Brains and computers might have similarities in some functions‚ namely calculating and organizing stuff‚ but they are very different. And their differences are structural. Computers are not built like brains – but could they be&;#63; This idea has been around for a while and researchers have now taken an important step forward. They built a device that acts like a synapse.The central nervous system is largely made of neurons or nerve cells. These send signals between one another using synapses‚ which are junctions between neurons where the information being carried is both transmitted and processed. They are fundamental to the function of brains.Synapses do that using ions‚ electrically charged atoms or molecules‚ dissolved in water. New work shows that it is possible to create an artificial synapse that also works with water and salts. Crucial to this is a device that's only as wide as two sheets of paper‚ called an iontronic memristor.Despite the complex name‚ its shape and behavior are straightforward. It is shaped like a cone and filled with a solution of water and salts. When it receives an electrical impulse the ions in the water move‚ changing the salt concentration. This is akin to what a real brain synapse does.&;quot;While artificial synapses capable of processing complex information already exist based on solid materials‚ we now show for the first time that this feat can also be accomplished using water and salt‚&;quot; lead author Tim Kamsma‚ a graduate researcher at Utrecht University‚ said in a statement. &;quot;We are effectively replicating neuronal behaviour using a system that employs the same medium as the brain.&;quot;The ionotronic memristor was developed by South Korean scientists and a chance encounter with Kamsma led to the collaboration. Together‚ they saw the possibility of using the device as a computational synapse. This is not a functioning computer‚ but it shows that it might be possible to construct a computer-like device that not only has synapses‚ but synapses that behave just like our own do.&;quot;It represents a crucial advancement toward computers not only capable of mimicking the communication patterns of the human brain but also utilizing the same medium‚&;quot; Kamsma added. &;quot;Perhaps this will ultimately pave the way for computing systems that replicate the extraordinary capabilities of the human brain more faithfully.&;quot;The study is published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

Unfortunately‚ bird flu shows no signs of slowing down. As well as infecting scores of bird life and even showing up in milk‚ the virus has been known to spread to mammalian species‚ including bears‚ and seals. Now‚ new research reports the first case of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus in a common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) observed in Florida. The clade of 2.3.4.4b A(H5N1) viruses has been seen in common dolphins (Delphinus delphis)‚ harbor porpoises (Phocoena phocoena)‚ and an Atlantic white-sided dolphin (Lagenorhynchus acutus) in places such as Peru‚ the United Kingdom‚ Sweden‚ and Canada‚ highlighting how widespread this virus can be found in cetaceans. Some of the mammal species are suspected to have caught the virus through consuming infected birds. Examination of these carcasses and other species with the disease have shown meningoencephalitis‚ a condition involving swelling and inflammation of the area around the brain and spinal cord. This can cause unusual behaviors in the species that exhibit these symptoms prior to passing away. On March 29‚ 2022‚ a dolphin was reported to be in distress and trapped between a seawall and a dock piling near West Horseshoe Beach in Dixie County‚ Florida. The team arrived to find the dolphin had died despite attempts to free the dolphin from the channel. “We still don’t know where the dolphin got the virus and more research needs to be done‚” said Dr Richard Webby‚ who directs the World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Studies on the Ecology of Influenza in Animals and Birds at St. Jude’s‚ in a statement‚A postmortem revealed that the male dolphin was in a thin body condition‚ with an empty gastrointestinal tract and numerous lacerations to the body. On closer examination‚ the team discovered inflammation in the brain‚ in a similar manner to those previously seen in other mammal species. The presence of A(H5N1) was subsequently tested for and found in the brain tissue samples of the dolphin. Interestingly there was a low detection of HPAI in the lungs of the dolphin and the highest viral load was found in the brain tissues. This is similar to the harbor porpoise from Sweden‚ which also had meningoencephalitis. While this is worrying news‚ the presence of the virus in this species means officials and researchers can be better prepared for more cases. “Now‚ everybody’s going to be on guard for this‚” Dr Michael Walsh‚ a veterinarian at the University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine and study co-author‚ told the New York Times. “And that’ll help tell us how serious this really is for cetaceans on the coastlines.”The paper is published in the journal Communications Biology.

The idea that SARS-CoV-2‚ the virus behind COVID-19‚ may be able to persist in the body long after the initial symptoms have faded has captivated scientists‚ especially those researching long COVID. A recent study has added another piece to this puzzle by demonstrating the persistence of viral proteins in blood plasma samples for up to 14 months after the initial infection.The research team obtained samples of frozen plasma from 171 adults who had been recruited for a study back in 2020. The vast majority were people who’d been infected early in the pandemic before vaccines against COVID-19 were a thing. Their samples were compared with plasma from 250 people collected pre-2020‚ in the halcyon days before COVID-19 entered our lives (remember those&;#63;).The detection platform was set up to look for signals from three SARS-CoV-2 antigens: the S1 surface protein‚ the nucleocapsid protein‚ and the spike protein.  In total‚ 660 specimens from the pandemic group were tested‚ covering timepoints of 3-6 months‚ 6-10 months‚ and 10-14 months after their original COVID-19 infections. Of the individuals within the group‚ 25 percent had one or more detectable antigens in at least one of their samples. The most frequently detected was the spike protein‚ followed by S1 and nucleocapsid‚ which had similar frequencies to each other.Patients who had been hospitalized when they originally had COVID-19 were almost twice as likely to have antigens present. Among those who did not receive hospital treatment‚ the people who self-reported worse health were also more likely to have positive antigen detection‚ suggesting a correlation with the severity of the acute phase of COVID.Linking their results with those from another study‚ which found replication-competent virus particles – i.e. virus that could still grow and infect cells – in the blood of a woman who had recently died from COVID‚ the authors write that their “findings suggest that SARS-CoV-2 might seed distal sites through the bloodstream and establish protected reservoirs in some sites.”Alternatively‚ they suggest‚ it could be that those with more severe infections got a heftier dose of virus in the first place‚ meaning there was more of it around to potentially evade the immune system for longer.&;quot;The thing that I find so compelling about the data in this study is that there is a pretty striking relationship between how sick people were during their acute COVID infection and how likely they were to have evidence of antigen persistence‚&;quot; first author Dr Michael Peluso told Psychology Today. &;quot;To a clinician like me‚ that is very convincing‚ because intuitively‚ it makes sense that people who perhaps have a higher burden of virus upfront would be more likely to have a virus that sticks around.&;quot;In an appendix to their work‚ the authors detail several limitations of the study. Since the majority of the patients were infected before we had vaccines and antiviral treatments for the virus‚ it’s unclear whether these same results would be seen in people who caught COVID later on. It’s also possible some of the participants got reinfected with COVID without knowing‚ meaning that some of the antigen signals could be from later infections.However‚ the question of whether persistent SARS-CoV-2 may be related to either long COVID or complications later down the line remains an important one.“[O]ur data provide strong evidence that SARS-CoV-2‚ in some form or location‚ persists for up to 14 months following acute SARS-CoV-2 infection‚” the authors conclude. “This persistence is influenced by the events of acute infection. These findings motivate an urgent research agenda regarding the clinical manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 persistence‚ specifically whether it is causally related to either post-acute chronic symptoms [...] or discrete incident complications.”The study is published in The Lancet Infectious Diseases.

Pluto is a reasonably difficult object to study‚ lying beyond the orbit of Neptune (for the majority of its orbit) in the Kuiper Belt. Beyond sending a probe to the planet (which NASA did in 2015) we largely rely on stellar occultations to study the dwarf planet's atmosphere‚ when it passes in front of a bright star from our perspective.&;quot;For objects with an atmosphere‚ refraction plays an essential role to explain the drops of flux and the aureoles observed during these events‚&;quot; astronomer Bruno Sicardy explains in a 2022 paper published in Comptes Rendus Physique. &;quot;This can be used to [derive] key parameters of the atmospheres‚ such as their density‚ pressure and temperature profiles‚ as well as the presence of atmospheric gravity waves and zonal winds.&;quot;Pluto has an orbit lasting 248 years‚ meaning that it didn't even get to celebrate one Pluto year of being a planet from its discovery before it was downgraded in 2006.                                 As it orbits‚ its distance varies from between 49.3 astronomical units (AU) and 30 AU‚ with 1 AU being the average distance between the Earth and the Sun. At its farthest point from the Sun‚ average temperatures can fall as low as -233°C (-387°F)‚ while at its closest approach it can reach a balmy -223°C (-369°F). This temperature change‚ of course‚ has an effect on the planet's atmosphere.&;quot;When Pluto is close to the Sun‚ its surface ices sublimate (changing directly from solid to gas) and rise to temporarily form a thin atmosphere‚&;quot; NASA explains. &;quot;Pluto's low gravity (about 6 percent of Earth's) causes the atmosphere to be much more extended in altitude than our planet's atmosphere. Pluto becomes much colder during the part of each year when it is traveling far away from the Sun. During this time‚ the bulk of the planet's atmosphere may freeze and fall as snow to the surface.&;quot;That has been known about for some time. Since Pluto made its closest approach to the Sun‚ being closer to the Sun than Neptune between 1979 and 1999‚ it has been moving away from our Solar System's main heat source‚ and as such we would expect its atmosphere to begin to contract. However‚ until 2018 observations showed that its surface pressure and atmospheric density continued to increase‚ which scientists put down to &;quot;thermal inertia&;quot;.“An analogy to this is the way the Sun heats up sand on a beach‚” said Southwest Research Institute Staff Scientist Dr. Leslie Young in a 2021 statement. “Sunlight is most intense at high noon‚ but the sand then continues soaking up the heat over course of the afternoon‚ so it is hottest in late afternoon. The continued persistence of Pluto’s atmosphere suggests that nitrogen ice reservoirs on Pluto’s surface were kept warm by stored heat under the surface. The new data suggests they are starting to cool.”A 2020 occultation provided further evidence of this contraction of Pluto's atmosphere‚ evidence that Pluto's nitrogen continues to be sublimated on the dwarf planet as it loses its stored-up heat‚ and heads towards the Plutonian winter.

That Tyrannosaurus rex might have been as intelligent as a baboon was posited by a 2023 study that used bony braincases to infer dinosaur smarts. It was an incredible and intimidating concept for a predator‚ but one that’s now been rebutted by a paper that claims in truth‚ T. rex was more comparable to a “smart giant crocodile”.A new study authored by an international team of 11 scientists took a magnifying glass to the methods used to predict the size and neuron count in dinosaur brains in the 2023 study from Herculano-Houzel. It found the methodology was unreliable‚ resulting in an incorrect estimation of neuron count and brain size‚ and shining a light on the complexity of endocast translation. &;quot;An endocast is simply a cast of the inner cavity of the braincase‚&;quot; explained study author Dr Kai Caspar to IFLScience. &;quot;It is therefore not equivalent to the brain itself. &;quot;&;quot;The information provided by an endocast differs between groups of animals and depends on how faithfully it captures the shape of the brain. In birds and mammals‚ the fit is typically very good. In living reptiles and most extinct dinosaurs‚ the brain only fills a fraction of the skull cavity‚ so that the shape and size of the endocast differs substantially from that of the actual brain.&;quot;A cast of a Tyrannosaurus rex braincase at the Australian Museum‚ Sydney.Image credit: Matt Martyniuk (Dinoguy2) - Own work‚ CC BY-SA 4.0‚ via WikimediaFurthermore‚ it’s the authors' view that neuron count alone isn’t enough data to work from when trying to infer the intelligence of an extinct animal. What evidence do you need to evaluate intelligence&;#63; We asked Caspar just that.&;quot;Ideally‚ the extinct animal in question would have close living relatives to compare it‚ too – something that is unfortunately missing for dinosaurs such as T. rex. Furthermore‚ anatomical data on the size but especially the proportions of the brain and its components‚ which can be derived from endocasts would be desirable.&;quot; I think it's absolutely reasonable to imagine a dinosaur like T. rex as social with long-term bonds (as in‚ with family members and with reproductive partners).Dr Darren Naish&;quot;Then‚ evidence from fossil trackways or feeding traces might shed further light on specific behaviors and social habits. Frustratingly‚ however‚ we simply need to admit that a lot of information about how exactly extinct animals behaved is lost to us.&;quot;The study presents revised estimates of encephalization (the development of large brain size relative to body size) and neuron counts in dinosaurs‚ using modeling informed by extant related species and an amended set of brain cavity measurements. These new estimates didn't paint a picture of intelligence to match macaques and baboons as proposed in Herculano-Houzel's work‚ instead being closer to a crocodile or lizard‚ which is still pretty incredible.                               “One of the things we really tried to make clear in our results is that being 'only' as smart as a lizard or crocodile is no bad thing in view of what we currently understand about the intelligence and behaviour of those animals‚” Dr Darren Naish told IFLScience. “By combining what we know of modern reptile behaviour with inferences from the fossil record‚ I think it's absolutely reasonable to imagine a dinosaur like T. rex as social with long-term bonds (as in‚ with family members and with reproductive partners)‚ as a co-operative animal that would have worked with other individuals of its species when it was advantageous‚ as an explorative‚ sometimes inquisitive animal‚ as capable of play and counting‚ and as a creature with complex body language and vocalisation that it used in sending signals.”T. rex lived at the end of the Late Cretaceous between 69 and 66 million years ago‚ and – regretfully – science hasn’t given us a real-life Jurassic Park just yet. Without it‚ we’re left with an incomplete fossil record to work from when trying to establish how extinct animals lived and behaved‚ so there’s bound to be some back and forth in our conclusions (just ask Spinosaurus). It’s all par for the course in palaeontology‚ and part of the joy of science‚ but as time goes by – and with close consideration of our methodology – there are plenty of new and remarkable discoveries on the horizon.                              “Our knowledge of the geological past is woefully incomplete‚ but things are improving all the time as new information is gleaned and new analyses are run: even at this point in history there is‚ frankly‚ still so much work to do and so much that remains poorly known or under-studied‚” added Naish. “Our vision of the past is constantly becoming more complex‚ more vibrant. But it's also important to remember that our view of the past is often biased‚ partly because we're still relying on stereotypes about the past‚ or because we often can't help but think that living things in the past were 'less good' than those of today.” “We now have a reason to challenge that view‚ and‚ in fact‚ there's quite a bit of data showing that extinct animals were often at least as capable of those of today‚ if not more so.”So‚ chin up‚ T. rex. Who needs to be a brainy baboon when you can be a terrible lizard&;#63;The study is published in The Anatomical Record.

Another day‚ another incredibly stupid conspiracy theory resurfaces on the Internet. According to various – for want of a better word – numbskulls‚ the Solar System has a second sun‚ hiding behind our real Sun.In the latest iteration of the conspiracy theory‚ posted to the Facebook group &;quot;Nibiru Followers Anonymous&;quot;‚ their evidence appears to be a haze of light sometimes seen around the Sun. In reality‚ these are the result of atmospheric phenomena known as &;quot;sun halos&;quot;.&;quot;A halo is a ring or light that forms around the Sun or Moon as the Sun or Moon light refracts off ice crystals present in a thin veil of cirrus clouds‚&;quot; the National Weather Service explains. &;quot;The halo is usually seen as a bright‚ white ring although sometimes it can have color.&;quot;As inane as the conspiracy theory is (think for a second why anybody would want to conceal the existence of a second sun)‚ there are stupider iterations. In 2016‚ astronomer Paul Cox was livestreaming a transit of Mercury across the Sun when an orb appeared on screen‚ likely an optical error.“You may be asking yourself‚ what is that large round thing to the right of the Sun&;#63; Well‚ that’s our second sun. I don’t know if you knew that we had a second sun‚&;quot; Cox said. “But there it is. It is normally hidden from view. NASA and other organisations usually hide that stuff away from us.”               Though a dry joke‚ it was leapt on by conspiracy theorists as proof of the second sun's existence. If we did have a second sun‚ you would know about it. Astronomers have studied the orbits of the planets for hundreds of years‚ and have built up a model of it. Slight disturbances in their orbits are noticed and have been used to discover other planets that are influencing their orbits through their gravity. We are simply not missing an object with the mass of a star within our Solar System.Unlike the Moon‚ which is tidally locked to Earth‚ the Sun rotates every 27 days‚ meaning we see the whole of it over the course of a month. A second sun would have to orbit the actual real Sun at precisely the right speed that it is never visible from Earth as it orbits‚ and even then spacecraft sent out into the Solar System would have seen it from their different vantage points. And they haven't‚ because there isn't one.[H/T: Fraudulent Astronomy Wall of Shame]

The construction of a ballcourt in the ancient Maya city of Yaxnohcah was probably consecrated with a ritual involving chilli peppers and hallucinogenic morning glory seeds‚ new research has revealed. Despite decomposing centuries ago‚ this ceremonial offering has been identified within a layer of sediment beneath the court using environmental DNA analysis.As in modern Western culture‚ ball games were a big deal in the Maya realm‚ and arenas were often built close to the most important temples. Games like pok-a-tok‚ in which players attempted to get a ball through a stone hoop‚ and pelota – which is still played by Indigenous groups in Mexico and Central America today – were not only recreational‚ but also politically and spiritually significant.While excavating Yaxnohcah‚ archaeologists came across a platform that was originally used as a base for domestic structures before later being converted into a ballcourt. Beneath the platform‚ the researchers discovered traces of genetic material belonging to four medicinal plants‚ which were probably buried in order to bless the playing field.Ballcourts feature prominently at ancient Maya sites.Image credit: Chris Carpineti“When [the ancient Maya] erected a new building‚ they asked the goodwill of the gods to protect the people inhabiting it‚” explained study author Professor David Lentz in a statement. “Some people call it an ‘ensouling ritual‚’ to get a blessing from and appease the gods‚” he says‚ although others refer to the practice as a “fix earth” ritual.“The nearest analogy today might be like christening a new ship‚” added Lentz.And while plants were often included in these sacrificial offerings‚ finding such a bundle has previously proved impossible as the material itself has long since rotted away. However‚ using special probes that are particularly sensitive to local species‚ the study authors were able to detect fragments of DNA belonging to four plants in the surrounding sediment.Of these‚ the most intriguing is a type of morning glory known locally as xtabentun‚ the seeds of which contain psychedelic compounds with a similar structure to LSD. Today‚ honey collected from bees that feed on xtabentun pollen is used to brew mead in southern Mexico‚ while ancient Aztec priests ingested the plant – which they called coaxihuitl‚ meaning &;quot;snake plant&;quot; – to commune with the gods.Written sources suggest that the plant was probably utilized by the ancient Maya “for ritual intoxication and divination”‚ although until now‚ no archaeological evidence for the use of xtabentun had ever been found within a Maya context.Chilli pepper DNA was also detected‚ suggesting that this plant – which was used medicinally and for “shamanic divination” – was present in the ceremonial bundle. Far from a mere spice‚ chillis are considered highly curative within Maya tradition‚ and continue to be used as treatments for “tuberculosis‚ delayed parturition‚ diarrhea‚ blood in the stool or urine‚ earache‚ hemorrhoids‚ skin sores‚ arthritis‚ and asthma‚” the authors explain.Within their environmental DNA sample‚ the researchers also identified a type of medicinal lancewood and the leaves of a tree known as jool‚ the latter of which may have been used to wrap the ceremonial bundle.“Because of its hallucinogenic properties‚ the xtabentun find suggests that the purpose of this unusual collection may have been connected with divination‚” write the study authors.“An even stronger possibility‚ however‚ was that this was part of an ensouling or fix earth ritual designed to propitiate the gods in a way that would ensure their blessings in subsequent activities associated with the newly constructed ceremonial ballcourt space‚” they add.The study is published in the journal PLOS ONE.

Astronomers have discovered a complex molecule in a star-forming region known as the Cat’s Paw Nebula. The molecule in question is 2-methoxyethanol which on Earth is a pretty toxic chemical solvent‚ dangerous to health even in small doses. But in space‚ it might be crucial to the formation of stars and planets.It is among the largest molecules ever discovered in interstellar space. It has 13 atoms – three carbon‚ eight hydrogen‚ and two oxygen. Only six other chemical species detected outside the solar system have more atoms than that. Many different molecules have been found in this nebula‚ suggesting that the complex chemistry at play might be important in the birth of new stars.Finding the molecule was far from easy. Researchers can observe the signs of molecules by studying the light of gas clouds. Molecules in space absorb some stray starlight and they begin to rotate thanks to the energy they get from the light. So molecules have a spectral signature‚ like a barcode‚ that allows them to be recognized – but only if you have studied them in the lab first.Researchers used a machine learning model to work out what would be a good molecule to hunt for‚ and 2-methoxyethanol came out as a good target. The international team studied what this molecule's signature would be like in the lab and then used the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) to look at two star-forming regions. They found that signature in a protocluster in the Cat’s Paw Nebula‚ NGC 6334I. The number of lines found allowed them to feel confident that this was truly a detection.&;quot;Ultimately‚ we observed 25 rotational lines of 2-methoxyethanol that lined up with the molecular signal observed toward NGC 6334I (the barcode matched&;#33;)‚ thus resulting in a secure detection of 2-methoxyethanol in this source‚&;quot; lead author Zachary T.P. Fried‚ a graduate researcher from MIT‚ said in a statement. &;quot;This allowed us to then derive physical parameters of the molecule toward NGC 6334I‚ such as its abundance and excitation temperature. It also enabled an investigation of the possible chemical formation pathways from known interstellar precursors.&;quot;&;quot;There are a number of 'methoxy' molecules in space‚ like dimethyl ether‚ methoxymethanol‚ ethyl methyl ether‚ and methyl formate‚ but 2-methoxyethanol would be the largest and most complex ever seen‚&;quot; added Fried.The team proposed different mechanisms for how this molecule might form in deep space. Interstellar space has some intriguing molecules‚ some of which are important precursors to the chemistry of life. Even toxic substances like 2-methoxyethanol can provide insights into how we came to be.&;quot;Continued observations of large molecules and subsequent derivations of their abundances allows us to advance our knowledge of how efficiently large molecules can form and by which specific reactions they may be produced‚&;quot; added Fried.&;quot;Additionally‚ since we detected this molecule in NGC 6334I but not in IRAS 16293-2422B‚ we were presented with a unique opportunity to look into how the differing physical conditions of these two sources may be affecting the chemistry that can occur.&;quot;A paper describing the discovery is published in The Astrophysical Journal Letters.

Alpacas have weird sex lives: they are the only mammal we know of in which the penis enters the uterus to directly deposit sperm. It’s a reproductive strategy that’s never been confirmed in any other mammal before‚ and new research suggests it may help the kinky camelids’ chances of pregnancy.Alpacas (Vicugna pacos) – not to be confused with llamas – have long been suspected of mating like this‚ which would make them unique among mammals‚ but until now there has only been circumstantial evidence that this is the case.Mating in the animal kingdom can be pretty weird‚ and often difficult‚ meaning there are a multitude of strategies used by different species to maximize their chances of success. In most mammals‚ the penis is inserted into the vagina and insemination occurs in the cranial vagina or fornix. But for some‚ known as intrauterine inseminators‚ insemination happens in the uterus. Species thought to do this include horses‚ mice‚ rats‚ and ferrets. Alpacas‚ however‚ were believed to be unique in that they have intrauterine insemination and intrauterine penile intromission – meaning that the penis is inserted into the uterus itself where it directly deposits sperm.To find out if this was really the case‚ researchers examined the reproductive systems of 10 female alpacas culled for meat either one hour or 24 hours after mating. They found evidence of “conspicuous bleeding” along the reproductive tracts‚ including the hymen‚ cervix‚ and tips of the uterine horns‚ which was not present in alpacas that had not recently mated.This‚ they have taken as evidence that male alpacas thrust their penises through the females’ entire reproductive tracts‚ penetrating to the very tips of the uterine horns‚ and in doing so causing abrasions and breaking fine blood vessels.Sperm were then deposited at the uterine papillae of the oviduct entrance‚ the study authors write‚ and from there were able to enter the oviducts within just one hour of mating.These conclusions are supported by the alpaca’s unusual penis morphology: males have a long‚ thin‚ and fibro-elastic phallus with a hard cartilage tip‚ which is likely responsible for the abrasion the team documented.It may seem a bizarre method of reproduction – and the researchers don’t refute that – but it could have evolutionary benefits for the curious camelids. “A peculiar copulatory mode in alpaca may improve the odds of successful fertilization and pregnancy‚” the team conclude. “The fact that the entire reproductive tract in alpaca is essentially functioning as a vagina during copulation likely has some immunological consequences worth further investigation.”They add that the inflammation caused by the internal wounds may help the fertilized egg implant in the uterus walls or could help to induce ovulation.  Whatever the reason‚ alpacas’ strange sexual habits are a mammalian anomaly (at least for now) – but there are plenty of other examples of quirky copulation out there‚ from bats reproducing without penetration because of their seven-times-too-big dongs to sloths screaming in D sharp.The study is published in the journal PLOS ONE.

Two preprint papers from a large team of experimenters report that they failed to find the long-sought magnetic monopoles‚ north or south magnetic poles without partners – but they also claim to be getting close‚ narrowing the window of where they might be found. The preprints‚ which are yet to pass peer review‚ even tested the idea we might have made magnetic monopoles years ago and failed to check equipment where they might have survived.One of the first lessons in physics most of us get is that magnets always have two opposite poles‚ which we call north and south. Slice a bar magnet in two and new poles will appear near the break so that each smaller magnet continues to have one of each pole. Given a sufficiently brittle magnet‚ this is something you can test yourself. While you’re at it‚ why not check more recent claims about magnets and ponder the trustworthiness of the source. Yet‚ since the 19th century‚ scientists have wondered whether there was a way a single magnetic pole (known as a monopole) could exist in isolation from its counterpart. After all‚ positive and negative electric charges don’t need their opposite to be present. James Clerk Maxwell‚ one of the founders of magnetic theory‚ thought he had killed off the idea for good‚ but decades later Paul Dirac brought it back‚  showing monopoles’ existence could explain why electric charge is quantized. If so‚ magnetic charge should also be quantized‚ made of building blocks of 2Ï€/e‚ known as the Dirac charge‚ equal to 68.5 times the charge on the electron. Theoreticians have grown increasingly confident about the idea ever since‚ but experimentalists have not been able to find the proof.Indeed‚ the theory of monopoles is so developed that physicists now overwhelmingly agree they probably exist. We’ve even seen signs of them in circumstances very different from the ones CERN is chasing‚ but confirmation of subatomic magnetic monopoles remains elusive.Most theories of magnetic monopoles require them to not violate laws of symmetry. Consequently‚ there could not be an excess of north or south poles in the universe – there must be equal numbers of both‚ but unlike known magnetic poles they don’t need to be attached.The MoEDAL experiment at the Large Hadron Collider‚ but according to one theory the magnetic monopoles it seeks could have been left behind in an abandoned beamlineImage Credit: CERNThe Monopole and Exotics Detector (MoEDAL) collaboration has been using Large Hadron Collider (LHC) particle annihilations in the quest to find magnetic monopoles since 2012.There are multiple paths by which it is thought monopoles might be made. In one recent study‚ MoEDAL scientists sought signs of monopole production from virtual photons. Another idea that sounds like fantasy to non-scientists‚ but is essential to our models of physics‚ virtual photons carry the electromagnetic force between two charge carriers‚ but do not exist as free particles.Virtual photons can be created by smashing particles together at high speeds‚ among other methods. Theoretical physicists have proposed two ways these could then produce magnetic monopoles. One involves the fusion of two virtual photons‚ the other‚ known as the Drell-Yan process‚ would manage to produce a monopole from a single virtual photon.Although we might expect the best way to find a magnetic monopole is through its magnetic field‚ that’s not necessarily the case. One of the essential features of theoretical monopoles is that they carry a great deal of charge. The discovery of such a High Electric Charge Object (HECO) would indicate the existence of physics outside the standard model. More specifically‚ it would be a big clue to lurking monopoles‚ although other exotic objects such as microscopic black hole remnants might also be responsible.&;quot;MoEDAL's search reach for both monopoles and HECOs allows the collaboration to survey a huge swathe of the theoretical 'discovery space' for these hypothetical particles‚&;quot; MoEDAL spokesperson James Pinfold said in a statement.In the first preprint‚ members of the MoEDAL team place lower limits on the mass a monopole might have‚ which they write are “by far the strongest published to date.” In doing so‚ they claim to have exceeded the much larger ATLAS experiment that used the LHC for the same purpose.The second preprint describes a different monopole search‚ which looks for those created by the theoretical Schwinger mechanism when ions of heavy elements were smashed together during the LHC’s first run. The Schwinger mechanism proposes that sufficiently strong electric or magnetic fields could create particles out of a vacuum. “If monopoles are composite particles‚ this and our previous Schwinger-monopole search may have been the first-ever chances to observe them‚” Pinfold said.The search tested the idea that monopoles may have been created during the run and landed up trapped and overlooked in a decommissioned section of the collider ever since. None were found‚ but in the process the authors were able to conclude it takes a lot of energy to make a magnetic monopole‚ stating with 95 percent confidence they must have masses of more than 80 billion electron volts.This won’t surprise many theoretical physicists. Magnetic monopoles are key to a number of attempts at Grand Unified Theories that seek to unite quantum mechanics with gravity. These tend to predict very large masses‚ of the order of trillions of electron volts‚ and require minimum charges two or three times the Dirac charge.Both preprints are available on arXiv.org‚ here and here.