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  Septimius Severus besieged the city of Byzantium in 193 CE and destroyed it after two years of siege. Being moved by his son, Caracalla, he seems to have later rebuilt it. According to some sources, he greatly restored it, building different monuments throughout the city, such as a new Hippodrome. Over a century later, Constantine picked Byzantium as the site of his new capital, which he called Constantinople. Septimius Severus’ siege of the city and its subsequent reconstruction have often been overlooked regarding Constantine’s choice. We will try to understand the impact this siege had on the city and Constantine’s choice.   Historical Context Denarius, Pescennius Niger, 193-194. Source: British Museum   In 192 CE, the emperor Commodus was assassinated, which introduced what would later be known as the Year of the Five Emperors. During this time, Septimius Severus, later to be the first African Roman emperor, fought against his rivals to become emperor.   First, he fought Didius Julianus, the man who had bought the throne from the Praetorian Guard. Then, he moved against another rival, Pescennius Niger, who had declared himself emperor with the help of his legions in Syria. Severus sent his troops to besiege the city of Byzantium, which had sided with Niger, while he chased him across Asia Minor. Severus defeated Niger at the Battle of Issus in 194 CE and killed him. According to Cassius Dio, Niger’s head was presented to the defenders of Byzantium, who were still holding out and would do so for another two years (Harris 2007, p. 44).   After beating Niger, Severus went west and defeated Clodius Albinus at the Battle of Lugdunum, which was the largest battle in Roman history.   Septimius Severus’ Siege of Byzantium A reconstruction of a later Constantinople,10th century, in which the city’s defensibility is clearly seen, by Antoine Helbert. Source: Vivid Maps   Multiple ancient sources describe the siege of Byzantium. Herodian, a historian writing in the 3rd century CE and a contemporary to the events described, describes the siege as follows:  “Severus, in the meantime, pressed on with his army at top speed, halting for neither rest nor refreshment. Having learned that Byzantium, which he knew was defended by the strongest of city walls […] He also sent troops to continue the siege of Byzantium, which was still under blockade because the soldiers of Niger had fled there. At a later date Byzantium was captured as a result of famine, and the entire city was razed. Stripped of its theaters and baths and, indeed, of all adornments, the city, now only a village, was given to the Perinthians to be subject to them” – 3.2.1 & 3.6.9.   We can see in this passage that the city of Byzantium was perceived by Herodian as a formidable city with constructions such as theaters and baths, and guarded by strong walls.   Septimius Severus besieged the city for over two years. It surrendered not because of a direct strike, but only after food ran out due to Severus’ ships intercepting Byzantine vessels and destroying them (Harris 2007, p. 45). This shows that the city had considerable defenses even at this time.   Rebuilding Byzantium Engraving of the ruins of the Hippodrome of Constantinople, by Étienne Dupérac, c. 1560. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After stripping the city of its freedom and destroying some of its buildings, Severus decided not only to rebuild Byzantium, but to embellish it. He was probably moved by his son Caracalla, as the Historia Augusta informs us. This is confirmed by coins which show that Caracalla held a magistracy in Byzantium between 202 and 205 CE (Russell 2017, p. 220). He furbished it with new constructions, such as expanded walls and a Hippodrome in 203 CE, which was later developed by Constantine. Some scholars have debated whether Severus really built the Hippodrome or if it was only Constantine, but historian Engin Akyürek has demonstrated that Severus did start the construction of the Hippodrome, and Constantine either finished it or expanded it (Akyürek 2021, p. 8).   Severus built the Baths of Zeuxippus and an amphitheater. The city was also renamed Colonia Antonia in honor of his son Caracalla (Antoninus was his real name). The new plan of the city was centered around a tetrastoon, a square enclosed by four porticoes (Janin 1964, p. 16). He also greatly refurbished existing buildings, including a theater, the docks, and multiple temples.   Bust of the emperor Gallienus, whose troops are said to have razed Byzantium to the ground, 261-268 CE. Source: The Louvre Museum   Septimius Severus issued coins showing him as the new founder and protector of the city. He seems to have wanted to channel the second “founder” of the city, Pausanias, who lived in the 5th century BCE. The number of renovations and constructions attributed to Severus has been put in question by scholars. They argue that the literary sources that describe Severus’ reconstruction all date from the 6th century CE and exaggerate (Pont 2010).   Between Severus’ destruction and Constantine’s foundation of Constantinople, the Historia Augusta mentions that the troops of Emperor Gallienus razed the city to the ground. This information is contradicted by a later historian, Zosimus, who writes that Constantine found the city already furnished with buildings. The Historia Augusta is the only source that tells us this.   But How True is Severus’ Reconstruction? A coin of Caracalla from Byzantium, 198-217 CE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   Around the year 500, there was an attempt made by certain conservative Roman writers to rewrite the ancient history of Byzantium, now Constantinople. The goal was to anchor the city’s past in Roman times.   They needed a Roman founder who exemplified traditional Roman values, something that Constantine lacked (Mango 2003, p. 594). We know, through coins and the Historia Augusta, that the city of Byzantium was more affectionate towards Caracalla than his father. Mango argues that the walls of the city were constructed at least 20 years after the death of Severus, and before the attack from the Goths in 258 CE (Mango 2003, p. 596).   Unfortunately, archaeology has not helped in dating the construction of different sites. Archaeological digs have been carried out under the hippodrome and the Baths of Zeuxippus, but they have not given us sufficient results. What we know from literary sources, though, is that during the 3rd century, the city of Byzantium grew in size and importance. For instance, multiple emperors, such as Caracalla, Macrinus, Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian, all passed by the city with their armies and nobles, and some even prescribed laws (Aurelian and Diocletian in particular—see Mango 2003, p. 607), which demonstrate the importance and size of the city during this century. This also seems to contradict the claim that Gallienus’ forces razed it to the ground.   Without more concrete archaeological results, we must conclude, like Mango, that we should be skeptical of Severus’ reconstruction of Byzantium.   Constantine’s Choice for a New Capital Bust of the emperor Trajan, 98-117 CE. Source: Glyptothek   Contrary to popular belief, Byzantium had been a site of importance for centuries. For instance, Trajan, writing to Pliny the Younger in the 2nd century CE, described the city as follows:   “It is owing to the situation of the free city of Byzantium, and the fact that so many travelers make their way into it from all sides, that, in conformity with established precedent, I have decided to send them a legionary centurion to protect their privileges.”    Even though it was not one of the biggest cities in the empire, it was a considerable site in the 2nd century CE. We have already mentioned its growing importance during the 3rd century CE.   Constantine, the first Christian emperor, picked the city for his new capital, Constantinople, because of its strategic location, which, as we have seen, was tested over a century earlier during Septimius Severus’ siege. A later writer, Zosimus, explains that Constantine picked Byzantium because of its location, but mentions only briefly the siege of Severus:   “Afterwards changing his purpose, he left his work unfinished, and went to Byzantium, where he admired the situation of the place, and therefore resolved, when he had considerably enlarged it, to make it a residence worthy of an emperor. The city stands on a rising ground, which is part of the isthmus enclosed on each side by the Golden Horn and Propontis, two arms of the sea. It had formerly a gate, at the end of the porticos, which the emperor Severus built after he was reconciled to the Byzantines, who had provoked his resentment by admitting his enemy Niger into their city.” – New History, 2.30.2.   If we follow Zosimus, Severus’ siege seems not to have been of great importance to Constantine.   Bust of Septimius Severus. Source: Glyptothek   But, when Constantine founded his new capital, he also placed himself as the latest in a triad of founders, Byzas, Pausanias, Severus, and now himself. He seems, therefore, to have not only been aware of but also pushed Severus’ claim of being the third founder (Russell 2017, p. 220).   In a foreshadowing passage, Cassius Dio, writing in the early 3rd century CE, describes the site as follows:   “Their city is most favorably situated in relation both to the two continents and to the sea that lies between them, and possesses strong defenses both in the lie of the land and in the nature of the Bosporus. For the city is built on high ground and juts out into the sea […] In a word, the Bosporus is of the greatest  advantage to the inhabitants; for it is absolutely inevitable that, once anyone gets into its current, he will be cast up on the land in spite of himself. This is a condition most satisfactory to friends, but most embarrassing to enemies.” – Epitome of book LXXV, 10.   If we imagine Constantine reading writers such as Cassius Dio and him being aware of Severus’ claim of following in the footsteps of Pausanias, it seems likely that Septimius Severus’ siege of Byzantium was an inspiration to Constantine. At the very least, we must deconstruct the popular belief that Constantine found Byzantium a small village. From the reign of Trajan at least, the city had had a growing importance, even if we remove the supposed reconstructions made by Severus.   Bibliography   E. Akyürek, The Hippodrome of Constantinople, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2021. J. Harris, Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium, London, Continuum, 2007. R. Janin, Constantinople byzantine : Développement urbain et répertoire topographique. Deuxième édition, Paris, Institut français d’études byzantines, 1964. C. Mango, « Septime Sévère à Byzance », Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 147 (2003), p. 593-608. A.-V. Pont, « Septime Sévère à Byzance : L’invention d’un fondateur », AnTard, 18 (2010), p. 191-198. T. Russell, « Before Constantinople », The Cambridge Companion to Constantinople, ed. S. Bassett, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2022, pp. 17-32. T. Russell, Byzantium and the Bosporus: A Historical Study, from the Seventh Century BC until the Foundation of Constantinople, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017.

  Greek mythology is full of fascinating stories about powerful gods with surprisingly human flaws, heroes who overcome the odds to defeat terrifying monsters, and mortals who suffer the consequences of their hubris as they try to rival the divine. Together, they form a rich tradition that has inspired many modern works of art, fiction, and fantasy.   There is no single compendium of Greek mythology. It is based on a rich oral tradition, with some stories and titbits recorded, often inconsistently, in various sources that survive from the Greek and Roman worlds. Nevertheless, hundreds of stories have survived to the modern day. With so many fascinating myths to explore, it can be hard to know where to start.   This article collects 35 of the most famous and important stories from Greek mythology that everyone should know. They have been chosen because they are among the most retold in the sources, suggesting that they were among the most popular in ancient times, or they form part of the main backbone of Greek myth from which other, less fundamental stories branch out. This article offers short summaries of each story, but you will find links to more in-depth analysis across our site.   Creation and the First Gods Genealogy of the ancient Greek Gods according to Hesiod’s Theogony. Source: TheCollector.com   As is the case with many mythologies, Greek myth starts with the question of the origin of all things, including the gods themselves. There is more than one version of the Greek creation myth, but Hesiod provides the most complete account in his Theogony, with other sources, such as Homer, providing additional or contradictory details.   1. The Greek Creation Myth and the Primordials The Untangling of Chaos, by Hendrik Goltzius, 1589. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art   In the beginning, there was Chaos, the primordial water. From Chaos emerged primordial beings, including Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (the Underworld), Eros (Desire), Erebus (Darkness), and Nyx (Night). These primordial gods gave birth to other important primordial beings, including Hemera (Day), Uranus (Sky), and Pontus (Sea). As personifications of the natural elements, they formed the world as the Greeks knew it.   Orphism, a mystery sect from ancient Greece, offers a very different account of creation, starting with Chronos (Time) and the supreme being, Phanes, hatching from a cosmic egg.   2. Rise of Monsters Gaia, by Otto Greiner, 1912. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While many primordial beings begat one another, the most prolific pairing was Gaia with her son Uranus. Together, they gave birth to the twelve Titans, six male and six female. Among the most prominent were Oceanus, the Titan of the sea and water, Rhea, the Titan of fertility, and Cronus, the Titan ruler of the universe. They are described as taller than the mountains they used as thrones.   Gaia and Uranus also gave birth to a group of monstrous children, three one-eyed Cyclopes and three monstrous Hecatoncheires, each with 50 heads and 100 arms. These children so disgusted Uranus that he threw them into Tartarus, an underworld prison.   3. Overthrow of Uranus The Mutilation of Uranus by Saturn, by Giorgio Vasari and Cristoforo Gherardi, c. 16th century. Source: Palazzo Vecchio   Gaia was upset by the treatment of her children, so she approached her Titan children to attack Uranus with a sickle, the first weapon ever created. Her youngest son, Cronos, took up the challenge, castrating his father. In some versions of the myth, his genitals fell into the sea, creating sea foam from which the goddess Aphrodite emerged (other myths make her a child of Zeus). Cronos then became the leader of the Titans, who took over their father’s place as rulers of the universe.   The Giants and Furies were born from Uranus’ spilled blood.   4. Reign of Cronus Saturn Devouring His Son, by Francisco de Goya, 1820-23. Source: Museo del Prado   Cronos married his sister Rhea, and the pair took on a serpent-like god called Ophion and a daughter of Oceanus, Eurynome, in a wrestling match to secure their divine rule, throwing the defeated pair into the ocean. Cronos then ruled over a Golden Age of peace, prosperity, and happiness in which the world was full of abundant resources, and people lived in harmony and without burdens.   However, Cronos feared that his children would overthrow him, so as Rhea gave birth to each of his children, he swallowed them, imprisoning them in his own body. He ate Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But when Rhea gave birth to her last son, Zeus, she gave Cronos a stone wrapped in swaddling to devour, and hid Zeus away on the island of Crete to be raised in secret.   Rise of the Olympians The Olympian gods by Giulio Romano. Source: Palazzo del Te in Mantua   While the Greeks had many myths and stories about the primordial gods, they were not the gods they worshipped day to day. These were the 12 Olympian gods who ruled from Mount Olympus, along with younger deities that emerged after the rise of the Olympians.   5. Titanomachy The Fall of the Titans, by Dutch painter Cornelis van Haarlem, 1596–1598. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Raised in secret, Rhea helped Zeus save his siblings from his father’s belly, giving him a drink that forced him to vomit up his other children. Zeus and his siblings then freed Gaia’s other monstrous children from Tartarus, and together they battled the Titans for control of the heavens in what is known as the Titanomachy. Taking the standard ten years associated with most Greek mythological wars, Zeus and his allies won.   The three sons of Cronos divided responsibility for the universe between them, with Zeus as the leader and overall governor of the heavens and earth, Poseidon commanding the sea, and Hades ruling the underworld. The Titans who sided with Zeus and his siblings were rewarded and given places among the gods, and those who did not were thrown into Tartarus.   6. The Birth of Athena Amphora showing the birth of Athena, 550-540 BCE. Source: Louvre, Paris   Zeus’ overthrow of Cronos carried on the “Succession Myth,” with Zeus also fearing that he would be overthrown by his child with one of his many wives, Metis (Intellect). To avoid this outcome, when Metis fell pregnant, he tricked her into turning herself into a fly and then swallowed her. But Metis’ pregnancy continued inside Zeus, and she forged armor for her child. This caused Zeus such a terrible headache that he split his skull open, and the goddess Athena emerged fully grown and fully armored. Zeus adored his daughter, and she became one of the most important goddesses, associated with wisdom and war.   7. Birth of Apollo and Artemis Latona (Leto) and Her Children, Apollo and Diana, by William Henry Rinehart, 1870. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Athena was not the only Olympian god with a harrowing birth story. Zeus later married his sister Hera, but was well-known for his love affairs with other goddesses and mortals. One such affair was with the Titan Leto, who found herself pregnant with twins. Jealous, Hera vowed that she would not let Leto give birth on land, so when she was in labor, Leto had to travel far and wide to find a place where she would be allowed to give birth. After much searching, Poseidon took pity on her and created an island from the sea, Delos, that was not technically considered land, so she could give birth to her twins, Apollo and Artemis.   Hera eventually accepted the twins among the Olympians, and Apollo became a god of the sun associated with the civilized arts, such as music, poetry, and oracles, while Artemis was associated with the moon, the wilderness, and the hunt.   8. The Birth of Dionysus The Adolescent Bacchus (Dionysus), by Caravaggio, 1598. Source: Uffizi Gallery   Dionysus has a similar story. Zeus had an affair with Semele, a Theban princess, who ended up pregnant. Jealous, Hera tricked Semele into forcing Zeus to show her his true divine form. As a mortal, she could not handle the sight and burst into flames. The fetus survived, so Zeus sowed it into his thigh to mature. This is why Dionysus is often called “twice born.” He was placed in the care of nymphs and satyrs, wandering across the earth, learning about life’s pleasures and eventually discovering wine. When he returned, Hestia gave up her place on Olympus so that he could become one of the Olympian gods.   The Romans associated their gods with those they encountered in the Greek world, so we know many Greek gods by their Roman names. In Rome, Dionysus was Bacchus, and Hestia was Vesta.   9. Hermes Steals Apollo’s Cattle Neck-Amphora showing Apollo between Hermes and a goddess, attributed to the Exekias painter, c. 530 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Hermes was another of Zeus’ many children, this time with Maia, a nymph, whom Zeus visited in the dead of night when Hera was asleep. As a baby, Hermes already possessed the ability to walk and talk, and he was a troublemaker. One day, the infant stole Apollo’s cattle, wiping away and reversing their footprints to trick the god. Apollo eventually caught up with Hermes, who denied the accusation, pointing out that he was just a baby. Zeus eventually commanded Hermes to return the cattle, and Hermes also gave Apollo the lyre that he had invented as a gift.   Hermes went on to be the messenger of the gods, easily moving between realms, which also made him the perfect candidate to guide souls into the afterlife.   10. The Abduction of Persephone Pinax showing Hades and Persephone enthroned, Greek, c. 500-450 BCE. Source: Cleveland Museum of Art   The goddess Persephone was another daughter of Zeus, this time with his sister Demeter. Together, Demeter and her daughter were the goddesses of spring and good harvests. But Hades wanted Persephone for his wife, so he kidnapped her and took her to the underworld. This devastated Demeter, who stopped caring for the earth, leading to famine. While Zeus tried to command her to restore life and fertility, nothing could overcome her grief. Zeus demanded that Hades return Persephone to her mother.   Hades agreed, but before Persephone left the underworld, she ate some of his pomegranate seeds. Once you eat the food of the underworld, you are tied to it, so Persephone could not completely leave the underworld. Instead, she splits her time between her mother and her husband, as queen of the underworld. This explained the changing of the seasons.   The story of Persephone was also the basis of the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient Greek mystery cult.   Hubris and Divine Punishment Ixion, by Jusepe de Ribera, 1632. Source: Museo Nacional del Prado   Beyond creation and the origins of the gods, the idea of hubris – excessive pride that usually leads to defying the gods – and divine punishment, were common themes in Greek myth. While these stories also often explained how the world worked, they were myths with moral lessons, many of which informed Greek philosophical ideas.   11. The Deluge Deucalion and Pyrrha, by Pedro Pablo Rubens, c. 1636-1637. Source: Museo del Prado, Spain   Like so many traditions, Greece has its own version of the great flood myth. Reportedly, in ancient times, Zeus became irritated with the Arcadian king Lycaon, possibly because he killed his own son and served him to the god to see if he would recognize human flesh. Therefore, Zeus decided to send a great flood to kill everyone. The Titan Prometheus warned Deucalion and his wife, Pyrrha, of the coming deluge. They survived in their boat for nine days before the water receded. The pair weren’t expected to repopulate the world the old-fashioned way. Instead, an oracle told them to cover their heads and throw rocks, “the bones of the earth,” behind them, with the rocks thrown by Deucalion becoming men and the rocks of Pyrrha becoming women.   12. Prometheus and the Theft of Fire Prométhée Attaché sur le Caucase, by Jean Charles Frontier, 1744. Source: Louvre   It was not just mortals who could be victims of hubris and suffer divine punishment. Prometheus was a child of the Titans who sided with the gods during the Titanomachy. Under the new Olympian regime, he is credited with the creation of one of the generations of humans who lived after the Golden Age of Cronos. He molded them out of clay, creating them in the likeness of the gods.   While Zeus does not seem to have been overly concerned about his mortal subjects, Prometheus became their patron. He tricked the gods into letting the humans keep the best part of animal sacrifices, leaving the gods with the unappealing parts. For this, Zeus took fire away from mankind and hid it on Mount Olympus, so Prometheus stole it back for his creations. In punishment for this defiance, Prometheus was chained to a peak where every day an eagle would set on him and eat his liver, and every night his liver would regenerate to suffer the same punishment the next day.   13. Pandora’s Box Pandora, by Jacques Callot, c. 1625-1626 CE. Source: British Museum, London   In another version of the story of Prometheus, the gods decided to punish humans for repossessing fire by sending Pandora, the perfect woman, and a “pithos” or jar to Earth to Prometheus’ brother, Epimetheus. They were warned to always keep the pithos closed, but one day, Pandora’s curiosity got the best of her, and she opened the jar. This released many evils into the world, including diseases and old age. When she managed to close the lid, there was only one thing left inside: hope. This left humanity in a perpetual cycle of suffering and hoping for better times. The story is a warning against the sin of excessive curiosity.   14. Arachne and the Weaving Contest Arachne and Pallas, Peter Paul Rubens, 1636/1637. Source: Virginia Museum of Fine Arts   Arachne was a talented mortal weaver whose hubris had her declare herself more talented at weaving than Athena, the goddess of the craft. Hearing of this disrespectful behavior, Athena took the form of a feeble old woman and visited Arachne. She suggested that Arachne ask Athena for forgiveness, but she refused, instead challenging the goddess to a weaving contest. Athena revealed herself, and the competition began. Arachne may have won the competition, but an angry Athena beat Arachne, until the woman could bear it no longer and hanged herself. Finally showing pity, Athena transformed Arachne into a spider so that she could spend eternity weaving.   15. King Midas and the Golden Touch Midas Washing at the Source of the Pactolus, by Nicolas Poussin, French, c. 1627. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In a famous story, King Midas of Phrygia was granted one wish by the god Dionysus, and he asked for the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. While he dreamed of great wealth, this turned out to be a curse, as everything he tried to eat and drink also turned to gold. He prayed to Dionysus to take the gift away, and the god advised the king to wash himself in the river Pactolus. As he washed himself free of the curse, the river filled with gold, and it was known for its gold reserves in antiquity. This is a story that warns against excessive greed and being careful what you wish for.   16. Narcissus and Echo Echo and Narcissus, by John William Waterhouse, 1903. Source: Walker Art Gallery   When Narcissus was born, it was soon obvious that he was more beautiful than other mortals. Men and women tried to attract his attention, but he wasn’t interested. Eventually, he attracted the attention of the nymph Echo, but he rejected her. Devastated, she ran into the wilderness where her body withered away, leaving behind only her bones and voice.   Angered, Nemesis, the goddess of revenge, caused Narcissus to fall obsessively in love with his own reflection in a calm pool. He soon realized that he could not embrace himself and that if he left the water’s edge, he would lose sight of himself. He eventually died of despair. A warning against excessive self-love, the white and yellow Narcissus flowers reportedly started to grow where his body lay.   17. Icarus Flies Too Close to the Sun The Fall of Icarus, by Jacob Peter Gowy, after Rubens. Source: Prado, Madrid   Daedalus was a famous inventor who found himself imprisoned in a tower on the island of Crete with his son, Icarus. Planning their escape, Daedalus created mechanical wings made from wax and feathers that would allow the pair to fly away. Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too close to the sun, but as he sailed through the air like a bird, Icarus could not resist approaching the heavens. The wax of his wings melted, and he plunged to his death.   18. Niobe and her Children The Punishment of Niobe, Merry Joseph Blondel, c. 1822-1828 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Following the birth of Artemis and Apollo, Leto became one of the most famous mothers in Greece. But a Phrygian princess called Niobe had 12 children, six sons and six daughters, and boasted that she was more blessed than Leto. The Titan was so insulted that her children decided to avenge her, with Artemis killing all six of Niobe’s daughters, and Apollo killing all six of her sons. Niobe was so distraught that she turned to stone and can, according to Pausanias, be seen on Mount Sipylus.   Love, Loss, and Transformation Psyche Revived by Cupid’s Kiss, by Antonio Canova, 1777. Source: Sotheby’s   Greek myth is full of love stories, though they often end in tragedy. Another common theme in love is transformation, with lovers often metamorphosing to secure an encounter, escape suffering, as a reward, or as punishment. This recurring theme also points to the transformative power of true love.   19. Eros and Psyche Psyche and Cupid, also known as Psyche Receiving Cupid’s First Kiss, by François Gérard, 1798. Source: Louvre, Paris   One of the most famous love stories in Greek myth is that of Eros, the son of Aphrodite, and Psyche, a mortal princess. Psyche was so beautiful that people compared her to Aphrodite. Angry at the comparison, Aphrodite sent Eros to use his arrows to have Psyche fall in love with the most hideous beast known to man. But when Eros saw Psyche, he fell in love and decided to marry her. Psyche’s father had already received an oracle that his daughter would be carried off by a “winged beast,” so he placed her on the edge of a high cliff. Winged Eros swooped in and claimed her.   To keep his identity a secret, Eros only visited his wife and night and warned her not to look at him. She obeyed until her sisters came to visit and, envious of her good lifestyle, convinced her that she had to see her husband. That night, Psyche snuck an oil lamp into the room. For her betrayal, Eros vowed never to see her again.   Desolate, Psyche finally approached Aphrodite to help her regain Eros’ heart. In exchange for her help, Aphrodite demanded that Psyche perform some impossible tasks. She succeeded in the first few tasks with some divine help, but when her plight became hopeless, Psyche stole a beauty potion from Aphrodite, thinking that it would help her win back Eros’ heart. When she opened the box, Psyche realized that it was actually a potion of eternal sleep, and she fell into an enchanted slumber. When Eros found her in her death-like sleep, he was grief-stricken and used his magical arrows to restore Psyche to consciousness, and the pair reunited. Eros also asks Zeus to grant her immortality, and she becomes the goddess of the soul.   20. Orpheus and Eurydice Orpheus and Eurydice, Jean Raoux, after 1709. Source: The J. Paul Getty Museum   According to another story, Orpheus, the semi-divine figure connected with Orphism, learned to play the lyre with Apollo and surpassed his teacher. When his beloved wife Eurydice died, he descended to the underworld to retrieve her. He found the entrance to Hades and used his lyre to lull the three-headed guard dog Cerberus to sleep. When he came to the thrones of Hades and Persephone, he sang beautifully about his love for Eurydice and her tragic death.   The gods agreed to return her, but told Orpheus that he must lead her out without ever looking back until they are both fully clear of the underworld. As they approached the exit from the underworld and the sun hit Orpheus’ face, he could not resist and looked back at his wife. Instantly, he was standing in the world of the living, and she was gone, taken back to the underworld. The story is a warning about impulsiveness and self-control.   Greek mythology includes many stories of journeys into the underworld.   21. Apollo and Daphne Apollo and Daphne, Piero del Pollaiolo, c. 1441. Source: National Gallery, London   In another story, the god Apollo falls in love with a nymph called Daphne. But, devoted to the virgin goddess Artemis, she has sworn chastity, so rejects the god, who pursues her relentlessly. His passion was caused by one of Eros’ arrows, after the gods argued about which of the two was the better bowman. Eventually, Apollo caught Daphne, so she called on her father, the river god Peneus, for help. He transformed her into a laurel tree to save her from Apollo. The god’s love did not wither, and he adopted the tree as his own, and the god was forever associated with the laurel. The story reflects the tragedy of unrequited love, but also how easily the innocent can become caught up in the fickle lives of the gods.   22. Leda and the Swan Leda and the Swan, by Peter Paul Rubens, 1598-1600. Source: Dresden State Art Collection   Zeus spied Leda, the lovely mortal wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and transformed himself into a swan to seduce her. Later that same night, she also slept with her husband. As a result, she became pregnant with two eggs, each containing two children. The first held Zeus’s children, Pollux and Helen (of Trojan fame), and the other her husband’s children, Castor and Clytaemnestra. Castor and Pollux, who sailed with the Argonauts, became known as Dioscuri and represented sibling loyalty and affection. When the mortal Castor died in battle, Pollux asked his father, Zeus, to save his brother. Zeus allowed the twins to share Pollux’s immortality, so they alternate their time between Olympus and the underworld.   Heroes, Monsters, and Impossible Quests Cerberus, by William Blake, 1824-7. Source: Tate   While tragedy certainly plays an important role in Greek myth, it is also characterized by stories of heroes who undertake epic quests for glory, often overcoming fearsome monsters in the process. While in many ways, these are timeless tales of good versus evil, our heroes are rarely purely good, with their strength and courage balanced by human flaws.   23. Perseus and Medusa Andromeda Chained to a Rock, by Henri-Pierre Picou, 1874. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perseus, a semi-divine son of Zeus, was tricked by King Polydectes of Seriphos into promising to bring him the head of Medusa, a monster with snakes for hair who can turn a man to stone with a look. Favored by both Athena and Hermes, they help him on his quest. Hermes gave Perseus his sword to behead the beast, and Athena gave him her polished shield, acting as a reflective surface, to allow him to track Medusa without suffering her deadly gaze. He successfully beheaded Medusa and then used her head to save Princess Andromeda from a sea monster by turning him to stone. He then gifted the head to Athena, who wore it on her Aegis as a prize. He is both a classic courageous hero and divinely favored.   24. Theseus and the Minotaur Amphora of Theseus slaying the Minotaur, artist unknown, c. 540 BCE. Source: British Museum, London   According to the myth, for years, the Athenians had been forced to send youths to Crete to be sacrificed to their monstrous Minotaur, living in the labyrinth below the city. Theseus, a prince of Athens, volunteers to be one of the tributes with the intention of slaying the beast and ending the cycle. When he arrived in Crete, the Cretan princess Ariadne fell in love with Theseus and gave him a sword that would enable him to slay the bullish beast. Prepared, Theseus entered the labyrinth trailing a string behind him, so that he could retrace his steps back out. He successfully found the sleeping Minotaur and killed it in a mighty battle. He then followed the thread back and escaped with the other Athenians and Ariadne.   Before returning home, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos. In karmic punishment for his betrayal, Theseus forgot to change the sails on his ships to signal his safe return, and his father, assuming the worst, leapt to his death before seeing his son.   25. Jason and the Argonauts Jason and the Golden Fleece, by Erasmus Quellinus, 1636-1638. Source: Museo del Prado   Another famous Greek hero was Jason. Typical in Greek myth, he was a prince whose kingdom was stolen from him while he was a baby by another family member. Jason was then raised in the wilderness by a centaur called Chiron, and prepared to return home and claim his birthright. To prove his claim to the throne, the usurper demanded that Jason traverse the Black Sea to retrieve the famous Golden Fleece, hoping that Jason would die on the journey.   But Jason assembled a crew of heroes known as the Argonauts, which included the likes of Heracles and Orpheus, and they sailed to Colchis to get the fleece. There, the princess and witch Medea fell in love with Jason and helped him successfully retrieve the fleece. Medea is accused of performing terrible magics to help Jason, only for him to abandon her for another woman, resulting in her killing her own children.   26. Heracles and the Twelve Labors Mosaic with the Labors of Hercules found in Lliria (Valencia), unknown, 3rd century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The semi-divine hero and son of Zeus, Heracles, better known by the Latin version of his name, Hercules, pops up in a variety of Greek myths. His most famous story is that of his 12 labors. Again, jealous due to her husband’s infidelity, Hera sent Heracles into a fit of madness, and he killed his wife, Megara, and children. Wanting to atone for this heinous crime, he went to the Oracle and Delphi, which instructed him to put himself in the service of his cousin, King Eurystheus. Devoted to Hera, the king devised the seemingly impossible labors to further punish Heracles.   Against all odds, Heracles completed the impossible task. For example, when charged with killing the Nemean lion with impenetrable gold fur, he strangled the beast with his bare hands and then skinned it to create a cloak. He sometimes had divine aid, such as when he stole three golden apples from the Hesperides. He temporarily held up the heavens for the Titan Atlas while he retrieved the apples. His successes made Heracles Greece’s most revered Hero, but it was only a small part of his legendary life.   27. The Gigantomachy Detail of the Sala dei Giganti (Chamber of the Giants) in the Palazzo del Te, by Giulio Romano, 1532   Closer to the end of his mortal life, Heracles would play a role in the Gigantomachy, the war in which the giants, monstrous beings who emerged from the blood of Uranus, tried to overthrow the Olympian gods. During the war, Zeus learned a prophecy that only a demigod had the power to vanquish the giants. Heracles was summoned, and he used an arrow dipped in the poisonous blood of the Hydra he vanquished during his labors to kill the giant Alcyoneus. He then fought alongside Zeus to defeat the rest of the giants.   It was this act that caused Hera to accept Heracles and give up her quest to torment him. This meant that when he returned to his mortal life, he remarried and found happiness again, only to suffer a tragic death. After death, he was accepted among the gods of Mount Olympus.   Heracles was killed by his wife Deianira with Hydra blood.   Cities, Kings, and Tragedies The foundation myths of many cities also play a prominent role in Greek mythology, connecting them with their patron deities and legendary heroic founders.   28. How Athens Got Its Name Athena and Poseidon, Nazzano Painter, 380-360 BCE. Source: Louvre, Paris   According to myth, in ancient times, the land that would become Athens was ruled by a king called Cecrops. He built a city so grand that even the gods noticed its greatness, especially Athena and Poseidon, both of whom wanted to claim the city and place it under their protection. To prevent conflict, Zeus created a competition, asking both gods to present the city with a gift, and Cecrops would choose which was best to determine the winner. Poseidon created a saltwater spring, which was met with little enthusiasm since the city was surrounded by the sea. Athena gave them an olive tree, with high-quality timber and nutritional fruit that could make olive oil. She was declared the winner, and the city was named after her.   29. Oedipus and the Theban Prophecy The Plague of Thebes, by Charles Jalabert, 1842. Source: French Ministry of Culture   The founding myth of Thebes was dramatically retold by Sophocles in his play Oedipus Rex. Born the son of a Theban king and queen, Laius and Jocasta, a prophecy said that the infant Oedipus would one day kill his father and marry his mother, so the boy was exposed on a mountain. He was discovered and raised by the royal family in Corinth, ignorant of his true identity. When he heard the prophecy about himself, Oedipus feared he would hurt his Corinthian family, so he left.   While on the road, Oedipus unwittingly kills his father, and then, arriving in Thebes, marries his widowed mother. When a plague grips Thebes, Oedipus vows to discover the cause, only to discover his own monstrous actions. This left Thebes subject to a long-standing curse.   Greek tragic plays retell several important myths, dramatized in a similar fashion to modern movies.   30. Sisyphus and Death Sisyphus in the Underworld, 510-500 BCE. Source: British Museum   Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Corinth. When his days were up and Thanatos, the god of death, came to fetch him, Sisyphus requested that the god show him how the manacles he carried worked. During the demonstration, Sisyphus chained Thanatos, saving all humanity from death. This enraged Zeus, who sent Ares, the god of violent war, to free Thanatos. Knowing that death would return for him, Sisyphus told his wife not to perform the normal funerary rituals, so that when he got to Hades, he could complain that he had not received a proper burial. Hades let him return to earth to punish his wife, but back in Corinth, he lived a full life again before dying many years later.   When he died again, Sisyphus was condemned to eternal punishment in Tartarus. He was forced to push an enormous boulder up to the top of a hill, but as soon as it reached the top, it would roll back down, and Sisyphus would have to start again, indefinitely bound to this fruitless task.   End of the Age of Heroes Achilles and Penthesilea by a painter of the Exekias painter, 540 BCE. Source: British Museum   The classical Greeks imagined that they lived after the Age of Heroes, described in Homer’s Iliad, during which the gods seem to have been much more involved in mortal life, siring semi-divine children and interfering in human affairs. The age culminates in the Trojan War and its aftermath, stories that were integral to the Greek self-identity.   The Age of Heroes was imagined to be during the Bronze Age, when the Myceneans dominated the Greek world, who disappeared as part of the Bronze Age Collapse.   31. Apple of Discord The Judgment of Paris by Peter Paul Rubens, 1638. Source: Museo Del Prado, Madrid   Recorded mostly in Homer’s Iliad, the Trojan War was an infamous battle between the Greeks and the Trojans. While the Trojan prince Paris’ kidnapping of Helen of Sparta is usually considered the trigger for the war, mythology suggests that Zeus may have put this great war in motion to diminish the human population. This is why the gods are so interested in the war in the Iliad, interfering and supporting their favorites.   A key step in setting up the conflict was the wedding of Thetis to the mortal hero Peleus, a union that produced the hero Achilles. All the gods were invited except for Eris, the goddess of strife. Irritated, she took an apple from the garden of the Hesperides and wrote on it “for the fairest,” and threw it into the party. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite claimed the apple. To settle the argument, Zeus invited the Trojan prince Paris to judge which was the fairest. Each goddess bribed him with a magnificent present, but he chose Aphrodite, who offered him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.   32. The Trojan War Diomedes Wounding Aphrodite When She Tries To Recover The Body Of Aeneas by Arthur Heinrich Wilhelm Fitger. Source: Art Renewal Center   When Paris kidnapped Helen from her husband, Menaleus, the king of Sparta, the Greeks united to form a war party and attack Troy. The party, led by King Agamemnon, included many heroes. The most famous of these heroes was Achilles, who was also the protagonist of the Iliad, which relates the final days of the war after it had already been waging for ten years. The action revolves around Achilles withdrawing from the right after being insulted by Agamemnon, and then returning to the fight to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, killing the Trojan prince Hector among others.   The story, of course, ends with the utter destruction of Troy at the hands of the Greeks due to the ruse of the Trojan Horse, though this part of the story does not appear in the Iliad.   33. The Odyssey Map illustrating Odysseus’ Journey in Homer’s Odyssey. Source: TheCollector.com   Throughout the Trojan War, the Greeks offended the gods on various occasions, and they responded by making it hard for them to go home. The most famous story about this is told in Homer’s Odyssey. The king of Ithaca, Odysseus, offended Poseidon by blinding his Cyclops son, so he is blown off course and takes ten years to get home, with many adventures along the way. When he finally arrives, he must reclaim his wife and his power from the many suitors who assumed that he was dead.   Scholars and sailors have tried to track where exactly Odysseus visited on his epic journey.   34. The Nostoi Menelaos Pursuing Helen, attributed to the Altamura Painter, c. 470-450 BCE. Source: British Museum   While the nostos, or return, story of Odysseus is the most famous, many of the Greek warriors at Troy suffered a similar fate. King Menelaus was also blown off course and found himself in Egypt, but there, he found his wife Helen, implying that the Helen who was taken to Troy was a phantom. The pair returned to Sparta and were granted immortality. Agamemnon made it home right away, but he was promptly killed by his wife, Clytemnestra, in revenge for killing their daughter.   35. The Aeneid Aeneas Defeats Turnus, by Luca Giordano, c. 1650-1700. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The final myth on this list appeared in its most famous form only in Rome in the 1st century BCE, but it has older roots. Homer mentions the Trojan prince Aeneas, who survived the Trojan War and led the other Trojan survivors on a journey across the Mediterranean. They would eventually settle in Italy and become the forebears of the Romans. When Virgil wrote his Aeneid at the start of the Augustan Age, he was connecting Rome to the much older Greek mythological tradition, integrating Rome into their joint mythological identity.   Greek Myth FAQ Still have questions about Greek mythology? Find answers to the most frequently asked questions below.   What is the most famous Greek myth? It is hard to say which is the most famous Greek myth, but among the most well-known are the Titanomachy, the conflict between the Titans and the Olympians that saw Zeus enthroned as the chief god, the 12 labors of Heracles, and the story of the Trojan War.   How many Greek myths are there? It is impossible to say how many Greek myths there are, because there is no definitive catalogue or chronicle. Hundreds or even thousands of stories were passed down through oral traditions, and then versions of those stories were recorded in epic poems, hymns, plays, histories, and other surviving written works. Different versions of the same myths are often told in different sources, again reflecting that there was no established canon.   Who were the most important Greek Gods? The principal gods venerated by the Greeks were the 12 Olympian gods. These were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes, and Dionysus.   Are Greek myths based on real events? While there were certainly skeptics among them, in general, the Greeks considered their myths to be real. They were thought to be historical stories belonging to an ancient age when the world was new and the divine actively interacted with mortals. That’s not to say that the stories reflect events that really happened; for example, there is no evidence that Heracles ever walked the earth.   Are Greek and Roman myths the same? Greek and Roman mythology are difficult to separate. While clearly sharing cultural roots, the Greeks and Romans had separate pantheons of deities. When the Romans encountered Greek religion, they noted the similarities and identified their gods with Greek gods; thus, they believed that their chief god, Jupiter, was the same as the Greek god Zeus, and their goddess Minerva was Athena, even though we can see distinct differences between the goddesses. They embraced Greek mythology and applied it to their own gods, but often with a distinct Roman spin.

The Sack of Rome by Genseric, 456 CE, by Karl Bryullov, 19th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the fall of Rome, one ruler – Justinian I, dreamed of putting the Empire back together through rules as well as war. When he took over the throne in 527 CE, the Western part of the Roman Empire had already fallen. Unfortunately, the Eastern Roman Empire that he ruled also had a messy legal system.   For nearly a thousand years, the Romans had piled up ancient decrees and senate rulings until they no longer made sense. Judges often got lost in thousands of scrolls while trying to find a single correct rule for a case, thereby making the whole judicial system largely ineffective. Justinian decided to commission a new coherent set of rules to solve the problem. This entire collection was later titled the Corpus Juris Civilis, which includes the famous Codex Justinianus (the Justinian Code).   It Clarified Local Laws 13th-century Code of Justinian manuscript with the Glossa ordinaria on the margins. Source: Wikipedia   In 528 CE, Justinian I chose a special team of ten legal experts to create the initial legal code. The men worked with incredible speed and finished the first part of their project in only fourteen months. They called it the Codex Justinianus and published it in April 529 CE as the official law of the land. The work instantly simplified the duties of magistrates and governors across the empire.   Bas-relief plaque of Tribonian in the Chamber of the United States House of Representatives in the United States Capitol. Source: Wikipedia   Soon after the release of this first collection, however, Justinian realized that the opinions of ancient lawyers were just as messy as the imperial laws. In 530 CE, he asked Tribonian, who had led the first team, to lead a new group of scholars to fix the mess. The scholars examined over 3 million lines of text to find the most useful legal ideas. Thus, the Digest (or the Pandects) was created in 533 CE. It consisted of 50 different books that covered every possible legal problem from a stolen pig to a dispute over a dowry.    The Digest soon became the ultimate guide for every law expert in the Empire. The Institutes, a series of books related to the laws, were created in 533 to serve as a textbook for law students. In the years that followed, Justinian continued to issue new individual laws known as the Novels to address emerging issues. While these were not published in one official book during his lifetime, they were later added to the legal collection.   It Changed Family and Property Ownership Rules Emperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   The Code changed how people owned things in the 6th century. Ancient Roman systems made transferring property a complex process that involved many witnesses and specific ceremonies. Justinian officially ended the old requirements by focusing on the intent of the buyer and the seller. Agreements that were based on malicious intent typically led to penalties.   In terms of family law, the Code gave more rights to women regarding their dowries. For instance, a husband would have to return his wife’s dowry if he wished to divorce her. In much the same way, the law made it much harder for a father to sell his children into slavery, as the emperor wanted to protect the dignity of families. That said, the system remained very strict when it came to upholding social classes and status, and so many people still found themselves stuck in the lower peasant worker class for life.   It Gave More Powers to the State and the Church Coin of Justinian I, minted in Constantinople, 527-65. Source: The British Museum   Under Justinian I, Roman state authority grew stronger. Before his reign, judicial power had already begun shifting away from the Senate and independent experts to the emperor. But when Justinian took over, he ensured every legal decision came from the central administration. Consequently, as the empire expanded its influence and fought to reclaim territories, people in all the territories followed the same statutes.   Religion also became a matter of state law under the new laws issued by Justinian. He believed that the survival of the empire depended a lot on the unity of the masses under Christian faith. As a result, laws were enacted to punish people who disagreed with the official doctrine of the church. The state also gained the power to seize the property of those who were labeled as heretics. Under the new legal framework, the government and the church functioned as one powerful force.

  When swimmers yell “Geronimo!” as they jump off the diving board and cannonball into the pool, do they know whose memory they are conjuring? While his name may be an everyday exclamation in American English, Geronimo, the man, is less recognizable. A talented hunter and warrior, Geronimo took up arms to defend his people and their homeland against the incursion of the United States government. One of the last holdouts of the United States’ attempts to remove Native Americans, Geronimo’s fierceness and commitment to the Apache people are indelible.   Life on the Move An Apache baby, circa 1900. Source: USC Libraries Special Collections/Wikimedia Commons   Goyahkla, the child who would later be known as Geronimo, was born in June 1829. His birthplace was No-Doyohn Canyon in Mexico, which today is in Southwestern New Mexico. Goyahkla, meaning “one who yawns,” was a member of the Bedonkohe, a division of the Chiricahua Apache tribe. The Bedonkohe was a small group with many enemies, including Mexicans, Navajo people, and the Comanche tribe. Eventually, this list of enemies would include the United States government.   A big reason for these tense relationships was the fact that the nomadic tribe often raided for survival. Resources such as livestock, horses, food, ammunition, and weapons were captured as a result of this practice, which had been part of the Chiricahua culture for centuries. Goyahkla proved himself a talented hunter and fighter, and was admitted to the warriors’ council in 1846. He married at the age of 17, and he and his wife, Alope, had three children.   “No Gun Will Ever Kill You…” Geronimo, left, and another Chiricahua man named Christidi Naiche sometime in the 1880s. Both men have autographed the photo. Source: National Archives at College Park/Wikimedia Commons   In 1858, Goyahkla was on a trading trip in Janos, Mexico, with several other men. When they returned to their camp, they found that the women and children who had remained encamped had been attacked and massacred by Mexican soldiers from a nearby town. The Mexican government and people had a longstanding fractious relationship with the Apache, at times offering cash for scalps of Apache men, women, and even children.   More than 100 women and children were killed, including Goyahkla’s mother, wife, and three children. In keeping with tradition, Goyahkla burned the belongings of the deceased and went alone into the wild to grieve. While he was alone in the wilderness, Goyahkla claimed to have heard a voice that promised him, “No gun will ever kill you. I will take the bullets from the guns of the Mexicans…and I will guide your arrows.” He took this as encouragement to exact revenge on those who had taken his family and people.   Geronimo at the St. Louis Exposition, 1904. Source: Carter Museum   When he returned to his people, Goyahkla took an even stronger leadership role. Devastated over his loss, he vowed revenge, supported by a force of approximately 200 other men. Over the next decade, Goyahkla led his men on a campaign of revenge against the Mexicans. He earned his more recognizable name, Geronimo, during a pitched battle with the Mexicans. Mexican soldiers attempted to appeal to St. Jerome, or “Jeronimo” in Spanish. Their cries of “Jeronimo!” would become their slayer’s new nickname, one which he was said to accept.   A Changing Enemy Geronimo photographed in the 1880s. Source: National Archives at College Park/Wikimedia Commons   After the conclusion of the Mexican-American War and the discovery of gold in the Southwestern United States, American settlers began streaming into areas of the country that were once part of Mexico—territory that was frequented by the Chiracahua. This new presence threatened the existence of Geronimo’s people as efforts to remove Indigenous people from their homelands began to spread. Apache attacks on travelers and settlements began to ramp up as the Apaches attempted to not only continue their raiding culture but to halt incursion. Apaches and Americans escalated to taking prisoners, and a series of events known as the Apache Wars began.   Geronimo had remarried (he would have several wives over his lifetime, with sources ranging in estimates from seven to over a dozen) and fought under his father-in-law, Cochise, and legendary chief Mangas Coloradas. There were few open battles during the conflict, which lasted 24 years, but many ambushes and raids. In 1872, much to Geronomio’s disappointment, Cochise negotiated with General O.O. Howard to end the conflict. As a result, the Apache were granted reservation land in what is now Southeastern Arizona. Geronimo did not adjust well to reservation life and left frequently.   Cochise Stronghold in the Dragoon Mountains of Arizona was once a base of operations for Cochise’s forces. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After Cochise’s death in 1874, likely from stomach cancer, relations between the United States government and the Apache tribe disintegrated. The reservation was moved north, away from traditional Apache homelands, in order to allow for American settlements. Geronimo continued to leave the reservation frequently, often raiding during these absences. More and more Apache were leaving the reservation, and the Americans began to negotiate with new leaders, Juh and Taza, Cochise’s son, in an effort to return people to the reservation system.   Geronimo interfered in these discussions, pitting Juh and Taza against one another. Geronimo often spoke for Juh, a lifelong friend, due to the latter’s stutter. Juh refused to move to the new San Carlos reservation, leaving with Geronimo and two-thirds of the Chiricahua people. When Indian Agent John Clum learned Geronimo was to blame for the broken deal, he issued a call for his arrest.   A Wanted Man Geronimo in regalia at age 78. Source: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons   Geronimo was arrested at the Warm Springs Reservation near Winston, New Mexico. As a result, the reservation was closed, and the Warm Springs Apaches were moved to San Carlos with the other Chiricahuas. His arrest did little to stem Geronimo’s exodus from the reservation. In 1881, Geronimo struck out again with his followers. For the next five years, he eluded the US Army. Legions were sent after him, and at one point, nearly a quarter of the US Army’s troops were searching for him, in addition to numerous “Indian scouts.” Geronimo and his followers were considered the last major Indigenous force to hold out against US occupation in the West.   General George Crook was appointed to subdue Geronimo’s forces and knew he was up against a tough enemy. When asked to describe the Chiricahua, Crook said that they had “acuteness of sense, perfect physical condition, absolute knowledge of locality, almost absolute ability to persevere from danger.” He called them the “tiger of the human species.” The US Army even colluded with their old rivals, the Mexican government and the two parties gave one another permission to cross their shared border indiscriminately when in pursuit of the Chiricahua.   General George Crook, photographed by Matthew Benjamin Brady. Source: National Archives at College Park/Wikimedia Commons   Though Crook was a man of admirable military skill, he was somewhat impulsive when it came to hunting. One day, while on the trail, he ventured off, tracking an animal, and came face to face with Geronimo and his people. Though Geronimo had the perfect opportunity, he didn’t kill the general that he called “The Tan Wolf” due to his khaki wardrobe. Geronimo had realized that there was no end in sight. The US army had virtually endless resources at its disposal, and a few dozen Apache warriors would not be able to hold them off forever. Geronimo took the opportunity to start negotiations with Crook. An agreement was reached that granted the Chiricahua a reservation at Turkey Creek in Arizona.   Two women in an Apache camp in 1880. They are standing in front of the traditional Apache home, a wickiup, which can easily be packed up and moved. Source: Denver Library/Wikimedia Commons   Peace persisted for approximately a year before tensions came to a head once again. The US government attempted to assimilate the Apache, encouraging farming and outlawing many practices of Apache cultural life, such as the brewing of a traditional alcoholic beverage, tizwin. Miscommunication further contributed to these issues, as translation often required Spanish as an intermediary between Apache and English.   Geronimo decided it was time for one last run. Along with 36 followers, he left the reservation, heading to Mexico. A $25,000 bounty was placed on Geronimo, and his band of three dozen was pursued by 9,000 US soldiers, Mexican soldiers, and assorted volunteers. General Nelson Miles of the US Army proposed an idea to lure Geronimo in for surrender. He suggested banishing the remaining Chiricahua at San Carlos, who had family in Geronimo’s fleeing band, to prison in Florida. When Geronimo heard of this threat, he met with Lieutenant Charles Gatewood to negotiate a surrender.   The Warrior Falls Many reservation-confined Indigenous people performed with Buffalo Bill Cody, in addition to Geronimo. Here, Cody is photographed with Hunkpapa Lakota leader Sitting Bull in 1885. Source: Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons   In the summer of 1886, Geronimo became the last Chiricahua to surrender to the United States. The US followed through on their threat of banishment to Florida, and Geronimo would be among those deported. The long train trip took its toll on the people, as did the poor sanitation in the disease-ridden prison. Geronimo spent time in Florida, then Alabama, as a prisoner of war. A legend among white Americans who had read of his exploits in newspapers, he spent time in Buffalo Bill Cody’s Wild West Show and rode in Theodore Roosevelt’s election parade. While there, Geronimo asked Roosevelt for his people to be returned to the Southwest. His request was denied.   Apache scouts for the US army drilling at Fort Wingate in New Mexico, undated. Source: National Archives at College Park via Wikimedia Commons   An artist who visited the imprisoned Geronimo to paint him stated that his subject showed him over fifty bullet wounds on his body, explaining, as the voice in the wild once had, that bullets would not kill him. Instead, Geronimo died in 1909. He acquired pneumonia after a drinking spree resulted in him spending the night in a ditch after falling off his horse. In 1913, after 27 years in confinement, his people were given the option to return to the Southwest, to the Mescalero Reservation. Today, there are thousands of Apache people living in the United States, the very people which Geronimo fought with vengeance and commitment in his heart to save.

  Largely overlooked in modern American society, the War of 1812 is often overshadowed by the United States’ initial struggle for independence and the American Civil War, two existential conflicts that define the country’s development. The War of 1812, however, is an important milestone that set the foundation for expansion in the North American continent, allowing the United States to develop politically, militarily, and economically. While the war’s outcomes are more transparent, its causes are a complex assembly of grievances that boiled over to a climax in 1812.   British Impressment USS Chesapeake by Frank Muller, c. 1910. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   One of the primary catalysts of the War of 1812 was the widespread British impressment of American sailors. The British navy often coerced unsuspecting individuals into service in wartime, and manpower requirements during the Napoleonic Wars led the Royal Navy to forcibly recruit American sailors by claiming that they were deserters. While the US Navy had impressed sailors during the American Revolutionary War, the British Navy’s impressment of American sailors was a major provocation to the newly independent American people. All in all, approximately 10,000 American mariners were impressed during the Napoleonic Wars.   In 1794, the Washington administration dispatched John Jay to negotiate with the British, but the resulting Jay Treaty did not address impressment and caused an outcry. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison demanded a more assertive response to the British. As president, Jefferson passed the Embargo Act of 1807, prohibiting American ships from trading in British and French ports. Although the policy was designed to enforce American neutrality and compel the British to stop impressing American seamen, the law was repealed two years later after causing significant economic damage.   Despite the downsides of impressment, sailors who escaped the practice, including future United States naval officers Charles Stewart and John Digby, often acquired advanced knowledge of British tactics and techniques, which informed the United States’ war effort.   Also, read our article mapping the key locations and battlefields that decided the War of 1812.   Trade Restrictions American superiority at the World’s Great Fair by R. H. Thomas, 1851. Source: Smithsonian Institution   At sea, British trade restrictions against the United States exacerbated hostile impressment. In 1807, England passed the Orders in Council, a sequence of decrees designed to limit global trade with France in response to Napoleon’s Continental Blockade of Britain. The legislation applied to foreign neutral ships, including the United States, by compelling international vessels to stop at British ports before exchanging goods with other European nations.   The Orders in Council significantly interrupted American markets. American ships sailing across the Atlantic were routinely found in violation, resulting in the seizure of American goods deemed contraband. President Jefferson’s Embargo Act of 1807 quickly proved more harmful to the United States than its European targets. Following the repeal of the embargo, Congress passed the 1809 Non-Intercourse Act, which enabled trade with European countries other than Britain and France. After finding the new bill difficult to enforce overseas, Macon’s Bill No. 2 reinstated trade with Britain and France under conditional terms.   Napoleon saw the latest American policy as a means to force the United States to reinstate its embargo with Britain by agreeing to stop intercepting American shipping. As Napoleon anticipated, this exacerbated tensions between the United States and Britain. The embargoes and trade restrictions were highly damaging to US economic interests, and American leaders began considering military action to defend their interests.   British Support for Native American Tribes Tenskwatawa, The Open Door, known as The Prophet, Brother of Tecumseh by George Catlin, 1830. Source: Smithsonian Institution   In the early 19th century, few alliances were as logical as that between Britain and prominent Native American tribes in the United States. Partnering with Native American groups following defeat in the American Revolutionary War gave the British an opportunity to resist American expansion without direct military involvement. For Native Americans, agreeing to alliances with Britain was a necessary means to protect their land against a mutual adversary. Prior to and during the War of 1812, Britain’s strategic alliances with Native American tribes spread from the then-Northwest United States to the Great Lakes region, encompassing Tecumseh’s Confederacy. Tecumseh and his brother, the Prophet, offered a powerful impediment to American expansion.   Early American leaders believed that victory over Britain gave the United States an inherent right to expand westwards without interference. By 1811, before the United States officially declared war on Britain, tensions between American settlers and Native Americans resulted in violent clashes. At the Battle of Tippecanoe, Governor William Henry Harrison of the Indiana Territory led American forces to inflict a crushing defeat upon Tenskwatawa’s forces. Two years later, Tecumseh was killed in the 1813 Battle of Thames, resulting in the collapse of the Native American confederation.   Territorial Disputes Print of Meriwether Lewis at the National Portrait Gallery, 1816. Source: Smithsonian Institution   Following the American Revolutionary War, Article 7 of the Treaty of Paris specifically stated that the British military was to evacuate its forces from all forts and territories in the newly independent United States “with all convenient speed.” Despite this provision, the British retained key defenses in the Northwest Territory near modern-day Michigan, Ohio, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois. The British used Fort Detroit as a hub for operations with their Native American allies well after the Treaty of Paris mandated their departure.   Britain’s refusal to abandon its wartime fortifications extended into control of key American waterways. British-manned Fort Mackinac and Fort Niagara allowed them to exploit strategic positions near the Straits of Mackinac (which connects Lake Huron and Lake Michigan) and the Niagara River (which feeds into the Great Lakes). By continuing to garrison these outposts, the British not only ignored the terms of the Treaty of Paris outright, but continued to enforce prewar policies in the Northwestern territories.   Before the Revolution, King Geroge III published the Proclamation of 1763 to preserve the Appalachian Mountains for Native Americans, banning colonists from settling there. While the law became a dead letter after the founding of the United States, its lasting effects in the region complicated the United States’ expansion west. While American expansion remains controversial today, the continued British occupation of the Northwestern forts was a clear violation of the Treaty of Paris.   American Expansionism American Progress by John Gast, 1872. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although the concept of Manifest Destiny, the inevitable and divine right of the United States to spread democracy throughout the North American continent, was not coined until 1845, American expansionism had an immediate foothold in the United States following the American Revolutionary War. Belligerent American politicians known as war hawks believed that America’s northern and southern frontiers could only be secured by armed conflict. By annexing British-held Canada and the Spanish territory of Florida, the United States could be free of foreign influence east of the Appalachian Mountains.   This plan, however, was not without strong resistance. Through Native American proxies, England aimed to create a deliberate buffer zone between the United States and British subjects in Canada. While the British strategy was intended to protect Canada, the War of 1812 began with a three-pronged American invasion of Canada.   To the west, British influence presented additional roadblocks to American ambitions of unopposed expansion. Less than a decade prior to the War of 1812, the Louisiana Purchase from France nearly doubled the physical size of the United States by adding 828,000 square miles of territory, including over a dozen current states. Under President Jefferson, the Louisiana Purchase and subsequent Lewis and Clark Expedition encouraged Americans to venture west for economic opportunity via new agricultural pastures and trade routes. This expansionism was met with British-supported Native American resistance, further escalating tensions prior to the outbreak of war.   National Honor and Post-Revolution Tensions James Madison, US President during the War of 1812. Portrait by Thomas Sully, 1809. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Smithsonian Institution   While events like Shay’s Rebellion in 1786 illustrate how the United States navigated domestic instability following independence, anti-British sentiment defined post-Revolutionary society in America. After eight years of fighting British forces with limited resources, the postwar United States was left in a fragile economic state. Popular rhetoric justifiably blamed the British for the economic damage during the war.   Alongside British-aided Native American resistance to expansionism, impressment, and territorial disputes, widespread anti-British sentiment following the American Revolutionary War fueled an era where a new America desired not only a country free of foreign influence, but also broader international recognition of American independence. Existing diplomatic approaches such as the Jay Treaty failed to address the main American complaints about British actions, fueling calls for war in the early 19th century.   The War of 1812 provided a means to gain national honor on the international stage. By defeating the British navy in several engagements, the United States gained increased overseas attention for its military prowess. Impending war also provided early American citizens with a sense of unity and identity that strengthened American nationalism following the conflict.   The War of 1812 was caused by several related factors that together encouraged American leadership to go to war with Britain despite the risks. Although the war was fought on a far smaller scale compared to the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, it was nevertheless a formative experience in the early American republic and came to be regarded as a second war of independence.

  From the 8th to the 15th centuries, the Moors ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula, which ended with the Christian Reconquista. While there was certainly a lot of innovation and cultural advancement, life for Al-Andalus’s inhabitants was not as utopian as has often been suggested.   What Was Al-Andalus? Painting on the ceiling of the Hall of Kings in the Alhambra Palace, Granada. Source: Wikimedia Commons   To this day, historians argue the impact Muslim rule had on the Iberian Peninsula. Some people argue that Muslim rule brought innovation, tolerance, and security to the region. Others argue that al-Andalus was riven with internal chaos, suffered under the tyranny of fundamentalist rulers, and weakened itself to the point where the Christians could conquer their territory relatively easily. These debates include references to first-person accounts of life in Moorish Iberia.   During the 750s, the Umayyad prince ʿAbd al-Raḥmān I fled Damascus after his family was overthrown by the Abbasid Caliphate. ʿAbd al-Raḥmān marched to Spain and founded the Emirate of Córdoba, conquering most of the Iberian peninsula, which was known to Muslims as al-Andalus. The emirate was later upgraded to a caliphate in 929.   The Umayyad period, which lasted between 756 and 1031, came to be known as al-Andalus’s “Golden Age”. Culture, arts, and sciences flourished there in a fashion unknown to much of continental Europe. Religious tolerance was maintained under the banner of Islamic Law. Many intellectuals wrote about their experiences there, such as Maimonides and Ibn Rushd.   However, there was a darker side to Muslim rule. By the 11th century, al-Andalus started to fragment into separate kingdoms that engaged in ruthless violence towards one another. To the north, Christian kingdoms like Aragon and Castile were on the march, seeking to restore the Iberian peninsula to Christian rule. The Almohad and Almoravid caliphates proved to be poorly administered and intolerant. By the time the Reconquista was completed, few people mourned the end of al-Andalus. For centuries after the fall of Granada in 1492, scholars have debated what to make of al-Andalus’s legacy.   Demographics of Al-Andalus The ruins of a Mozarabic Church in Ardales. Source: Council of Malaga   Throughout the period of Moorish rule in Iberia, al-Andalus had a relatively consistent social structure. Muslims, especially Arab Muslims, dominated the hierarchy, since they formed the core of ʿAbd al-Raḥmān’s invasion force. Many of the soldiers in the Umayyad armies were Berber tribesmen from North Africa, who took up administrative roles in the rural frontier areas of the kingdom. Anyone who converted to Islam, known as a Muladí, was granted certain privileges but was still considered separate from the Arabs and Berbers.   Christians in al-Andalus were known as Mozarabs. They were second-class citizens, forced to pay a tax known as a jizya. However, they were granted certain legal protections, including the right to pray and speak their native language, called Mozarabic. Jews were also granted these rights, speaking Ladino and being allowed to hold certain positions in society. At the bottom of the hierarchy were slaves of the Arabs and Berbers, often people from sub-Saharan Africa.   This system held throughout the Umayyad period but it started to collapse with the Almohad period in the 12th century. The Almohads insisted that anyone under their rule had to be a practicing Muslim and they drove out anyone who did not conform to this rule in the 1140s. The chaos in the aftermath of the fall of the Umayyads undermined the social structure of the region. Additionally, the Christian conquests took more territory, depriving al-Andalus of the manpower it needed for its armies.   Culture of Al-Andalus Photograph of the Real Alcazar in Seville, including the Moorish archways. Source: Exodus Travels   Al-Andalus reached its cultural zenith during the Umayyad period. The Umayyad rulers encouraged innovation and learning in Andalusian society. For instance, Moorish farmers experimented with new types of irrigation techniques, which expanded the region’s agricultural capacity. Additionally, the Moors brought stunning architecture to the region, such as the horseshoe arch, mosaic tilework like zellij, and the honeycomb vaults in major buildings throughout the region.   By the 11th century, al-Andalus started to fracture and this had a major impact on the region’s cultural development. The Almohad expulsions of non-Muslims devastated the region’s capacity for diversity of thought. It also led to the region becoming defined by backwardness and fundamentalism. The Christian Reconquista contributed to this phenomenon by creating a siege mentality amongst the Moors. This halted the cultural innovations initiated during the Umayyad period.   Even after the collapse of Moorish rule, some of al-Andalus’s cultural accomplishments remained in place. For instance, many of the Alcázars (Moorish castles) that the Moors constructed remained intact when the Christians took over the whole peninsula. The teachings of Maimonides and Ibn Rushd resonated with later generations of Spaniards and Portuguese people. Lastly, the innovations made in agriculture, navigation, and science helped drive the rise of the Spanish and Portuguese empires.   Myths of Moorish Society 18th-century engraving depicting Maimonides, the Jewish scholar from al-Andalus. Source: Yale University Library   Notwithstanding the major achievements of the Andalusian “Golden Age”, the idea that the population lived in a utopian society is false. The Arab conquerors created a social hierarchy, as mentioned above, that prioritized themselves at the expense of the people they conquered. Even Berbers, who made up much of the conquering armies, did not enjoy the same social status as the Arabs, though they were rewarded with plots of land for their military service.   Under the system of Dhimmitude, non-Muslims had to pay a tax called the Jizya in order to be accepted in Moorish society. This was notwithstanding the fact that Christians and Jews sought to be accepted members of Andalusian society. The Almohads ended the policy but ordered most non-Muslims to be exiled instead. While some people, like Maimonides, went to North Africa, others went to the Christian kingdoms in Europe. Throughout the entire period of Moorish rule, slavery was an institutionalized practice.   For many years, scholars of Islamic history and thought characterized al-Andalus as a haven for minorities and innovation, only to be brought down by the backward, intolerant Christian kingdoms. This view has been revised by recent scholarship. The society that existed in al-Andalus was very modernized and developed for a period, but ultimately imploded on itself centuries before the completion of the Reconquista. The contradictions in Andalusian society made the realm unsustainable over time.   Why Did Al-Andalus Fall? The Capitulation of Granada by Francisco Pradilla y Ortiz, 1888. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the fall of al-Andalus is generally attributed to the successful conquests of Christian kingdoms such as Aragon and Castile, internal problems were also largely responsible. When the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba collapsed, the fragmentation of the region ensured that the Christians could acquire territory more easily. Over the centuries, Castile gradually absorbed other Christian kingdoms as al-Andalus unraveled, gaining more manpower and resources at the expense of the Moors.   In the late 12th century, the Almohads unsuccessfully attempted to stem the Christian advances. At the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, the Castilians broke Moorish control over central Spain. Almohad intolerance also encouraged many people to flee the region, contributing to a fall in population. The Moors struggled with the same problems that the Crusader Kingdoms in the Levant did: long distances from the metropoles, internal chaos, and poor governance.   The last Moorish kingdom in Iberia was the Emirate of Granada, which hugged the southern Spanish coast. By 1479, it faced a united Castile and Aragon, whose forces were poised to drive the Moors off the peninsula entirely. The Spaniards had modern artillery and more men while the Moors were still feuding amongst each other. In 1492, the Christians conquered Granada itself, marking the end of the Reconquista.