Whistleblowers Tell Sen. Hawley Acting Secret Service Chief Personally Ordered Cuts Ahead of Trump Rally, Targeted Agents Who Raised Security Concerns https://t.co/DxWI8Bz4ga — Alex Jones (@RealAlexJones) August 2, 2024

from We Are Change:  TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

The Olympics have become an ABSOLUTE DISGRACE. All athletes, corporations and viewers should permanently BOYCOTT the Olympics. The entire organization should be dismantled and rendered obsolete, then replaced by something different that respects WOMEN and HUMANITY. https://t.co/Qas1cNtfvv — HealthRanger (@HealthRanger) August 1, 2024

from Breitbart: Investigative journalist Gerald Posner — whose deeply researched studies of the murders of John F. Kennedy and Martin Luther King, Jr. made him a preeminent authority on political assassinations — says he can understand why so many people think there’s “something fishy” about the official story of the assassination attempt against former President […]

?NON-CITIZENS REGISTERED IN GA? Footage obtained by @realmuckraker shows numerous non-citizens admitting to being registered voters. A staggering 14% of the non-citizens spoken to admitted to being registered to voters. pic.twitter.com/0p38irDBZH — Oversight Project (@OversightPR) July 31, 2024

  The relative security provided by the abundance of timber, salmon, and game on the Northwest Coast of present-day Canada has meant that First Nations people there haven’t had to focus on narrow survival, as the Inuit do in the Arctic. They have historically devoted some of their energies to decorative arts, performance, music, carving, and storytelling. Carved and painted totem poles were placed around houses and along shores. Colorful and elaborate transformation masks were carved for use in dramatic performances on both sacred and secular occasions. Archaeological evidence suggests that the first people to settle on the Northwest Coast did so about 14,000 years ago, at the end of the last Ice Age. Let’s look at their history and that of their descendants.   A Brief History of the Canadian Northwest Coast The Ozette archaeological site, known as the North American Pompeii, has provided an invaluable record of pre-contact Northwest Coast life, Source: Coast View   The Northwest Coast is one of the six cultural areas that make up present-day Canada. The others are the Arctic and Subarctic to the north, the Plateau and the Plains (which together occupy a large central area north of the U.S. border), and the Eastern Woodlands, extending from the Maritime provinces to the Great Lakes. The Northwest Coast follows the North American coast from the Washington state border in the United States up to Alaska, including inland areas around British Columbia’s three main rivers: Fraser, Nass, and Skeena. Abundant in salmon, they were a major source of sustenance for the inland populations of the Northwest Coast. The coast is a rugged landscape of bays, fiords, and island archipelagos, with the sea as the other main source of food.   Map of the Pacific Northwest Coastal Forests Bioregion, Source: One Earth   In the waters of the Pacific Ocean, the Haida, Tsimshian, Heiltsuk, Kwakwaka’wakw, and Nuu-chah-nulth people hunted seals, sea lions, whales, and porpoises, and gathered mussels and clams. While a small group of people could quickly deplete a large supply of clams and mussels, usually collected by women, salmon could support larger groups. Easy to catch, predictable, and plentiful, if properly dried it could be stored and preserved easily for the winter months.   Today, the layers of crushed mussel and clam shells accumulated by Indigenous people in their villages thousands of years ago represent one of the most important sources of knowledge about their lifestyle and culture. Similarly, the remains of sea lions, seals, and whale bones found in various burial sites bear witness to the importance of the sea, whaling, and fishing in the lives of the early inhabitants of the Northwest Coast.   “Think Hotel California for fish—they can easily check in, but they can never leave.” This is how Brian Payton describes the huge and highly complex fish trap system found in Comox Harbour on Vancouver Island, on the ancestral lands of the K’ómoks First Nation. Archaeologist Nancy Greene and her team have found the remains of more than 300 fish traps, which make it the largest such system so far discovered in North America.   Raven Rattle, by Albert Edward Edenshaw, c. 1850, Source: Art Canada Institute   Historians and archaeologists have divided the history of this region into different periods. The land first changed into the shape we know today during the so-called Emergent Period, from about 5,500 to 1,500 years ago. Sea levels began to stabilize, flooding large portions of previously inhabited areas, while vast expanses of lush cedar, fir, and spruce trees began to cover the land.   Chief Ernie Yeltatzie from Massett, British Columbia, Photograph by David Neel, 1990, Source: National Gallery of Canada   It was during this period that the Indigenous cultures of the Northwest Coast began to take on the distinctive cultural traits that the first European explorers would encounter in the early 16th century.  In this regard, the whaling village of Ozette, buried for at least 300 years by a mudslide, has given archaeologists a unique insight into the culture of the Makah people, the traditional inhabitants of Neah Bay in the Washington area.   The years from 11000 to 5500 BCE are called the Early Holocene. From about 2,500 to 1,500 years ago, Northwest cultures became more sophisticated and refined. Today, they are among the most complex cultures among today’s Canadian First Nations. Increased cultural complexity led to increased warfare, as evidenced by various defensive sites discovered along the coast, and weapons found at several burial sites. Archaeologists and anthropologists believe they belonged to warrior chiefs.   Silver bracelet, by Charles Edenshaw (Daxhiigang), c. 1800, Source: Art Canada Institute   To quote McMillan & Yellowhorn, “Where only eroding shell middens are visible today, villages of large wooden houses once stood. We can imagine these villages bustling with activity, the beaches in front lined with canoes and filled with the comings and goings of fishers and travellers and the welcoming of traders or guests for feasts” (198). These words seem to evoke the famous 1878 picture of the Haida village of Skidegate, with its shores lined with totem poles and canoes, in the Haida Gwaii archipelago in present-day British Columbia.   Haida Gwaii, or Queen Charlotte Islands The Haida village of Skidegate, 1878, Source: Council of Haida Nation   The history, art, and oral stories of the Haida are inseparable from their homeland, Haida Gwaii, an archipelago of red cedar-covered islands and islets off the northern coast of British Columbia. Known as the Queen Charlotte Islands from 1787 until the 2000s, in 2010 the Haida Gwaii Reconciliation Act formally stipulated that maps should be updated with the islands’ new name, Haida Gwaii. It also formally recognized the Haida Nation’s right to self-government. In English, Haida Gwaii translates as “islands of the people.” Reconciliation, in Canada as in Australia, comes through names.   Haida Gwaii consists of two major islands: Moresby Island (Gwaay Haanas) to the south and Graham Island (Kiis Gwaay) to the north. Surrounding them is an expanse of around 400 smaller islands. Archaeologists claim that the Haida people first made Haida Gwaii their home as early as 13,000 years ago.   Yan, Q.C.I., by Emily Carr, 1912, Source: The Eclectic Light Company   The first Europeans encountered by the Haida were neither British nor French, but Spanish. Juan Pérez is believed to have been the first European to meet them in 1774. Four years later, James Cook (1728-1779) also sighted them. By then, the Haida Gwaii had already been introduced to the Western world as “Queen Charlotte Islands.” Less than a century later, they were officially declared a British colony.   Today, Haida artwork is among the most sophisticated in the world. Pre-contact Haida were master carvers. Their works ranged from tiny carved miniatures, stylized figures, and animals on spoon handles to the huge totem poles and sculptures adorning the exterior of their houses. Interestingly, houses belonging to high-ranking people were often named.   Haida totem poles are featured in many of Emily Carr’s paintings. Dating back to the early decades of the 20th century, Carr’s works are an invaluable source of visual knowledge about the Haida people, albeit from a Western non-Indigenous perspective.   Map of the Haida Gwaii, Source: Haida Gwaii Observer   The Haida also honored the tradition of carving statues of their dead, which were then placed atop totem poles but hidden behind elegantly carved wooden boards to prevent outsiders from seeing them. In addition to being used in warfare against other Indigenous groups, the large Haida canoes were often traded for eulachon oil, transported from the interior regions along the “grease trail.”   The Haida were not only master carvers, but also feared warriors. Their warriors went into battle protected by the very material so important to their lives: cedar. Their wooden armor, visors, and helmets were carved, both to frighten the enemy and to remind them of their greatness and carving skills. Over the course of the 20th century, Haida groups, decimated by epidemics, fled to what would become the two main Haida villages, Skidegate, in the south-east part of Graham Island and Old Massett in the north. Their cedar houses and their colorful still-standing poles were left to rot and decay.   Today, the restoration of the Haida (and Tsimshian) totem poles is the most vivid testimony to Canada’s and British Columbia’s determination to acknowledge and honor the first inhabitants of these lands.   Indian House Interior with Totems, by Emily Carr, 1913, Source: The Eclectic Light Company   In September 1900, John Reed Swanton (1873-1958), a young Harvard-educated linguist, landed on the shores of Haida Gwaii with his young, bilingual assistant and guide, also known by his Western name Henry Moody (1871-1945). Here they listened to and noted the oral histories of the Haida as told by the blind poet, Ghandl of the Qayahl Llaanas of Qaysun (Walter McGregor). In the early 1980s, Canadian poet, translator, and linguist Robert Bringhurst set out to learn the Haida language. Once he had mastered the language, he began translating into English the Haida songs, stories, and mythic cycles Swanton had collected more than eight decades earlier.   Spirit of Haida Gwaii, today in the Canadian Museum of History in Gatineau, by Bill Reid,1986, Source: Art Canada Institute   In 2016, Margaret Atwood championed Bringhurst’s masterful translation work with London-based publisher the Folio Society and succeeded in getting it published in the United Kingdom. Without Bringhurst’s translation work, Haida’s enormous corpus of oral literature would still be largely unknown to non-Indigenous peoples. Similarly, without the combined efforts of Ghandl, Swanton, and Henry Moody, it would probably have been lost forever.   When Swanton visited the archipelago in 1900, in fact, the Haida population was already in decline. While the pre-contact Haida thrived on Haida Gwaii, the archipelago of southeastern Alaska was inhabited by the Tlingit, the second-largest northern group to inhabit the Pacific Northwest since. Several inland Tlingit communities, however, can be found in northwestern British Columbia and the Yukon. Pre-contact Tlingit were indeed great traders and their business often took them inland, where some of them mingled with the Athapaskans (or Athabaskan).   Skedans Poles, Queen Charlotte Islands, by Emily Carr, 1912, Source: The Eclectic Light Company   The third major northern group inhabiting the northern mainland of British Columbia, are the Tsimshian. Their traditional homeland is a land of rivers, rich in salmon and eulachon. Hence their name, which in English translates as “inside the Skeena River.” Unlike the Haida and Tlingit, the Tsimshian divided their society into four groups (or moieties) instead of two.   Like many groups from the western Canadian Subarctic, they followed a matrilineal system: all children took their mother’s kinship group. Marriage within the same group was considered incestuous. It is worth remembering that despite the physical proximity of their homelands, the Haida, Tlingit, and Tsimshian speak three unrelated languages. The Haida language is now endangered.   The Coast Salish Peoples Map of the Coast Salish peoples, Source: The Nature Conservancy Washington   The Coast Salish peoples include several Indigenous groups who have lived along the Northwest Pacific Coast in British Columbia since time immemorial. Their homelands, like those of the Anishinaabeg in eastern Canada, extend across the Canada-U.S. border and include most of southern Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland, as well as the Fraser Valley. In the United States, their territories encompass present-day northwestern Oregon and western Washington, including the Olympic Peninsula and Puget Sound, with its intricate system of canals, waterways, and basins that make up the so-called Salish Sea.   Metropolises such as Vancouver and Victoria (as well as Seattle in the United States) were all built on traditional Salish lands. We can distinguish two different groups based on the location of their ancestral lands. The Central Coast Salish, who traditionally occupied southeast Vancouver Island and the lands around the Lower Fraser Valley, and the Interior Salish, who lived (and some still do) in the interior of British Columbia.   The Ozette archaeological site was once the home of the Makah people, the southern relatives of the Nuu-chah-nulth, Source: University of Washington Press   The Northern Coast Salish (or Northern Straits Salish) occupied east-central Vancouver Island and the northern half of the Strait of Georgia, between Vancouver Island and the southwest coast of British Columbia. The K’ómoks First Nation, whose elaborate fish trap system was found in Comox Harbour by archaeologist Nancy Green, belong to the Northern Coast Salish group.   The Salish social system was more flexible than that of the other First Nations of the Canadian Northwest, and slaves were not as common. Unlike the Haida, who decorated their households with free-standing totem posts, Salish peoples tended to produce smaller but equally powerful artworks, such as baskets of split cedar root or woven cedar-bark blankets. They also used to adorn their villages with carved house posts.   The Wakashan ‘Namgis Kwakwaka’wakw Transformation Mask, closed (left) and open (right), c. 1910, Source: Khan Academy   Since time immemorial, the Nuu-chah-nulth have occupied the west coast of Vancouver Island and the tip of the Olympic Peninsula across the border. For centuries, this tribe of famous canoe builders and sailors were known by the name James Cook adopted for them, “Nootka.” Today their descendants reject this name.   Kwakwaka’wakw is the collective name chosen by the various groups that speak the Kwakwala language and occupy northern Vancouver and Island and the nearby mainland coast. The Western world has known them by the name of “Kwakiutl” for centuries.   The Nuxalk were once known as “Bella Coola,” named after their ancestral lands around the Bella Coola Valley (and the valleys around Dean Rivers). These are just a few of the groups that make up the Wakashans.   Nuu-chah-nulth and Kwakwaka’wakw are the traditional owners of Vancouver Island, Source: ISPARC   The term Wakashan, first employed by James Cook in 1778, refers primarily to the family of Indigenous languages spoken on and around Vancouver Island and on the Olympic Peninsula in the state of Washington. It also refers to the people who spoke such languages. The diaries and letters of 18th-century explorers give us insight into the lifestyle of the Wakashans before contact.   We know that a staple of their diet was halibut and that they would paddle far out to sea to catch it. We know that their houses were made of planks, which covered both walls and roofs and could be easily disassembled. This allowed people to move more easily when they wanted or needed to. Especially in the mild season they would temporarily leave their winter homes and move to fishing grounds at the mouths of rivers.   A Kwakwaka’wakw red cedar bear transformation mask, Source: Steinbrueck Native Gallery Archives   Wakashan artists often added wings to their sculptures and hair to their masks and wolf costumes. The latter were used especially by the Nuu-chah-nulth during their winter rituals. Like the Dreamtime stories among Aboriginal Australians, dances were hereditary: they were passed on from one generation to another, often within the same families. Some of these performances, like contemporary theatre or film, were full of tricks meant to create fear and surprise among the audience. Bursting blisters full of blood were used alongside hidden strings that would make beaks open and close.   Carved masks and other regalia were used during potlatches when chiefs re-distributed goods obtained through trade. Potlatches were banned in Canada in 1885 and would remain illegal until 1951, although many communities, especially among the Kwakwaka’wakw, continued to hold them secretly away from major villages.   Illustration of a sea otter, Source: Oregon Encyclopedia   The Nuu-chah-nulth were among the first to engage in the sea-otter trade with British and American traders. The latter were known among Indigenous peoples as “Boston men.” Trading brought considerable wealth to Wakashan communities without affecting their traditions and way of life. It was with the establishment of permanent fur trading posts that people began to be attracted (perhaps inevitably) to European goods, including firearms, which immediately heightened intertribal conflicts and made them more violent and deadly.   In and around trading posts, Indigenous peoples were also exposed to infectious diseases they had never encountered before. The smallpox epidemic of 1862, which began at Fort Victoria, was particularly violent: because of the authorities’ ill-considered choice to force Indigenous people out of the camps around the fort, it soon spread along the coast. Overall it wiped out 20,000 people, a third of British Columbia’s Indigenous population.   The Canadian Museum of History in Gatineau, Quebec, Source: Wifi Adventures   Wakashan masks, now displayed in museums in Canada and around the world, are testament to the strength of the First Nations on the Canadian Northwest Coast. Today, their paintings, sculptures, and headdresses are in high demand. Artists such as Susan Point (Coast Salish), Bill Reid (Haida), Robert Davidson (Haida), Beau Dick (Kwakwaka’wakw), and Joe David (Nuu-chah-nulth) are celebrated in Canada and around the world.   As McMillan & Yellowhorn beautifully write, “…today when we see these masks displayed in our well-lit museums we should remember that their context has been lost. Try to imagine them in use, in darkened houses lit only by central fires, as skilled dancers conveyed impressions of the supernatural world to their audience” (220).

  Benito Mussolini, not Adolf Hitler, was the original creator of modern fascism. Having come to power in the 1920s, Mussolini “made the trains run on time” and sought glory and conquest for Italy. After invading Ethiopia in the 1930s, he joined the Axis Powers and embarked on a war of aggression along with Nazi Germany. In July 1943, however, the once iron-fisted dictator was removed from power and lived a tale of intrigue as he sought to return to power. Rescued by the Nazis in a daring raid, Mussolini became the leader of the Italian Social Republic (ISI), a German-allied quasi-state in northern Italy. Toward the end of the war, however, Mussolini fell from power yet again.   Setting the Stage: Mussolini’s Rise to Power An image of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini looking into a moving picture camera. Source: Film at Lincoln Center   Benito Mussolini–born in 1881–was a veteran of World War I, before which he had been a proponent of socialism like his father. Like many veterans of the Great War, Mussolini’s political views were shaped by the horrors of the conflict. Perhaps due to Italy’s poor performance in the war, Mussolini returned home with a belief in nationalism based on military strength. By 1918, he was creating a new school of political philosophy: fascism.    In 1919, this new philosophy of fascism emerged, advocating ultra-nationalism and strength through military might. Although Mussolini was elected to legislative office in 1921, he was frustrated by Italy’s seemingly slow pace of political change.    In the autumn of 1922, Mussolini rose to power as a result of his famous March on Rome, with 30,000 of his fascist supporters, known as blackshirts, marching to signal their power. Plagued by unrest since the dismal end to World War I, Italy yearned for strong leadership, which resulted in negotiations between the existing government and the Fascisti over cabinet posts.    On October 28, 1922, newspapers reported that Mussolini’s fascists were clearly the dominant party in Italy, and the next day, Mussolini was appointed prime minister by King Victor Emmanuel III. In 1925, Mussolini evolved into a de facto dictator, culminating with him proclaiming himself “Head of Government” on December 24 and not subject to the rules of parliament.   Setting the Stage: Fascist Italy of the 1930s A postcard from the 1930s glorifying Italy’s aggressive campaign in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. Source: Cambridge University Press   Fascist Italy was a Corporative State in which private businesses were allowed to exist as long as they were subservient to the government. As in Germany and the United States, Italy focused on government intervention and stimulus spending during the Great Depression of the early 1930s. Although corporatives of councils consisting of both workers and employers, existing for each industry, were supposed to guide production decisions in Italy, government agencies held this real power. In 1931, Mussolini declared that government agencies and projects could only purchase domestic goods.   Mussolini’s control over the economy increased in 1935 with the launch of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. As Italy was now officially at war, Mussolini could exercise greater control without fear of public criticism, and he raised tariffs on imports. However, these decisions did not lead to economic growth. Unlike the United States and Nazi Germany, Italy entered the late 1930s with a gross domestic product (GDP) that was lower than before the Great Depression began and only minimal growth in industrial output. Worried that Italy was not economically prepared for war, King Victor Emmanuel prevented Mussolini from following Germany into war in 1939.   1940-42: Axis Italy in Europe & North Africa A painting of fighting during the Second Battle of El Alamein, the largest battle of the North Africa campaign, in autumn 1942. Source: National Army Museum (UK)   Germany’s rapid victories in 1939 and 1940 ultimately changed King Victor Emmanuel’s mind, and he allowed Mussolini to join Germany in the war against France and Britain in June 1940. However, supreme military command remained with the king, with Mussolini only granted operational command. Quickly, Mussolini set out for conquest in the Mediterranean. On October 28, 1940, Italy invaded Greece from Italian-controlled Albania to the north. However, Greece was an unexpectedly strong opponent and defeated the Italian invasion.   A photograph of Italian fascist dictator Benito Mussolini (front and center) inspecting troops in October 1941. Source: The Liberty Fund Network   Thus began a trend in World War II in Europe and North Africa: Italy would attack, struggle, and have to call on its more powerful ally, Germany, for support. Germany was able to conquer Greece and a large portion of North Africa, with Italian forces largely used in support or infantry roles. In North Africa, the British and Germany’s Afrika Korps see-sawed between offensives during 1941 and 1942. November 1942 saw the Allies decisively turn the North Africa campaign against Germany and Italy with victory in the Second Battle of El Alamein, forcing German field marshal Erwin Rommel to begin a lengthy retreat.    May 1943: Allies Take North Africa A map showing the final retreat and ultimate surrender of German and Italian forces in North Africa in the spring of 1943. Source: Anne Frank House, Amsterdam   Until the Second Battle of El Alamein, Mussolini had been convinced that the Axis Powers would win the war. However, the Americans were now in North Africa after the successful Operation Torch landings and the British were pushing from the east and south. By early 1943, the German and Italian forces were being squeezed from all sides into a slow but steady retreat through Tunisia. On May 7, 1943, the British captured Tunis, the capital city of Tunisia, and the Americans captured the last open port on the Mediterranean Sea. Six days later, all remaining Axis forces in North Africa surrendered.   The surrender of all remaining Axis troops in North Africa was a tremendous blow to Mussolini’s leadership, especially given the recent defeat of German forces in the Battle of Stalingrad. Italy lost most of its best combat troops as part of the mass surrender, which totaled some 275,000 men. In December 1942, Mussolini had begun advocating for negotiations with the Soviet Union, wanting the Axis Powers to focus on defending North Africa and Western Europe instead. However, Hitler rejected this idea. Allegedly, Mussolini’s position was not well argued by his subordinates, who felt that Italian military failure might result in one of them being chosen to replace Mussolini.    July 1943: Operation Husky An image showing how US and British Commonwealth forces invaded the island of Sicily in July 1943, leading to the end of Mussolini’s reign. Source: Imperial War Museums (UK)   Unfortunately for Mussolini, there was no delay in the Allies’ follow-up to their victory in North Africa. Only two months after the surrender of all Axis forces in Tunisia, the invasion of Sicily, the large island province immediately adjacent to the Italian mainland, commenced. Operation Husky took World War II from North Africa to Europe, as had been planned since January 1943 at the Casablanca Conference. Although the Germans and Italians knew the Americans and British were coming, bad weather disrupted beach defenders enough for successful landings. By the morning of July 10, 1943, large numbers of Allied troops had made it onto Sicily.   Even worse for Mussolini’s image was the relatively poor performance of Italian troops on the island, with much of the heavy fighting falling to the Germans. By this point, the dictator, famously known as Il Duce, was facing growing opposition within Italy. Mussolini had also annoyed German dictator Adolf Hitler by continuing to press for an armistice with the Soviet Union, removing any political help that he might receive from his fellow Axis powers. Between March and May of 1943, plotters had created plans to remove Mussolini from power – the Allied victory in Sicily gave them an opening to act.   July 25, 1943: Mussolini Deposed A photograph of the Palazzo Venezia, which was the headquarters of Mussolini’s government and hosted the Fascist Grand Council in the 1940s. Source: The National WWII Museum, New Orleans   Obviously, the Allies were not going to remain in Sicily forever; the mainland was only miles away. On July 25, 1943, after Mussolini received a vote of no confidence from the Fascist Grand Council, he was arrested by orders of King Victor Emmanuel III. The king retook control of the armed forces and appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio as the nation’s new prime minister. Although Mussolini was deposed and imprisoned, Italy vowed to continue the war as an ally of Germany. However, Badoglio’s new government quickly began pursuing secret negotiations with the Allies.   Having been a military ally of Nazi Germany for the past three years, Italy was full of German troops. Unsurprisingly, the Germans became aware of the secret negotiations between Italy and the Allies. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio announced an armistice with the Allies…and German troops immediately leaped into action. Particularly in northern Italy, closer to Germany, Italian troops were hastily surrounded and disarmed. Thus, the surrender of Italy to the Allies did not amount to much in terms of military might; Operation Achse allowed the Nazis to seize most of the country, including the capital city of Rome.   Autumn 1943: Nazis Return Mussolini to Power Benito Mussolini (in black) rescued in September 1943 by German special forces led by Otto Skorzeny (left of Mussolini, with binoculars). Source: United States Army   One day after the Germans occupied Rome, the world was shocked by a daring rescue mission: the Gran Sasso raid. Days before the armistice between Italy and the Allies was announced, the Germans had located where the deposed Mussolini was imprisoned. Apparently, Adolf Hitler was so incensed over the imprisonment of his fascist ally that he personally ordered the rescue mission just one month after Mussolini’s fall from power. On the afternoon of September 12, 1943, German gliders swooped down over the Hotel Campo Imperatore, where Mussolini was held prisoner. A team of commandos, many of whom spoke Italian, landed and stormed the building.   Without firing a shot, the 200-man guard surrendered, and Mussolini was rescued. Raid leader Otto Skorzeny announced that the rescue was courtesy of Adolf Hitler, and Il Duce was quickly flown away from the scene in a small plane. Two days later, Mussolini was meeting with Hitler, and on September 18, he made his first public address to the Italian people since his arrest. The successful raid was a morale booster for Nazi Germany and impressed even the Allies. It is heralded as one of the first modern special operations missions, featuring intelligence-gathering, elite tactics, and advanced equipment and weaponry.   1943-45: Mussolini & The Italian Social Republic (ISI) Despite Benito Mussolini being the official leader of the Italian Social Republic, real power rested with the Nazis, like Supreme SS and Police Leader Karl Wolff (above). Source: Yad Vashem   Mussolini was returned to power as the head of state of the new Italian Social Republic, or ISI. Colloquially, it was often called the Salo Republic because its administrative offices were in the town of Salo. Although the Salo Republic initially controlled Rome, its territory steadily diminished over time as the Americans ground north through Italy. Liberated Italy declared war on Germany on October 13, 1943, effectively creating a civil war with the German-backed ISI. On June 4, 1944, Rome was liberated, becoming the first Nazi-controlled European capital to be taken by the Allies.    Although Mussolini was head of state, he had no real power. The German SS and Police were the real power in the ISI, with Karl Wolff being named the Supreme SS and Police Leader in the quasi-republic. Wolff’s objectives were to maintain industrial production that could benefit the German military and the capture of Jewish people as part of the Holocaust. By early 1945, Wolff was the military commander of all German forces in northern Italy as well, essentially removing any remaining power from Mussolini. In the final months of the war, with defeat imminent, Wolff began looking to negotiate a surrender for his forces through intermediaries in nearby Switzerland.   April 1945: Mussolini’s Downfall & Execution Former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and several fascist compatriots are hung upside-down on April 28, 1945 after being executed by shooting. Source: The National WWII Museum, New Orleans   With Karl Wolff looking for a negotiated surrender to the oncoming Allies, the Germans in northern Italy had little interest in protecting Benito Mussolini. The Salo Republic had little land left to govern, and much of that was already in the hands of anti-fascist partisans. On April 25, 1945, Mussolini fled from Salo with his mistress and a small group of fascist supporters with a retreating Luftwaffe (German Air Force) convoy. The goal was to make it to neutral Switzerland, hopefully to win refuge there and avoid trial and likely execution. During the journey, the German convoy was attacked by partisans, who eventually recognized Il Duce and captured him.   On April 28, Mussolini and many of his compatriots, including his mistress, were hastily executed by gunfire. Afterward, their bodies were hung upside-down in Milan, Italy to prove to the public that the former dictator was dead, as well as to humiliate his legacy. Some argue that the gruesome death of Mussolini likely influenced Adolf Hitler’s decision to commit suicide in his bunker underneath Berlin. Hitler heard about the demise of Mussolini via radio on April 29 and committed suicide the following day. Allegedly, Hitler remarked that such a thing would never happen to him and did not want a “spectacle” around his inevitable downfall and capture.   Aftermath: Italy After Fascism Young people in the mountains of Italy celebrating the 78th anniversary of Italy’s liberation from fascism on April 25, 1945. Source: Peoples Dispatch   The long reign of Mussolini and fascism–over twenty years–caused much anguish in Italy. Those who had supported him prior to Italy’s disastrous adventure in World War II saw their legacies tarnished, especially King Victor Emmanuel III. After the war, the monarchy crumbled when Emmanuel stepped down in hopes of appealing to voters engaging in a referendum to create a republic. Emmanuel thought that stepping down and allowing his son, Crown Prince Umberto II, to take the throne would increase the monarchy’s appeal.   Instead, King Umberto II stepped down after only 34 days. The referendum required the exile of all male members of the House of Savoy, ending Italy’s monarchy. The royal family was irreparably linked to Mussolini’s reign and received little support or respect from the Allies. Umberto II, although viewed more favorably than his father, had fought against the Allies in North Africa in 1940. Over the decades, Italy’s two-decade experience with fascist leadership has echoed in various far-right political movements, which some critics blame on Italy never having to undergo a movement similar to de-Nazification in Germany after World War II.

  World War II was not going well for Nazi Germany in September 1943: Italy had just surrendered to the Allies, the Red Army was gaining ground on the Eastern Front, and industrial production was strained to the breaking point. However, the Third Reich still had the ability to shock and awe, namely with a spectacular commando mission to rescue imprisoned former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Il Duce had been deposed in July, and Adolf Hitler wanted his old friend rescued. In what would become a plot worthy of a Hollywood blockbuster, a team of German commandos launched a daring glider and paratrooper raid on a luxury hotel high in the Italian mountains to return Mussolini to power.   Setting the Stage: The Emergence of Paratroopers An image of World War II-era paratroopers descending to the ground using parachutes. Source: United States Army   The modern use of parachutes to safely descend to the ground from a flying airplane began during World War I when pilots were equipped with parachutes for emergency bailouts. By the end of the war, pilots on all fronts widely carried the new devices, which often served as cushions when not in use. However, not until the late 1920s did the idea of using parachutes to drop combatants begin. By the 1930s, both Germany and the Soviet Union were experimenting with dropping troops by parachutes. Late in the decade, Canada and the United States also began experimenting with the concept.   In the 1930s, possibly inspired by the Soviet Union, Nazi Germany began developing a parachute corps, which also served as a way to get around the strict limit on the size of Germany’s traditional army that had been imposed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. By the late 1930s, hundreds of German soldiers had been trained as paratroopers. After the outbreak of World War II in Europe, Germany was the first nation to use paratroopers in combat in April 1940, during its invasion of Norway and Denmark. The next month, Germany used both paratroopers and gliders to good effect in the invasion of France, resulting in it significantly expanding its paratrooper force for 1941.   Setting the Stage: Commando Tactics A unit of British commandos, or elite mobile infantry that typically used raids and ambushes to attack a larger enemy force, in 1941. Source: Commando Veterans Archive   Similar to paratroopers, commandos developed simultaneously in different countries. The first nation with formal commandos, however, was Britain, which developed commando forces in June 1940 after the defeat of France by Nazi Germany. These elite troops were highly trained in rapid mobilization and unconventional warfare and were inspired by similarly mobile troops during the Boer War in South Africa between 1899 and 1902. Commandos were used to perform raids and strike enemy locations quickly to wreak havoc before escaping.   By early 1942, British commandos were performing raids in Nazi-held territory in Europe, typically to sabotage military facilities. A few months later, in July 1942, the United States formed its first formal special forces group. The Axis Powers in Europe had their own commando-style units, such as the German Brandenburgers and the Italian frogmen. These various special forces units required advanced training and prized the use of speed and stealth. One of the most famous groups of special forces from World War II, Norwegian ski troops, is credited with destroying the Nazi atomic bomb project in early 1943.   July 25, 1943: Benito Mussolini is Arrested A photograph of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (center) superimposed over a map of Italy and other images. Source: PBS   In July 1943, after having defeated all Axis forces in North Africa, Britain and the United States invaded the Italian island of Sicily with Operation Husky. After Sicily fell to the Allies, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was deposed by King Victor Emmanuel III and arrested. The July 25 arrest of Mussolini was shocking and created much turmoil amidst the ongoing war. Badoglio wanted to remove Mussolini’s fascist regime, but Italy was full of troops from fascist Nazi Germany. At first, Badoglio pledged that Italy would continue the war as Germany’s ally.   Germany was highly suspicious of the situation in Italy, and Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler contemplated calling for a rapid seizure of Italy’s government by German troops. More German units entered the country, and part of a parachute division was even flown to Rome. Behind the scenes, the Western Allies (Britain, Canada, and the United States) were negotiating with Badoglio’s government to secure Italy’s surrender. If Allied troops could land in Italy unopposed, they could storm north and into Germany, potentially ending the war quickly. Unfortunately for Italy, Germany was also aware of this strategy.   The Search for Il Duce Seen here before World War II, Adolf Hitler (right) wanted to rescue Benito Mussolini (left) from imprisonment in 1943. Source: Yale University Press   Despite some wartime disagreements between the pair, Hitler was distraught by the arrest of Mussolini and wanted to return the original fascist dictator to power. However, Hitler’s government did not know where Mussolini was, which may have allowed cooler heads to prevail and prevented mass German reprisals against Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III. While German planners worked on Operation Achse to disarm Italy and seize power, a quiet search for Mussolini began.   In August, German troops continued to enter the country, taking advantage of the relative silence of the Badoglio government. As no firm deal had yet been reached with the Allies, Italy did not want to use force to stop German units from entering the country and risk open warfare without Allied backup. By mid-August, Hitler felt sure that Italy would soon announce its surrender to the Allies. Meanwhile, German commando leaders Otto Skorzeny and Karl Radl had been sent to Italy to track down Mussolini…and uncovered an Italian radio transmission on September 7 that gave away the prisoner’s location.   Early September: Planning the Raid A diagram showing the September 1943 plan to rescue former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini from the Hotel Campo Imperatore. Source: United States Army   In late August of 1943, Mussolini was moved to the Hotel Campo Imperatore in Italy’s mountainous Gran Sasso region. Previously, the deposed dictator had been moved from one island to another to keep him isolated from potentially loyal fascists who might try to rescue him. On September 8, Italy announced its surrender to the Allies. This triggered Operation Achse, and German units moved to surround and compel the surrender of their former Italian allies. As this drama unfolded, Skorzeny and Radl fine-tuned a plan to rescue Mussolini from Gran Sasso.   The plan would use gliders to land Skorzeny and his men, elite commandos, near the hotel. Aerial reconnaissance conducted on September 8 revealed potential landing sites, and the Germans might have the element of surprise. Although the Germans would certainly be outnumbered by the Italians guarding Mussolini, they might be able to move fast enough to rescue the dictator and depart to a nearby airfield for extraction before being overwhelmed. With Achse ongoing, Italians would be on high alert for German interference.   September 12: The Gran Sasso Raid Commences A training photo of German commandos using gliders, preparing for the Gran Sasso Raid. Source: National Rifle Association (NRA)   Shortly after noon on September 12, 1943, Skorzeny’s mission was launched. Operation Eiche involved ten gliders that took off from an airfield near Rome with heavily armed Fallschirmjäger paratroopers aboard. While the gliders headed straight for the hotel, paratroopers landed below in the mountainous area to block the route to the hotel and cut off communications. A handful of Italian casualties occurred during this maneuver to isolate the hotel, while the Germans enjoyed good luck in the rough glider landings—only one was wrecked.   Former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini (in black) being rescued by German paratroopers in the Gran Sasso Raid of September 12, 1943. Source: Wikimedia/German Federal Archives   Two hundred well-armed Carabinieri guards surrounded the Hotel Campo Imperatore, but they were stunned by the sudden arrival of Skorzeny’s commandos. A German-allied Italian general brought along for the operation ordered the guards to stand down, and the guards hesitated long enough for Skorzeny himself to seize and smash the guards’ radio. With no help coming, the guards chose not to resist, and Skorzeny quickly located Mussolini in one of the hotel rooms. Upon rescuing the former dictator, Skorzeny announced that the act was a token of Hitler’s “loyal friendship.”   September 12-14: Reuniting the Fascist Duo A Fieseler Fi 156 Storch aircraft, which flew former Italian dictator Benito Mussolini and raid commander Otto Skorzeny out of Gran Sasso. Source: Military Aviation Museum, Virginia Beach   Instead of going to an airfield by car, where Italian reinforcements might overwhelm Skorzeny’s commandos, it was decided to fly Mussolini directly out of the rocky Gran Sasso. A Fieseler Fi 156 “Storch” was summoned to land and did so with only about 100 feet of rocky runway. Skorzeny and Mussolini boarded the small plane, which took off again. The duo landed in Rome, where they boarded a full-size German bomber to fly north to Austria.   From Vienna, Austria, the pair flew on to Hitler’s headquarters, known as the Wolf’s Lair, the next day. Hitler was elated with the mission’s success and rewarded its commanding officer, Otto Skorzeny, with both medals and a promotion. Four days later, on September 18, 1943, Mussolini made his first address to Italy since his arrest on July 25. He would quickly be re-installed as the new leader of German-occupied Italy.   Reaction to the Gran Sasso Raid Pro-Nazi propaganda from 1938, similar to the Nazi propaganda that received a boost after the success of the Gran Sasso Raid in 1943. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington DC   The rescue of Mussolini was a shock to the Allies and signaled that Hitler planned to mount a thorough defense of Italy. Indeed, the Italian Campaign would become noted for its difficulty, with Italy’s mountainous terrain favoring the German defenders. Mussolini’s installation as leader of the Italian Social Republic, or RSI, likely helped the Germans marshal economic resources in northern Italy, including forced labor. On October 13, Allied-controlled southern Italy, under the Badoglio government, declared war on Germany and thus fought against Mussolini’s German-allied RSI.   For Nazi Germany, the success of the Gran Sasso Raid was a tremendous morale booster. Since February 1943, with its defeat at Stalingrad, morale had waned in the Third Reich. The daring raid to rescue Mussolini proved that Germany was still a potent fighting force. Preventing most of Italy from falling into Allied hands was a propaganda victory, as was holding onto Rome. Internally, however, some German leaders conceded that Rome and southern Italy would likely have to be sacrificed to establish a more defensible line against the Allies further north.   1944: Legend of Otto Skorzeny Frightens Allies Gran Sasso Raid leader Otto Skorzeny (left) also commanded Operation Greif during the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944. Source: The National WWII Museum – New Orleans   Despite the success of Operation Achse in keeping most of Italy under fascist control, the Allies steadily ground north. On June 4, 1944, Rome became the first European capital city captured by the Nazis to be liberated. Two days later, the United States, Britain, and Canada stormed the beaches of Normandy to begin the liberation of France. However, Germany struck back in December 1944 in its Ardennes Offensive, known in the United States as the Battle of the Bulge.   The Bulge saw the return of Germany’s elite commandos, including Otto Skorzeny. Skorzeny had conducted missions in the Balkans and Hungary since the Gran Sasso raid and was now sent to France to assist with a planned German breakthrough. Operation Greif saw Skorzeny lead English-speaking German commandos dressed in American uniforms to sow disarray and fear among the American lines. Some even feared that Skorzeny had come to assassinate Dwight D. Eisenhower, the supreme Allied commander in Europe. Fortunately, Operation Greif did less than expected, and the German Ardennes Offensive failed. Less than six months later, Nazi Germany surrendered unconditionally.   Aftermath: Special Ops Tactics Become Popular Present-day special operators of the US Army Special Forces, commonly known as Green Berets, and the Spanish military conducting training. Source: United States Army   Despite Skorzeny’s failure to achieve a German victory in the Ardennes, his tactics became very popular with the Allied powers. Analysts studied the tactics and results of various World War II special forces groups to improve them for future conflicts. Britain used commandos in the 1956 Suez Crisis, including its first helicopter assault. The United States renewed its focus on special forces during the Vietnam War. The 1980s saw the Soviet Union use special forces in Afghanistan. By the time of the Gulf War in Iraq (1990-91), virtually all world powers had invested heavily in special forces operations.   Proponents of special forces argue that they are an excellent fiscal investment because they deliver results for less time and cost than larger, traditional military units. However, special forces cannot be universally applied: information coming out of the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War indicates that Russian special forces have suffered tremendous casualties when being made to fight as regular infantry units. Therefore, while the Gran Sasso Raid showed the amazing capabilities of well-planned special forces operations, only certain circumstances are suitable for these types of missions.