel leader Qutlu Arslan but released him in a show of magnanimity. Over time, she would gain political confidence and govern her realm with the support of a circle of loyal ministers.   An Ill-Fated Marriage Ceremonial Dress of King Tamar. Soviet-era reproduction based on wall paintings in the collection of the Art Palace, Tbilisi, photograph by Jimmy Chen. Source: Jimmy Chen   Although Tamar herself was reluctant to do so, her council insisted that she should marry the Rus’ prince Yury Bogolyubsky. Yury’s father, Andrey Bogolyubsky, sacked Kyiv and dominated the Rus’ principalities from the city of Vladimir on the Klyazma River to the east of Moscow. After his father’s assassination in 1175, Yury became a fugitive and formed an alliance with the Kipchaks (Polovtsians) in the Northern Caucasus to restore his throne.   In 1185, Yury married Tamar and was given the title of mepe, though Tamar held the higher title of mepeta mepe (king of kings). Known as Giorgi Rusi (George of Rus’) in Georgia, Yury led victorious expeditions in Armenia and Shirvan. Tamar usually accompanied her armies as they set off on campaign but stopped at the last church on Georgian soil. Despite Yury’s military prowess, Tamar was not enamored with him and found him a drunkard and a brute. She received permission to divorce him in 1187.   While Yury was exiled to Constantinople laden with gold and jewels, in 1189 Tamar married David Soslan, an Ossetian prince closely related to the Bagrationi dynasty. In 1191, rebel lords from southern Georgia unexpectedly installed Yury on the throne in Kutaisi. After recovering from the initial shock, Tamar mobilized loyal armies to defeat the rebels. In her magnanimity, she spared her ex-husband and sent him back to Constantinople. Yury made another attempt to reclaim the throne with the support of Azeri lords in 1193 but was quickly defeated.   Military Conquests Tamar and her second husband David Soslan. Wall painting from the Bogoyavlenskiy Alanskiy Convent in the Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, Russian Federation. Source: dzen.ru   With the troublesome Yury out of the way, Tamar and David could look towards expansion and acquiring new glory. In 1192, the couple welcomed the birth of a son named Giorgi with a victory over Abu Bakr, Atabeg of Azerbaijan, which once again made Shirvan a Georgian vassal. David Soslan followed with an impressive win over Abu Bakr at Shamkor in 1195. This enabled the Georgians to occupy the important cultural center of Ganja. Though Abu Bakr soon retook Ganja, Georgian forces captured the trading town of Nakhichevan in 1197, expanding Tamar’s influence into northern Persia.   In the meantime, the talented Georgian general Ivan Mkhargrdzeli (whose brother Zakaria was Tamar’s chancellor) led successful campaigns to regain a host of Armenian cities from their Muslim rulers. These victories set Georgia on a collision course with Rukn ad-Din, an ambitious warrior who had recently overthrown his brother to become Sultan of Rum (the Seljuk state in central Turkey).   After retaking Erzurum from Georgia in 1201, Rukn ad-Din assembled a large army and dispatched an envoy to Tbilisi with what he believed was a gracious diplomatic offer to spare Tamar’s subjects if they surrendered to him. If Tamar were to convert to Islam, he would happily make her his wife; if she refused, she would be his concubine.   Zakaria Mkhargrdzeli responded to the insolent message by knocking the envoy to the floor with a single punch. In her reply, Tamar informed Rukn ad-Din that the Georgian army was already at his gates. The two armies met at Basiani near Erzurum in around 1202. The Georgians surprised the enemy as Zakaria Mkhargrdzeli threw his vanguard against the enemy center. As Rukn ad-Din organized a counterattack, Georgian flanking units inflicted the decisive blow and put the enemy to flight.   The Kingdom of Georgia at its greatest extent during the reign of King Tamar, c. 1210, map by Ercwlff. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Victory at the Battle of Basiani enabled Georgia to take control of the Turkish fortresses of Erzurum and Kars by 1206. In 1204, Tamar saw another opportunity to strengthen her kingdom’s prospects after the Sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. Tamar had close family links to the Comnenus dynasty, which had occupied the imperial throne for a century until being overthrown in 1185.   Tamar took advantage of the disintegration of the Byzantine Empire by sending Georgian troops to occupy a large strip of land on the southern coast of the Black Sea. She also installed her nephew Alexius Comnenus as ruler of the so-called Empire of Trebizond. This new entity served as a useful buffer to protect Georgia’s western flank.   While Tamar’s husband, David Soslan, died in 1207, Georgian armies continued to enjoy military success under the generalship of the brothers Zakaria and Ivane Mkhargrdzeli and Tamar’s son Giorgi Lasha (George the Resplendent). Between 1208 and 1210, Georgian armies launched a punitive raid into northern Iran, plundering the cities of Tabriz and Qazvin in the process. The outbreak of rebellion in the mountainous regions of northeastern Georgia in 1211 was soon suppressed by Ivane Mkhardgrdzeli, who succeeded his late brother as Tamar’s commander-in-chief.   Tamar of Georgia’s Cultural Achievements Shota Rustaveli presents his poem “Knight in the Panther Skin” to King Tamar of Georgia. Painting by Mihály Zichy, 1880s. From the collection of the Telavi History Museum, Georgia. Source: Jimmy Chen   In addition to glorious feats of arms on the battlefield, Tamar’s reign is regarded as the height of Georgian culture. A century earlier, David the Builder had established the Gelati Academy near Kutaisi and the Ikalto Academy near Telavi in the eastern region of Kakheti. The poet Shota Rustaveli may have studied at both institutions. Rustaveli’s epic poem The Knight in the Panther Skin, dating to around 1200, continues to be celebrated not only as Georgia’s national epic but also as a literary creation of international significance.   Inspired by Persian literary tradition, Rustaveli’s epic is a celebration of courtly love. The tale begins at the court of Rostevan, King of Arabia, who, in the absence of a son, names his daughter Tinatin as his co-ruler. Rostevan’s commander-in-chief, Avtandil, is secretly in love with Tinatin. During a hunting expedition, Rostevan and Avtandil encounter a mysterious knight in a panther skin who kills the slaves whom Rostevan sends after him.   Rostevan and Tinatin send Avtandil on a three-year quest to track down the elusive knight and bring him to the Arabian court. A few months short of the deadline, Avtandil finds the knight in a cave accompanied by his faithful servant-girl, Asmat. Avtandil learns that the knight is Tariel, the commander-in-chief of the Indian armies. Tariel is stricken with grief due to his lack of success in finding and rescuing his beloved Nestan-Darejan, the daughter of King Parsadan of India.   Shota Rustaveli Monument at the end of Rustaveli Avenue, Tbilisi, Georgia. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   While Tariel refuses to accompany Avtandil to Arabia, the latter promises to return to the cave after delivering his report to Rostevan and Tinatin. With Tinatin’s private encouragement, Avtandil defies Rostevan and makes his way back to Tariel’s cave, offering to seek Nestan-Darejan on his friend’s behalf.   With assistance from several parties, Avtandil eventually learns that Nestan-Darejan has been taken captive by the demonic Kadjis. Avtandil, Tariel, and their friend King Nuradin-Pridon of Mulgazanzar assemble their armies to defeat the Kadjis and liberate Nestan-Darejan. The whole party returns to Arabia, where King Rostevan forgives Avtandil and presides over his wedding to Tinatin. They then travel to India to celebrate the union of Tariel and Nestan-Darejan, and the tale ends with a celebration of brotherhood between Avtandil, Tariel, and Pridon.   Rustaveli’s Arabia and India are poetic versions of the Georgian kingdom, while the characters of Tinatin and Nestan-Darejan are evidently inspired by Tamar herself. Likewise, Avtandil, Tariel, and Pridon bring to mind not only Tamar’s husband, David Soslan, but other heroic military commanders who served Tamar with great distinction.   In addition to Rustaveli, other Georgian poets who celebrated Tamar in verse include Ioane Shavteli and Chakhrukhadze, who wrote a collection of poems entitled Tamariani in her honor.   Death and Legacy of Tamar of Georgia Gelati Monastery in the snow, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Tamar spent her final years afflicted by a long illness, possibly cancer, and died in Tbilisi in January 1213. She is believed to have been buried at Gelati Monastery, though her tomb has never been found. Another theory suggests that her body was taken to the Monastery of the Cross in Jerusalem, founded by a Georgian monk in the 11th century. The pious Tamar was canonized by the Georgian Orthodox Church shortly after her death.   Tamar’s reign is regarded as the height of Georgia’s Golden Age. Building on the exploits of her great-grandfather David the Builder and her father Giorgi III, she left behind a realm that was the dominant power in the Caucasus, protected by vassal states on all sides, including a rump Byzantine state. Neighboring Muslim rulers cowered in fear before the might of Georgian armies, while the Pope and Crusader states in the Levant appealed to the court in Tbilisi for assistance.   For all the international prestige and renown acquired by Tamar and her court, this glorious period in Georgian history was to come to an abrupt and unexpected end within a decade of her demise. While her son and successor, Giorgi IV, was a capable military leader, his armies were no match for Jebe and Subutai’s Mongol cavalry, who unexpectedly arrived on the scene in 1220-1221 to wreak havoc on the Caucasus and the principalities of Rus’.   The shock of the Mongol invasion marked a definitive end to Georgia’s Golden Age. After being seriously wounded in battle against the Mongols in 1221, Giorgi died in 1223 and was succeeded as mepe (king) by his sister Rusudan. Further depredations by Sultan Jalal al-Din of Khwarazm and a renewed Mongol offensive in 1236 brought subjugation and fragmentation.

  Located in the Caucasus Mountains between Europe and Asia, the country of Georgia is becoming an increasingly popular travel destination for tourists seeking history, culture, and natural beauty. Over the centuries, both Georgians and foreign occupiers have built formidable castles and fortresses to project their power and defend themselves from rivals. Read on to find out more about six of these destinations that you should not miss if you are traveling to Georgia!   1. Narikala Fortress Ruins of the Narikala Fortress in Tbilisi, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   The walls of the Narikala Fortress tower over the south bank of the Kura (Mtkvari) River in Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi. The first fortifications on the site date to the 4th century CE when Georgia was under Persian rule. Over the course of Georgia’s turbulent history, the fortress has been controlled by Arabs, Mongols, Ottomans, and Georgians. The name Narikala, or “Little Fortress,” was coined during the period of Mongol rule. Most of the existing structure dates from the 16th-17th centuries.   An explosion (or earthquake) in 1827 left the fortress in ruins, leaving only the outer walls intact. In recent years, parts of the lower walls have been renovated according to the plan of the medieval castle. The Church of St. Nicholas within the walls was first built during the 13th century and substantially rebuilt in the 1990s after a devastating fire.   Panorama of Tbilisi from Narikala Hill, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   While there is little more to see within the walls of the fortress, visitors are treated to a spectacular panorama of Tbilisi from Narikala Hill. From this vantage point, it is possible to see another set of fortifications on the opposite bank of the river in the Avlabari district. During the 18th century, a palace was built on top of the walls for Queen Darejan, the wife of King Erekle II. The distinctive balcony of Queen Darejan’s Palace offers an attractive vista of Narikala Fortress and the Old Town.   Visitors to Tbilisi can reach Narikala Fortress via a cable car from Rike Park on the northeastern bank of the Mtkvari. The fortress is also accessible via a steep but picturesque walk from the Old Town. The upper station of the cable car is a short walk from the Mother of Georgia statue, which stands proudly on Narikala Hill.   Erected in 1958 to mark the 1,500th anniversary of the city’s official foundation, the 20-meter tall statue is depicted with a bowl of wine in her left hand and a sword in her right, indicating that she is prepared to meet both friend and foe. Another nearby attraction is the National Botanical Gardens, located in the valley behind the fortress.   2. Ananuri Fortress Ananuri Fortress, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   The imposing Ananuri Fortress is one of the most significant landmarks on the Georgian Military Highway, which runs from Tbilisi across the Russian border to the city of Vladikavkaz in the northern Caucasus. One of Georgia’s best-preserved medieval fortifications, the fortress overlooks the Zhinvali Reservoir on the Aragvi River.   The walls of the fortress were built in the 13th century. A popular legend tells of the fortress’ garrison being resupplied from the river via a secret tunnel while being besieged by a Mongol army. A woman named Ana from the village of Nuri was captured by the Mongols and questioned about the tunnel. She refused to give away its location and was tortured and killed, thus giving the fortress its name.   Ananuri served as the main military stronghold for the dukes of Aragvi from the 14th century until the 18th century. The fortress witnessed a series of battles in the 18th century, and in 1739, Ananuri was attacked by the rival duchy of Ksani. After a courageous last stand, the Aragvian warriors were defeated, and the ruling family was executed. In 1743, the new regime was overthrown in a peasant uprising, and by 1747, the Aragvian lands were annexed by King Teimuraz II of Kartli-Kakheti, the ruler of much of eastern Georgia.   View of the snow-capped churches at Ananuri Fortress from the stone tower, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Within the walls of the complex are two 17th-century churches. The larger one, the Church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, was built in 1689 and features distinctive inscriptions in Georgian script on the walls. The frescoes within the church were partially restored following a fire in the 18th century.   The large square tower on the western side of the fortress complex is accessible to visitors via precarious walk along the walls. The tower, which was the site of the last stand of the Aragvians in 1739, offers a unique perspective on the two churches below. The present author came close to suffering the fate of the Aragvian garrison while treading the narrow, icy path along the walls during a particularly cold spell in early March 2025.   3. Akhaltsikhe Castle Akhaltsikhe Castle, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Akhaltsikhe Castle, also known as Rabati Castle, is located in the region of Samtskhe–Javakheti in southern Georgia. When the castle was first built in the 9th century CE, it was called Lomsia, or “Lion.” The castle’s builder, Prince Guaram of Tao-Klarjeti, was the son of King Ashot I, the founder of the Bagrationi dynasty that would rule part or all of Georgia until the 19th century.   The castle was expanded during the Georgian Golden Age in the 12th century and acquired the name of Akhaltsikhe, or “New Castle.” The castle consisted of three sections: a trading quarter, a palatial quarter, and the citadel on the western side. The military commanders Shalva and Ivane Akhaltsikheli, who distinguished themselves during the reign of King Tamar in the early 13th century, hailed from the ruling ducal family in the city.   By the mid-13th century, the Georgian Jaqeli family took over control of Akhaltsikhe and the surrounding Samtskhe region. In 1578, the fortress was captured by the Ottoman Empire. The Jaqelis converted to Islam and continued to rule over Samtskhe for the next two-and-a-half centuries. During this period, a mosque and a madrassah were built within the walls of the compound.   The mosque at Akhaltsikhe Castle. Photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   When Russia annexed Georgia at the turn of the 19th century, Akhaltsikhe remained under Ottoman rule. A Russian siege in 1810 proved unsuccessful, but the fortress was captured by Field Marshal Ivan Paskevich’s Russian army in August 1828 during the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829. The Russian garrison successfully defended itself against an Ottoman attack the following April.   The castle was abandoned as a military stronghold in the 19th century. It remained in ruins until 2011, when a controversial redevelopment project saw the reconstruction of the ramparts, the citadel, and a 9th-century church. Other buildings, such as the mosque and madrassah, were restored, and the former Jaqeli palace now hosts the Samtskhe–Javakheti History Museum.   Following its restoration, Akhaltsikhe Castle has become one of the most popular tourist attractions in southern Georgia. It is just over an hour’s drive from the cave city of Vardzia, another medieval site of great historical significance in Georgian history.   4. Walls of Sighnaghi Walls of Sighnaghi with the Greater Caucasus in the background, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   The town of Sighnaghi is one of the most popular destinations in the region of Kakheti in eastern Georgia, best known for its wine. Located on a steep hill overlooking the Alazani Valley with the imposing Greater Caucasus range in the distance, Sighnaghi is known for the ring of defensive walls that encircle the town. The walls were built during the reign of King Erekle II, who was king of Kakheti from 1744 until his death in 1798.   After Sighnaghi’s annexation by the Russian Empire, the town became an important strategic location due to its proximity to Dagestan at a time when Russian armies were struggling to pacify the Caucasus. The town was home to a large Armenian population during the 19th century, and it was not until the early 20th century that Georgians became the ethnic majority.   The town became an important agricultural center during the Soviet era, and after the fall of the Soviet Union, it has reinvented itself as a tourist destination. The combination of wine, history, and landscape has contributed to Sighnaghi’s reputation as the “City of Love,” and since the early 2000s, many Georgian couples have chosen to get married in Sighnaghi.   Panoramic view of Sighnaghi, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Aside from walking along the city walls and admiring the extraordinary views of the surrounding area—an endeavor best undertaken when the narrow pathway is not covered in ice—tourists in Sighnaghi can visit the Sighnaghi Local History Museum, one of the best museums in the country. A particular highlight are canvases by Niko Pirosmani, the famous Georgian artist born in the Kakhetian town of Mirzaani in 1862.   Visitors to Sighnaghi can make a detour to the ancient Bodbe St. Nino Convent, a short distance to the south of the town. The convent is one of the earliest Christian institutions in Georgia and is the burial place of St. Nino, the female saint who brought Christianity to Georgia in the 4th century CE.   5. Gremi Archangels’ Complex Gremi Archangels’ Complex, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Another site of major historical significance in Kakheti is the Gremi Archangels’ Complex. Gremi was the first capital of the Kingdom of Kakheti, founded in 1466 as a breakaway kingdom by King Giorgi VIII after being overthrown as king of Georgia. The division of Georgia was formalized in 1490.   Throughout its history, Kakheti has been a wealthy region due to its established agricultural industry and location on eastern trade routes. Gremi reached its heyday during the long and prosperous reign of King Levan I of Kakheti (1518-1574) in the 16th century. Levan was responsible for the construction of the Church of the Archangels next to the royal palace and was buried there following his death.   While Levan successfully appealed to Russia to counterbalance Persian influence in his kingdom, his successors struggled to resist Persian encroachments at the turn of the 17th century when Russia was destabilized by the Time of Troubles.   The young King Teimuraz I struggled to negotiate with Shah Abbas I of Safavid Persia, and in 1614, his mother, Queen Ketevan, surrendered herself to the Persian court as a hostage in an attempt to secure peace. Her mission failed, and the Persians invaded Kakheti between 1614 and 1616, sacking Gremi in the process. The flourishing city became a shadow of its former self. Ketevan remained in captivity and was executed brutally in 1624 after refusing to renounce her faith, making her one of Georgia’s most famous martyrs.   Portrait of Queen Ketevan the Martyr inside the Gremi Archangels’ Complex, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2025. Source: Jimmy Chen   Gremi never recovered after its sacking in 1616, and in the mid-17th century, the seat of power was officially moved to Telavi, which had previously been the most important political center in Kakheti. The fortified Archangels’ Complex was the only part of the city to remain largely intact after the sacking, and the royal palace next to the church was modified into a bell tower.   Visitors to the Gremi Archangels’ Complex can find out more about its history by visiting a small but well-curated museum at the bottom of the hill for a small fee. Inside the complex, the Archangels’ Church remains a functioning church, while the palace/belltower hosts a small exhibition of paintings depicting the kings of Kakheti.   6. Gonio-Apsaros Fortress Entrance to Gonio-Apsaros Fortress, Batumi, Georgia, photograph by Surprizi, 2015. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The fortress of Gonio is located ten miles south of Batumi in the Autonomous Republic of Adjara, a short distance from the Turkish border. Known as Apsaros in antiquity, the site was first occupied by the Romans in the 1st century CE as part of a defensive line of garrisons in the Black Sea region. The fort was initially a timber structure reminiscent of a temporary military camp before being built in stone.   During the 2nd century CE, the fort was home to a substantial garrison of five cohorts, or around 2,500 men. However, by the 4th century CE, it appears to have been abandoned or declined significantly as the main Roman military presence in western Georgia shifted further north to a site near the present-day village of Tsikhisdziri, where Emperor Justinian built the Petra Fortress in 535. Archaeological evidence indicates that Apsaros experienced a revival in the 6th century, and the walls display signs of Byzantine and Ottoman repair work.   The walls of the rectangular fortress are five meters tall and run for 900 meters around the perimeter. The fortress originally had 22 towers, of which 18 survive today. The ruins of a bath, mosque, and sewerage and water systems can be found inside the fortress. Remnants of military barracks have also been identified, though most of the Roman buildings inside the walls appear to have been made of wood.   According to the 4th-century Christian theologian Sophronius, the Apostle Matthias (who replaced Judas Iscariot) was crucified and buried at Gonio-Apsaros. A gravestone within the fortress walls claims to mark the site of the apostle’s resting place.