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Who Was Benjamin Disraeli?
At a time when the British Empire was expanding, becoming an unassailable empire across the world, Benjamin Disraeli rose from a relatively humble background to enter the most prestigious parts of British society.
Along the way, he gained powerful allies, including Queen Victoria, and became prime minister of the most powerful country in the world at the time.
His legacy is one of failure and success, of bitter defeat and glorious triumph.
Early Life of Benjamin Disraeli
Isaac d’Israeli (1766-1848) (after John Downman) after Sir Martin Archer Shee. Source: National Trust via ArtUK, Wikimedia Commons
On December 21, 1804, Benjamin Disraeli was born into a middle-class Jewish family living in Bloomsbury, London. He was one of about 25,000 Jews living in England at the time, while the total population of England was 8.3 million.
His family was of Sephardic descent, although Benjamin did have some Ashkenazi ancestors. His parents were Isaac D’Israeli and Maria Basevi. He had an older sister, Sarah, with whom he had a close relationship, and two younger brothers, Ralph and James. Another brother, Naphtali, died in infancy.
While the United Kingdom was a good deal more socially progressive than many other European countries, anti-Semitism was still very much an issue when compared to the levels of equality today. In the realm of politics, which Disraeli would later enter, Jewish members of Parliament had been a feature since the late 1800s, but doing so required a Christian oath to be taken. This practice continued until 1858, when it was changed with the Jews Relief Act of 1858.
The Commercial Docks by George Cooke, 1827. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Benjamin received a decent education. At the age of six, he went to a privately run dame school in Islington and then went on to Rev John Potticary’s School, a preparatory school in Blackheath, where he was a boarder.
In 1817, Isaac renounced Judaism after an argument with his synagogue and had his children baptized into the Church of England. Benjamin was 12 at the time. He went on to study at small private schools. He was bitterly disappointed that his two younger brothers attended the prestigious Winchester College, a public school* known for producing renowned politicians from its ranks of students.
*Note that what is called a “public school” in England can cause confusion in the rest of the world. It refers to an elite private school, generally associated with the upper classes.
After his schooling, his father organized for his son to work as a clerk for a law firm, Swain, Stevens, Maples, Pearse, and Hunt. A while later, he left the firm and enrolled in Lincoln’s Inn with the intention of becoming a barrister. This, however, would never materialize. He was simply not suited to the work and was advised that he would be better served if he took up a literary career.
Disastrous Business Decisions
The first edition of Vivian Grey by Benjamin Disraeli. Source: Raptis Rare Books
Benjamin Disraeli’s early adulthood was spent paying back huge amounts of debt. He articled for a firm of solicitors, and with his profits, he speculated in South American mining shares, investing everything he had and then some. He lost it all and was driven into debt so badly that he would take more than a decade to recover his losses.
Desperate to recoup his finances, he took further risks, which failed and put him further into debt. He convinced a friend of his father, publisher John Murray, to launch a daily newspaper, The Representative. The enterprise collapsed, and not being able to pay his share of the capital, Disraeli fell afoul of John Murray.
Disraeli struck back by writing a novel, Vivian Grey (1826-1827), which he published anonymously. The novel tells the story of the business venture and makes a mockery of John Murray. When Disraeli was unmasked as the real author of the work, he received widespread criticism, further damaging his already tarnished reputation.
Detail of a retrospective portrait of Benjamin Disraeli by Sir Francis Grant, 1878. Source: National Trust
His financial situation and the hatred he received from his social circles impacted Disraeli significantly, and he suffered a nervous breakdown, shutting himself off from the world for four years. During this time, he wrote another novel, The Young Duke, published in 1831. In 1830, he decided to travel and spent 16 months in the Mediterranean and the Middle East. His time abroad gave him a healthy outlook towards foreign relations, which influenced his policies later in life.
Entry Into Politics
Union Jack. Source: needpix.com
Disraeli’s entry into politics had been held back by his father’s choice to have him study as a lawyer and by the fact that he was not born into the right circumstances. Politics in the United Kingdom at the time were dominated by the aristocracy, and for Disraeli, as a bourgeois Jew, there was little hope. Despite converting and being a practicing Anglican, Disraeli could not shake off the bigotry.
He nevertheless used his eloquence and skill with the written word to ingratiate himself into the right circles and found that he had the ability to significantly raise his standing in political circles. After unsuccessfully contesting several elections as an independent, Disraeli sought success by joining the Conservative Party.
Shylock by John Mortimer Hamilton, 1776. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
His primary opponents, the Liberals, referred to him as “Shylock,” referencing a Jewish usurer who serves as the principal villain in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice. Despite his inadequate beginnings, Disraeli found success and, at the age of 33, became a member of Parliament. During this time, he continued writing novels but also turned his attention to writing political propaganda.
Upward Trajectory
Queen Victoria, ca. 1880. Source: Library of Congress
In 1837, Disraeli won a seat in the House of Commons, and thus had successfully navigated himself into the center of political life of the British Empire. The future, for him, looked bright. With his skill as an orator, he won much respect from his peers, and Disraeli set his sights on becoming the prime minister. In 1839, Disraeli married Mary Anne Wyndham, a widow with a substantial income. He improved his social standing by doing so. It seemed apparent that he had married her for her money, especially since she was 12 years older than him, but he did develop a great affection for his wife.
She was not naive to his intentions and would later claim that if he could marry her again, it would be for love.
With his powerful connections, he made friends and garnered many supporters who, along with the considerable wealth owned by his wife, helped pay off Disraeli’s debts.
He encountered a setback when Conservative leader Sir Robert Peel was elected prime minister. Disraeli had hoped Peel would offer him a seat in his cabinet, but Disraeli was overlooked. This caused a breach between the two men.
Nevertheless, Disraeli continued his upward trajectory. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer three times under short-lived minority governments formed by the Earl of Derby. In this position, he had to write many letters to Queen Victoria detailing the goings-on in parliament. Disraeli’s flare for writing served him well, and once boring letters were turned into interesting reads. By these letters, Disraeli won the favor of the queen.
Portrait of William Ewart Gladstone by Franz von Lenbach, 1874. Source: Wikimedia Commons
In 1868, Derby retired from politics, and Disraeli was sworn in as the new prime minister. He was not long in this position, however. He lost the general election later that year, and Liberal leader William Gladstone became the new prime minister.
From his position as leader of the Conservative Party, Disraeli began a new era in British politics, creating sharp divisions and clearly defined lines between the ideologies of the two most powerful parties. Eventually taking a strong-handed approach, he became seen as a powerful and diligent man who was clearly capable of turning the Conservative Party into a more effective tool of governance.
He was a strong defender of the monarchy and the House of Lords and supported the consolidation of the British Empire. These issues were constantly under fire from radical Liberals, and Disraeli became a powerful icon of the right wing of the political spectrum.
Disraeli as Prime Minister
The freshwater canal at Ismailia, part of the Suez Canal, photographed by Francis Frith ca. 1856-1860. Source: Wikimedia Commons
In 1872, Benjamin Disraeli’s wife died of cancer, and Disraeli’s financial situation worsened as a result. In her will, she left vast amounts of her fortune to other family members. Disraeli, nevertheless, threw himself into his work and campaigned tirelessly for the Conservative Party. In the 1874 general election, he won a resounding victory, garnering almost 54% of the national vote. Disraeli was 70 years old at the time.
While Gladstone had been harshly critical of Queen Victoria, treating her as an institution, Disraeli treated her as a human being. This won him great support from the queen, and the two formed a solid friendship.
Disraeli fought hard to improve the living conditions across the class spectrums of the United Kingdom. The Artizans’ and Labourers’ Dwellings Improvement Act, aimed at improving the living conditions for those living in slums, gave local authorities the power to effectively clear slums and replace them with sanitary housing. The act was largely ignored, but it was heartily taken up in Birmingham, where the conditions of the working classes were significantly improved. The Public Health Act of 1875 aimed to codify and redress complicated laws on the issue of public health, and a series of factory acts were designed to limit the exploitation of labor.
The Climbing Boys Act of 1875 was also enacted, reinforcing bans on underage chimney sweeps. In addition, Disraeli took steps to decriminalize aspects of labor unions and strengthened the positions of workers across the country, giving them a bigger voice.
Disraeli in 1878. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Of prime importance, characterizing Disraeli’s term in office, was his foreign policy, which was seen as being highly effective. He acted quickly on information regarding the Suez Canal and purchased the shares owned by Khedive Isma’il Pasha of Egypt. The deal was a bargain, and Britain acquired an important strategic asset seen as a powerful piece of the Empire. Disraeli became hugely popular for this move.
His foreign policy also led him to assert Britain’s dominance in a highly delicate situation. In the Russo-Turkish War, the Russians attempted to force a treaty upon the Turks. Fearing for the safety of a route to India, Britain needed Russia to make a number of concessions at the Berlin Conference, where the treaty was submitted for review. All British demands were conceded, including the cession of Cyprus to the British Empire from the Ottomans. Disraeli returned home a hero.
The queen offered him a Dukedom, which he refused. He did, however, accept the Order of the Garter. This was on top of being the Earl of Beaconsfield and Viscount Hughenden of Hughenden, which were bestowed upon him earlier in his career.
Ingratiating himself further with the queen, Disraeli passed the Empress of India Act in 1876, which declared Queen Victoria, as the act suggests, the empress of India.
Foreign Blunders
Isandlwana, the site where over a thousand British troops were massacred by Zulus. Image courtesy of the author
The latter years of his term were marked by disappointment and military blunders in Afghanistan and Zululand (later part of South Africa). In Afghanistan, the animosity between Britain and Russia came to a head. A Russian mission was sent to Kabul and was accepted against the hopes of the British, who feared Russian influence in the region. The British took military action and defeated the Afghans, after which they installed their own puppet ruler.
The Afghans later rebelled and killed Sir Louis Cavagnari along with his entire British mission. Although a successful punitive expedition would be mounted, the incident weakened Disraeli’s standing in parliament and in the public eye.
Meanwhile, in Zululand, the British declared war on the Zulus, expecting a quick and easy victory. In the early days of the campaign, overconfidence on the part of the British led to their biggest defeat ever by native troops at the Battle of Isandlwana. Despite the war concluding with ultimate British victory, the stain of Isandlwana would be remembered as the focal point, forever marring the image of British soldiery and strategic decisions.
Amid crop failures from bad weather and Disraeli’s failing health, the Conservative Party took a beating in the 1880 election. Disraeli lost the position of prime minister to Lord Cavendish of Keighley, the nominee standing for the Liberal Party. This also came at a time of economic downturn and increased taxes, which contributed to the Conservative Party’s defeat.
Final Days & Death
Benjamin Disraeli from John Clark Ridpath et al., “Life and Work of James G. Blaine,” 1893. Source: Wikimedia Commons
After his election loss, Disraeli retired to his home and struggled with bouts of asthma, gout, and bronchitis. He kept correspondence with Queen Victoria and finished writing his final book, Endymion. He was regularly visited by friends and former enemies, including Gladstone, who visited him several times.
On the morning of April 19, 1881, Disraeli died at the age of 76. The issue of a state funeral was brought up but finally decided against by the executors of his will, as the crowds would have been too large to handle.
Protocol at the time barred the monarch from attending the funeral, but Victoria visited the grave site of her favorite prime minister four days later and laid a wreath by his headstone.
Statue of Benjamin Disraeli in Liverpool. Source: Wikipedia
Benjamin Disraeli, whatever his policies, represents the triumph of a man born into moderate means in a time when the aristocracy controlled the government. Not only did he take control of his destiny in this regard, but he successfully navigated his way through prejudice to achieve the highest post in the land. In doing so, he became a good friend of the queen and left a lasting legacy in British history.
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