Space might be the final frontier but when it comes to food‚ life in microgravity still leaves a lot to be desired – and it seems that it has been like that from the very beginning. The first meal in space was eaten by Yuri Gagarin on humanity's first-ever trip in orbit. What did he eat&;#63; Well‚ it was certainly a choice.In 1961‚ cosmonaut Gagarin became the first human in space‚ completing a single orbit of Earth in 108 minutes. Gagarin’s Vostok 1 space capsule was stacked with 13 days’ worth of provisions just in case the retrorocket failed and he had to wait for the natural orbital decay to come back down to Earth but this was a good chance to test eating in space. Despite tests carried out on the  &;quot;Vomit Comet&;quot; back on Earth‚ scientists didn't know for sure if basic functions like chewing and swallowing could be carried out in microgravity. One vital consideration was “no crumbs” so the solution was food items that could be made into a paste and placed in a metal toothpaste-style tube.Despite being in orbit for less than two hours‚ Gagarin actually had two courses. The main course was beef and liver puree. Gagarin ate two tubes of it – maybe it was more appetizing than it sounds – and then he had a tube of chocolate sauce for dessert.Because scientists didn’t know at the time the effect of microgravity on humans‚ they didn’t want to risk Gagarin losing consciousness so the capsule was controlled from the ground with a code to switch to manual control in case of emergency. This included if digestion went wrong‚ but with the first meal in orbit‚ Gagarin proved it was OK to eat in space.What became clear‚ as more and more astronauts went into space and stayed there for longer‚ is that our sense of taste can change once in microgravity. Bodily fluids shift towards your head and studies have shown that this may lead to an attenuation of the olfactory components in the flavor of food‚ a bit like eating with a cold.Since the days of Gagarin‚ there have been changes and improvements to what astronauts and cosmonauts eat and drink in orbit. Gone are the days of &;quot;freeze-dried astronaut ice cream&;quot;. Not only can astronauts have pizza delivered to the International Space Station (ISS) but they can bake cookies on the ISS‚ too. You can even grab an espresso thanks to a bespoke cup to drink it in microgravity.Scientists have even bravely tested if it's possible to fry food in microgravity. Tests were carefully conducted using a special fryer on a parabolic plane simulating weightlessness and showed that it is perfectly possible to deep fry things in microgravity – with the right kit (do not try this at home).However‚ the &;quot;no crumbs&;quot; rule is still proving a hard challenge to beat and one thing that has not been solved yet is bread: wraps‚ pittas‚ rotis‚ and bread that doesn’t have crumbs are A-OK in space but if you're holding out for a space sandwich‚ we've still got a way to go.

Three years after evidence emerged that the quasi-moon known as Kamo’oalewa is formed from a chunk of Earth’s one true Moon‚ we may know just where it comes from. Besides showing the rapid progress in knowledge about the exceptionally recent field of quasi-moons‚ the discovery honors a scientist who believed in the plurality of worlds.Until recently‚ the inner Solar System was thought to be a pretty lonely place‚ with just three moons between four planets‚ plus a few asteroids with orbits closer than the main belt. However‚ a by-product of the search for objects that could pose a threat to Earth is the discovery of so-called quasi-moons. These objects orbit the Sun on the same timeline as the planet‚ causing them to stay close for years‚ before shifting to horseshoe-shaped orbits. The first of these‚ a quasi-moon of Venus‚ achieved some fame thanks to the delightful way in which it got named Zoozve.In the process‚ we have learned that Earth has a few quasi-moons of its own. They’re all small – some the size of elephants. The largest we’ve found is Kamo’oalewa‚ which is about the length of two blue whales (oh you want a less zoological measurement&;#63; – try about 60 meters‚ 200 feet‚ tops). A quasi-satellite doesn’t exactly translate as a second Moon‚ but on the asteroid-to-moon spectrum‚ Kamo’oalewa is more towards the moon end‚ and maybe deserves the title. Five years after its discovery‚ Kamo’oalewa’s spectrum was analyzed and found to look a lot like that of some lunar rocks‚ but nothing like any known asteroid.The idea that Kamo’oalewa might have been knocked off the Moon in an asteroid strike gained credibility from the fact that its orbit is more stable than the other quasi-moons‚ and has a much lower velocity compared to the Earth-Moon system‚ as would be expected of something with nearby origins. Modeling last year of the required conditions to make an object like this showed the idea to be plausible. Still‚ there are a lot of impact craters on the Moon. Identifying the one that gave birth to Kamo’oalewa seems like a fool’s errand‚ but that is what a new paper claims to have done.Although Kamo’oalewa is fairly small‚ the crater from which it came would have to be much larger – at least 10-20 kilometers (6-12 miles) across‚ the authors calculate. Moreover‚ it’s likely to be relatively young. Kamo’oalewa’s orbit may be stable by the standards of quasi-satellites‚ but it’s unlikely to survive for hundreds of millions of years given the tug of planets’ gravity and the possibility of a collision with some other object.That makes for a short list of possibilities‚ and the authors think the crater Giordano Bruno is the most likely candidate. It’s 22 kilometers (14 miles) wide‚ and thought to be between 1 and 10 million years old‚The spectrum collected from Kamo’oalewa most closely matches the samples brought back by the Apollo 14 mission‚ as well as those collected by the Soviet Luna 24 lander‚ and some meteorites knocked off the Moon.We’re going to need a more detailed analysis of Kamo’oalewa‚ probably by landing there‚ to be sure of the match. Giordano Bruno has attracted the authors’ suspicions because it is thought to be the youngest lunar crater of suitable size‚ but there are others‚ such as the much more famous Tycho crater‚ that might be young enough. If the authors are right‚ quite a few other objects of similar size would have been ejected when a 1.6-kilometer (1-mile) wide object hit the Moon and created the Giordano Bruno crater. Most would since have hit the Earth‚ or been ejected from the Solar System‚ but there could be other survivors to look out for.“Asteroids tens of metres in size have never been explored by space missions and thus are among the least understood small bodies‚ even though they represent the most frequent [near-Earth asteroid] hazard and could be the most accessible space resources‚” the authors note. The planned Tianwen-2 mission to Kamo’oalewa next year could change all that‚ and provide us with a comparison of how material evolves on and off the Moon.Not having any samples of Giordano Bruno‚ we can’t measure its age precisely. However‚ its steep walls and prominent surrounding rays speak to a recent birth‚ as does how few smaller craters have appeared on top. The crater achieved some fame when its creation was proposed to be the cause of the events described by medieval monks‚ but the idea it’s as young as that is now largely discredited. The crater is named after the philosopher burned for heresy after proposing the stars had planets of their own‚ although the execution probably had other motivations.The study is published in Nature Astronomy.

The changes that our species is making to the planet are deeper than initially thought. Not only are the impacts of human activity changing the surface and climate of the Earth‚ but new research suggests that we have also changed the deep subsurface‚ a zone located hundreds of meters to several kilometers beneath where we stand.A team of researchers looked at the extraction of fossil fuels‚ such as oil and gas‚ and their replacement underground using salt water. That is done to maintain the pressure in the reservoir. There’s often water already present in these reservoirs – water that has been untouched for millions of years. Adding new water changes the composition as well as how it moves in the subsurface.There is also hydraulic fracturing‚ also known as fracking. This is a technique to extract oil and gas‚ not from reservoirs‚ but from deep rock formations. Breaking the rocks has led to quakes in regions that are not seismically active‚ but also introduces water and bacteria to different underground environments.In general‚ the data shows that the motion of fluids in the subsurface is much higher under human activity than compared to natural circulation. While this fact is significant‚ it is currently unclear what the consequences of these changes might be.&;quot;We looked at how the rates of fluid production with oil and gas compare to natural background circulation of water and showed how humans have made a big impact on the circulation of fluids in the subsurface‚&;quot; senior study author Professor Jennifer McIntosh from the University of Arizona said in a statement.&;quot;The deep subsurface is out of sight and out of mind for most people‚ and we thought it was important to provide some context to these proposed activities‚ especially when it comes to our environmental impacts‚&;quot; added lead study author Professor Grant Ferguson.The many unknowns about the subsurface lead to concern when it comes to possible solutions to the climate crisis. Some carbon storage solutions aim to bury carbon dioxide from the atmosphere deep underground. The extraction of lithium for batteries is also dependent on extraction methods that require a lot of water to be injected into the subsurface. Then the use of geothermal energy as a carbon-free source of electricity might also affect the subsurface. It is important to understand what is going on under us.&;quot;We need to use the deep subsurface as part of the solution for the climate crisis‚&;quot; McIntosh said. &;quot;Yet‚ we know more about the surface of Mars than we do about water‚ rocks and life deep beneath our feet.&;quot;A paper describing the work and the current uncertainties is published in the journal Earth’s Future.

There’s a family of new COVID-19 variants in town‚ and at least one of them looks set to begin jostling for position at the top of the transmission stakes. They’ve been nicknamed the FLiRT variants‚ for reasons that will soon become clear. Here’s what we know about them so far.If you’re thinking it’s been a long time since we had a new Greek letter COVID variant‚ you’re not wrong. The reason for that is pretty much all the variants currently circulating – as you can see in the latest data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) – are derived from the Omicron lineage‚ albeit quite distantly by now.These latest variants to join the party are derivatives of JN.1‚ the variant that rose to global dominance at the start of this year and continues to account for a large proportion of cases.  As physician-scientist Eric Topol of The Scripps Research Institute explained in a recent edition of his newsletter‚ Ground Truths‚ the new variants have picked up mutations in their spike proteins. In one location‚ an amino acid labeled “F” was switched for one labeled “L”; in another‚ an “R” was swapped for a “T”. Put those letters together (with the judicious addition of an “i”) and you get FLiRT.One of the FLiRT family‚ called the KP.2 variant‚ seems to be leading the pack at this point. CDC modeling suggests it could now be responsible for almost a quarter of infections. But is it anything to be concerned about&;#63;Topol told Time that he’s not expecting a huge wave of infections from this variant: “It might be a ‘wavelet.’” Some early data from researchers in Japan‚ which has been posted to preprint server bioRxiv and is yet to be peer-reviewed‚ supports this. The authors wrote that “the infectivity of KP.2 is significantly (10.5-fold) lower than that of JN.1‚” based on experiments in which they tried to infect cells with pseudoviruses‚ particles of other viruses that had been modified to carry the different COVID spike proteins. Despite this decreased infectivity‚ however‚ the study authors also found that KP.2 was able to spread more easily than JN.1‚ and may also be more resistant to immune responses from vaccines and prior infections. Again‚ this data has not yet been published in a peer-reviewed journal. But it’s still something health authorities will want to keep a close eye on‚ especially because it’s probably been a while since most people had a COVID-19 booster – if they bothered to get one at all. The World Health Organization released a statement recently‚ recommending that future COVID-19 vaccine formulations specifically target JN.1 and its derivatives. They accept that “the timing‚ specific mutations and antigenic characteristics‚ and the potential public health impact of newly emerged (e.g. KP.2) and future variants remain unknown‚” but based on the current data they believe that setting our sights on JN.1 is the best bet.But vaccines only work if people take them. Just this week‚ a new study published in Nature Medicine reports that trust in vaccines remains a mixed picture in the wake of this pandemic.“While we are concerned about the evident fallout of the pandemic on large numbers of people‚ we still see a general openness to immunization that we must build on to boost vaccine confidence‚ including acceptance of new generations of COVID-19 vaccines and boosters‚” senior author Ayman El-Mohandes said in a statement. “We must design targeted messages from trusted communicators to encourage vaccine uptake.”[H/T: Time] 

Contrary to the popular stereotype‚ stoners aren’t lazy layabouts. At least‚ that’s the conclusion of a new study‚ which found that chronic cannabis users don’t appear to experience any reduction in motivation or willingness to exert effort as a result of their consumption.The researchers recruited 260 weed smokers from Reddit‚ all of whom said they got high at least three times a week for recreational rather than medical reasons. Through a smartphone app‚ participants received five questionnaires a day for seven days‚ asking them about whether they were stoned and testing their motivation levels.“There is a stereotype that chronic cannabis users are somehow lazy or unproductive‚” said study author Michael Inzlicht in a statement. “We found that’s not the case – their behaviours might change a bit in the moment while they’re high‚ but our evidence shows they are not lazy or lacking motivation at all.”As part of the assessment‚ participants were repeatedly asked to choose between an easy number-sorting task in exchange for a small amount of compensation‚ or a more difficult mathematical challenge for a higher reward. Overall‚ the chronic cannabis users chose the harder task at about the same rate when they were high as they did when they weren’t high.Based on this observation‚ the study authors write that “when chronic users got high‚ they were no more amotivated‚ no less motivated for extrinsic or intrinsic reasons‚ and no less willing to objectively push themselves.” Even more surprisingly‚ results showed that those with more extreme levels of cannabis use were often more up for a challenge than more moderate users.“Again‚ countering the stereotype of the lazy stoner‚ people who get high multiple times per day are not less motivated than those who get high multiple times per week‚” note the researchers. “In fact‚ in some instances‚ they are more motivated.”Overall‚ results indicated that chronic cannabis users tend to consume the drug for the simple reason that it feels good and is “associated with a host of increased positive emotions such as awe‚ inspiration‚ and gratitude‚ as well as reduced stress and fear.” “Interestingly‚ getting high was not associated with increased suspicion/paranoia among chronic users‚ contrary to popular depictions and even medical symptom lists‚” continue the study authors. On top of this‚ the researchers say they were surprised to find no evidence for a “weed hangover”‚ with users displaying no signs of altered emotions or motivation the day after getting stoned.On the flip-side‚ results showed that regular cannabis use does impede conscientiousness‚ as getting high appears to make people more impulsive‚ less organized‚ more willing to lie‚ and less willing to follow rules. “These things can detract someone from getting stuff done‚ but we didn’t find it made them less hard-working‚ responsible or able to focus‚” says Inzlicht. The study is published in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science.

Many of us are being exposed to chemicals linked to an increased risk of cancer‚ and a new study has found that they can be absorbed through our skin. The ironic part&;#63; They were originally intended to help save our lives.Protecting our household items from bursting into flames seems like a no-brainer‚ right&;#63; This is why‚ for decades now‚ manufacturers have added a type of chemical compound called polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) to things like upholstery‚ plastics‚ electronics‚ and other everyday objects to act as a flame retardant.But in a cruel twist of fate‚ it turns out that these PBDEs – long known to be associated with various negative health effects – can be absorbed so easily through the skin via contact with microplastics that they turn up in the blood within 24 hours. “This is the first experimental evidence to show that certain additive chemicals linked with so many diseases – including cancer‚ endocrine disruption and reproductive problems – enter the human body from dermal exposure to microplastics‚” said Dr Ovokeroye Abafe‚ now a lecturer in Environmental Sciences at Brunel University and co-author of the study‚ in a statement.“These results provide important experimental evidence for regulators and policy makers to legislate for microplastics and safeguard public health against such exposure‚” he added.By using skin models 3D printed using human keratinocytes – the main type of cell found in the outermost layer of the skin – the team behind the study measured the amount of two common forms of PBDE present in microplastics that were absorbed over 24 hours. In what amounts to the first experimental evidence that these compounds can be taken in through the skin‚ the results showed that as much as 8 percent of the exposure dose of PBDEs could be taken in via touch alone‚ with the effect being strongest in hydrated – or “sweaty” – skin.That may not sound like much‚ but remember: these are present in objects we may interact with many times a day‚ every day. “These chemicals are persistent‚ so with continuous or regular exposure to them‚ there will be a gradual accumulation to the point where they start to cause harm‚” Abafe pointed out in another statement.So‚ if these chemicals are so dangerous‚ why are they so ubiquitous&;#63; The problem is that‚ despite mounting evidence of the health dangers of PBDEs from various animal and longitudinal human studies‚ the exact harm caused by exposure to microplastics such as the ones PBDEs were present in isn’t well understood. That makes regulation difficult – and while some more obviously harmful compounds have been banned or voluntarily removed from the market‚ they have long half-lives and many are still present in older products. The problem is especially worrisome in the US‚ where tests have found that the population has levels of a specific PBDE called BDE-47 in their blood three to ten times greater than those found in Europeans. “Unfortunately‚ there are myriads of toxic additive chemicals‚ ranging from plasticizers to stabilizers in microplastics‚ some of which are not regulated‚ that can potentially find their way into the human system‚” Abafe said. “Also significant is the uptake of these toxic additive chemicals through other human exposure pathways such as ingestion and inhalation of microplastics‚ of which nothing is known on the body burden of these additives.”The study is published in the journal Environment International.

The more we search among the stars‚ the more we find potentially habitable planets. And yet to date‚ we have not found any conclusive signs of intelligent civilizations out there in the cosmos‚ begging the question: Where is everybody&;#63;This is the basic question of the Fermi Paradox‚ to which scientists‚ philosophers‚ and science fiction writers have proposed a number of explanations. They range from the benign (maybe we haven't searched for long enough yet‚ or are searching for the wrong types of signs‚ given our own technological immaturity) to the profoundly terrifying.      One that fits somewhere in the middle is the idea that conditions for life and intelligent civilizations to evolve have only just (in cosmological timescales) started to emerge.&;quot;The rate of gamma-ray bursts almost certainly was higher in the past than in the present‚&;quot; James Annis of the Experimental Astrophysics Group at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory wrote in a 1999 paper‚ originally published in the Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. &;quot;The leading contender for the cause of gamma-ray burst is colliding neutron stars. These would have been born in binary systems and fairly rapidly spiral inward. Their numbers reflect the star formation history of the universe‚ which peaked 10 billion years ago and has declined since.&;quot;While this might sound like a relatively benign solution to the great silence‚ it implies that earlier on in the evolution of the universe life was constantly being wiped out before intelligent life had the chance to emerge. What's more‚ the extinctions would take place on a galactic scale.&;quot;The gamma-ray burst model is therefore one where galactic scale mass-extinctions occur often. Ten billion years ago‚ the rate was quite high‚ perhaps every 3 million years‚&;quot; Annis explained. &;quot;Over time this rate slows down and now the rate is perhaps once every 220 million years. Given the premise of this model‚ the last such burst in our Galaxy was before the solid surface of the Earth was covered with life‚ 270 million years ago. These bursts are not likely to be lethal to an advanced civilization‚ so their effectiveness at preventing the Galaxy from being colonized lies in their effectiveness are preventing intelligent life from evolving in the first place. &;quot;   The idea may not sound testable‚ but if it's correct we could find evidence for such extinctions on Earth. Gamma ray bursts have been suggested as possible driver of the Ordovician mass extinction around 450 million years ago‚ depleting the ozone layer and leaving life vulnerable to UV radiation. If this is correct‚ it could add evidence to the idea that alien life could have been similarly wiped out. It's bleak‚ but there is an upside to the idea. Now that gamma-ray bursts have calmed down a little‚ life has a chance to make its mark on the galaxy.&;quot;A previously forbidden configuration is now allowed‚&;quot; Annis concludes. &;quot;It is likely that intelligent life has recently sprouted up [at many] places in the Galaxy‚ and that at least a few are busily engaged in spreading. In another 108 years‚ a new equilibrium state will emerge‚ where the galaxy is completely filled with intelligent life.&;quot;A copy of the 1999 paper has been posted to preprint server arXiv.

Television dramas often thrive on families where siblings have personalities much more different from each other than people would assume. The same may be true for stars‚ at least giant ones‚ and the results could make scientific research on many aspects of astronomy more convoluted than the plot of a long-running series.Occasionally a star may pass close enough to another to be captured and remain in orbit‚ but this is very rare. Almost all stars in binary systems‚ particularly close binaries‚ are thought to have formed together from the same gas cloud‚ and therefore started with the same chemical composition. This assumption is used to explore many aspects of stellar evolution. In the last few weeks‚ for example‚ it’s apparently helped explain an unusually massive stellar black hole and estimate how many stars swallow their planets. Unfortunately‚ new research suggests it might be wrong.Carlos Saffe of Argentina’s Institute of Astronomical‚ Earth and Space Sciences led a team that used the Gemini South telescopes to collect spectra from the pair of giant stars known as HD 138202 + CD−30 12303 (until astronomers come up with something catchier). They found the larger star had significantly more iron – frequently used as a proxy for metals in general – than its smaller sibling.For older stars‚ there are easy explanations for this. As a star develops‚ it becomes more stratified‚ with elements settling to internal layers so that their spectrum can’t be detected. This can occur at different rates for binary companions‚ making them appear more different than they are. Stars can also consume nearby planets‚ whose metal content changes the ratio near the surface‚ which might happen in one star but not the other.However‚ when both stars in a binary are sufficiently massive‚ these explanations break down. Such stars are very well mixed‚ and planetary material has only a minor effect on composition near the surface. So it was a surprise to observe such differences in giant stars too well-mixed for either explanation to make sense. Instead‚ the two stars must have had differing compositions all the way through. &;quot;This is the first time astronomers have been able to confirm that differences between binary stars begin at the earliest stages of their formation‚&;quot; Saffe said in a statement. It’s always dangerous to draw conclusions from a single example‚ and perhaps HD 138202 + CD−30 12303 will turn out to be quite atypical for reasons as yet unknown. Notably‚ the two stars are quite far apart – more than half a light year‚ or a thousand times the distance from the Sun to Neptune. However‚ if the pattern is common‚ there are plenty of implications for astronomy.For one thing‚ we won’t be able to assume the starting ingredients of a star by looking at its companion. In the example referenced above‚ we can’t be so sure the black hole is from a star almost entirely made of primordial elements‚ even though its companion is. We’d also need to determine if star-forming clouds can be that different at nearby locations‚ or if something can sometimes interfere with the incorporation of metals into one star but not both.   Gas clouds give birth not just to pairs of stars‚ but clusters of thousands‚ which gradually drift apart. Recent efforts to identify stars that come from the same cloud have looked for those on similar paths around the galaxy‚ but also matched ages and compositions. Perhaps the last is not as good an indicator as we thought.We might also need to rethink ideas of planetary formation. &;quot;Different planetary systems could mean very different planets - rocky‚ Earth-like‚ ice giants‚ gas giants - that orbit their host stars at different distances and where the potential to support life might be very different‚&;quot; said Saffe. That could make for great science fiction – imagine two very different planetary systems orbiting stars so close to each other that travel between them is practical – but current assumptions about where to look for life may need revision.  Much as this work may make things harder for his colleagues‚ Saffe is excited. &;quot;By showing for the first time that primordial differences really are present and responsible for differences between twin stars‚ we show that star and planet formation could be more complex than initially thought‚&;quot; he said. &;quot;The Universe loves diversity&;#33;&;quot;The study is published open access in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics.

The deepest blue hole in the world has been confirmed in Chetumal Bay‚ Mexico. Researchers estimate the Taam Ja' Blue Hole has a depth of at least 420 meters (1‚380 feet)‚ but have yet to reach the bottom of the world’s deepest blue hole.What are blue holes&;#63;Blue holes like Taam Ja’ formed during the last Ice Age when sea levels were over 100 meters (330 feet) lower than the present day. They would have started life as a limestone cave‚ but as the seawater rose‚ it flooded‚ and the ceiling collapsed to form a marine cavern. Their past means that scientists have even discovered fossils of prehistoric creatures‚ like tortoises and crocodiles‚ embedded in their walls. In the modern day‚ they’re home to corals‚ sea turtles‚ sharks‚ and a wealth of unique microbial life.The Great Blue Hole off Belize is huge‚ but nothing compared to the depth of Taam Ja' Blue Hole.Image credit: Kota Irie / Shutterstock.comPerhaps one of the most famous for its engulfing appearance is the Great Blue Hole off the coast of Belize. However‚ at just under 130 meters in depth (427 feet) t’is but a puddle compared to Taam Ja’.The deepest blue hole in the worldTaam Ja’ actually started out as the second deepest blue hole in the world when scientists took their first dive into its anatomy. In a 2023 paper‚ it was estimated to be around 274 meters (899 feet) deep‚ earning it the name Taam Ja’ which means “deep water” in the Mayan language.Now‚ a new paper has revealed that our initial estimates of the Taam Ja’ Blue Hole were just the surface‚ revealing it plunges at least a further 146 meters (479 feet) than expected. However‚ since we haven’t yet reached the bottom of Taam Ja’‚ we’ve yet to establish just how deep the deepest blue hole known to science really is.Unfortunately‚ one cannot simply swim to the bottom of the deepest blue hole in the world.Image credit: Alcerreca-Huerta et al.‚ Frontiers in Marine Science‚ 2023 (CC BY 4.0)Taam Ja’ Blue Hole – just the start&;#63;As well as uncovering the staggering depth of the Taam Ja’ Blue Hole‚ the study suggests that it may well form part of a connected system of hidden caves‚ but we’ll need to take a proper look to know for certain‚ as well as to work out how far down it goes.“Comparison with Caribbean water conditions at the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System‚ reef lagoons‚ and estuaries suggests potential subterranean connections‚” wrote the study authors. “Further research and implementation of underwater navigation technologies are essential to decipher its maximum depth and the possibilities of forming part of an interconnected system of caves and tunnels.”The study is published in Frontiers in Marine Science.

The Northern Hemisphere has reached that special time of year. Sun shining‚ flowers blooming‚ birds singing… and people sneezing. Pollen season‚ aka spring‚ is well and truly upon us. If you’re a hay fever sufferer‚ depending on the particular types of pollen that really get up your nose‚ you can now look forward to several months of obsessively checking the forecast and keeping Big Tissue in business. But perhaps you’ve been in the thick of this for a few weeks already&;#63; Is it just us‚ or is hay fever hitting earlier than ever&;#63;A quick look at Pollen.com’s handy allergy map tells you that at the time of writing‚ levels are sitting in the medium to high range across much of the United States. Over here‚ in the UK‚ there have been warnings of an impending “pollen bomb”‚ now that we’re finally getting to see some spring weather. That’s when groups of trees all release large quantities of pollen in a short space of time.Some trees create so much of the stuff that you can actually see it bursting forth in an impressive cloud of misery-inducing dust.   But as unpleasant as it is‚ at least hay fever doesn’t usually come as a surprise. Many of those with it know which plant species trigger them and learn to predict when their symptoms are likely to peak. So‚ what’s all this talk about it starting earlier than usual&;#63;Dr Bernd Eggen‚ Senior Environmental Public Health Scientist at the UK Health Security Agency‚ addressed this question in a blog post earlier this year‚ when many people were complaining about allergy symptoms in the unconscionably early month of February. Normally‚ the UK is blessed with three distinct pollen seasons. Tree pollen hits between March and May‚ followed by grass pollen until July. Pollen from weeds like mugwort starts to rise around June and can continue well into autumn. Thanks to climate change‚ it looks as though some trees and grasses might be starting to release their pollen earlier than before. If these happen to be your personal poisons‚ Dr Eggen explains‚ you could start to experience a reaction as early as January. Best put antihistamines on your Christmas list. This is backed by data from a recent study that looked at 52 years’ worth of pollen and fungal spore counts from two regions in the UK. They focused on birch trees and grass‚ as well as four different genera of fungi‚ and found that most of them were starting their pollen seasons earlier than before.“Our study suggests higher temperatures experienced in recent decades are associated with higher overall abundance of some pollen/fungal spores‚ which may increase future disease burdens of allergies‚” the authors wrote. Of course‚ these data are just from the UK‚ so it’s not clear how well they would generalize to other areas. But other people have also been looking into this from a more general standpoint.A 2022 review took a detailed look at how climate change is impacting allergies‚ including sections on pollen. From all the studies the review authors analyzed‚ they identified a number of ways in which increasing global temperatures could spell bad news for hay fever sufferers in the future.Higher average temperatures &;quot;will lead to earlier flowering‚ increased pollen scattering in the air‚ and a longer efflorescence season‚” they write. “Further climate change may lead to increased CO2 emissions‚ directly inducing photosynthesis and plant growth.”    But is there anything we can do&;#63; Beyond the global efforts required to try and halt the climate crisis before things get any worse‚ we at IFLScience favor the Japanese approach. The Washington Post reports that some workplaces in the country – which sees a huge burden of illness from hay fever every year fueled by dense concentrations of cedar and cypress trees from reforestation programs – have resorted to subsidized tropical getaways for the worst-afflicted. The southern island of Okinawa is a popular option‚ with much lower pollen levels‚ but some have ventured as far as Hawai'i to escape the misery. For most of us‚ though‚ relocating to an island paradise for a few months out of the year is not going to be an option. We’ll have to stick with the old standbys of staying indoors‚ making sure we know how to use our nasal sprays‚ and googling our symptoms in case it’s actually COVID. Oh‚ and stocking up on tissues from January – just in case.All “explainer” articles are confirmed by fact checkers to be correct at time of publishing. Text‚ images‚ and links may be edited‚ removed‚ or added to at a later date to keep information current.  The content of this article is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice‚ diagnosis‚ or treatment. Always seek the advice of qualified health providers with questions you may have regarding medical conditions.