Summer normally sees the trees full of green‚ blue skies (ok‚ maybe not here in England)‚ and deliciously warm‚ long days but for people living in the Northern Hemisphere in 1816‚ those days never came.What was The Year Without Summer?The Year Without Summer was pretty much what it says on the tin; on a global scale‚ temperatures had dropped by around 2 to 7 F and as a result‚ weather patterns around the world were disrupted.In the US‚ instead of summer warmth replacing the winter‚ the bitterly cold weather remained. The month of May can occasionally get a little chilly under normal circumstances‚ but in 1816‚ frost persisted across many of the eastern states. June saw snow. Rivers in Pennsylvania were still frozen over come July.Across the Atlantic‚ Europe was subject to torrential rains in Ireland‚ it didnt stop raining for eight consecutive weeks. US President John Quincy Adams‚ who was at the time ambassador to Great Britain and living in London‚ bemoaned in his diary the freezing rain showers and thunder that had left him unable to leave the house in early July.The effects of the global temperature drop even stretched into Asia‚ where the usual monsoon season was disrupted‚ leading to droughts.What were the consequences?As a result of the unseasonable weather‚ crops across several regions failed. In the US‚ this was primarily due to the continuing frosts in the spring which may have also led to farm animals dying according to diary entries written at the time whilst in Ireland‚ floods resulting from the heavy rains killed off the years potato harvest.It was a lack of rain that was the problem for crops in Asia‚ with droughts caused by the delayed monsoon season. In many of the affected areas across the Northern Hemisphere‚ the unsuccessful harvest led to famine.The impact on crops is also believed to have resulted in one of the longer-term impacts of The Year Without Famine a significant migration of farmers from the east of the US into the Midwest‚ which remains intensely agricultural to this day.What caused it?The root of this unusual weather requires us to travel back a year previous to Sumbawa‚ an island in Indonesia. There‚ on April 5‚ 1815‚ the stratovolcano Mount Tambora began to violently erupt.Volcanic eruptions can influence the planets climate for months. This can happen when tiny‚ light particles of ash remain in the stratosphere‚ and end up blocking sunlight‚ leading to cooling.Temperature drops can also be the result of eruptions spewing out sulfur dioxide. This combines with water in the stratosphere to make sulfuric acid‚ which in turn reflects the incoming solar radiation that would otherwise warm the planet up.Given the scale of the Mount Tambora eruption it was the most powerful eruption in recorded history it was suspected that the conditions seen in 1816 may have been the result of it‚ though the degree to which it played a role wasnt entirely clear.Then‚ in 2019‚ geoscientist Dr Andrew Schurer and colleagues used climate models to figure out what the weather might have been like without the volcano. Though the result suggested 1816 may have still been an unusually wet one in Europe‚ the model indicated it was the eruption that made temperatures so chilly.";Including volcanic forcing in climate models can account for the cooling‚ and we estimate it increases the likelihood of the extremely cold temperatures by up to 100 times‚ said Schurer in a statement. Without volcanic forcing‚ it is less likely to have been as wet and highly unlikely to have been as cold.";All round‚ 1816 was not a fun year for the planet and its people. Probably why some ended up calling it Eighteen Hundred and Froze to Death.

I have been researching the psychology of conspiracy beliefs for seven years now and people often ask me why people believe in them. This is not a simple question.There are many reasons people might endorse conspiracy theories. Something that stands out to me‚ though‚ is how our thinking styles can influence the way we process information and therefore how prone we can be to conspiracy beliefs.A preference for intuitive thinking‚ over analytical thinking styles seems to be linked to endorsement of conspiracy theories.Intuitive thinking is a thinking style reliant on immediate and unconscious judgments. It often follows gut feelings‚ whereas analytical thinking is about slower‚ more deliberate and detailed processing of information.Ive written before about how we can develop a more effortful‚ analytical thinking style to reduce our predisposition to conspiracy beliefs.Research has shown critical thinking skills have many life benefits. For example‚ a study from 2017 found that people who scored higher in critical thinking skills reported fewer negative life events (for instance‚ getting a parking ticket or missing a flight). Critical thinking was a stronger predictor than intelligence for avoiding these types of events. Its not clear why this is.Analytical thinking can make you less likely to believe in conspiracy theories. Marijus Auruskevicius/ShutterstockOn the other hand‚ intuitive thinking has been linked to thinking errors. For example‚ intuitive thinking styles can lead to over-reliance on mental shortcuts‚ which can also increase susceptibility to conspiracy theories.This can lead to dangerous consequences. For example‚ greater intuitive thinking has been linked to anti-vaccine conspiracy beliefs and vaccine hesitancy.However‚ extremely successful people‚ such as Albert Einstein and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs‚ argued the importance of using their intuition and attributed their achievements to intuitive thinking.The value of intuitive thinkingOne benefit of intuitive thinking is that it takes little or no processing time‚ which allows us to make decisions and judgments quickly. And‚ in some circumstances‚ this is vital.People working in crisis environments(such as the fire service) report the need to use intuitive thinking styles. During crises‚ it can be unrealistic to consistently use analytical thinking.Experienced crisis managers often rely on intuitive thinking in the first instance‚ as their default strategy‚ but as the task allows‚ draw on more analytical thinking later on. Critical and intuitive thinking styles can be used in tandem.What is important also is that this type of intuition develops through years of experience‚ which can produce expert intuition.Intuition can be crucial in other areas too. Creativity is often seen as a benefit of intuitive thinking styles. A review conducted in 2016 of research into idea generation found that creativity is positively linked to intuitive thinking.Although creativity is difficult to define‚ it can be thought of as similar to problem solving‚ where information is used to reach a goal‚ in a new or unexpected way.However‚ it is also important to note that the 2016 review found that combining intuitive and analytical thinking styles was best for idea evaluation.What is the solution?Now‚ research often focuses on developing ways to improve analytical thinking in order to reduce endorsement of dangerous conspiracy theories or reduce thinking errors and misconceptions.However‚ we often consider analytic and intuitive thinking styles as an either-or‚ and when making decisions or judgments we must choose one over the other. However‚ a 2015 meta-analysis (where data from multiple studies are combined and analysed) of 50 years of cognitive style research found evidence that these thinking styles could happen at the same time.Rather than two opposing ends of a spectrum‚ they are separate constructs‚ meaning that these thinking styles can happen together. Research in decision-making also suggests that thinking style is flexible and the best decisions are made when the thinking style a person uses aligns with the situation at hand.Some situations are more suited to analytical thinking styles (such as number tasks) while some are more suited to using intuition (such as understanding facial expressions). An adaptive decision-maker is skilled in using both thinking styles.So perhaps one way to reduce susceptibility to conspiracy theories is improving adaptive decision-making. My 2021 study found that when people were confronted with the misconceptions they had previously made‚ overestimating the extent to which others endorse anti-vaccine conspiracy theories‚ they re-evaluated their decisions. This could suggest that thinking styles can depend on the situation and information at hand.Although in many situations analytical thinking is better‚ we shouldnt dismiss the intuitive thinking style conspiracy theorists seem to favour as unworkable or inflexible. The answer could lie in understanding both thinking styles and being able to adjust our thinking styles when needed.Darel Cookson‚ Senior Lecturer in Psychology‚ Nottingham Trent UniversityThis article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Europa is one of the largest of more than 90 moons in orbit around the planet Jupiter. It is also one of the best places to look for alien life.Often termed an ocean world by scientists‚ observations to date strongly suggest that beneath Europas icy crust‚ there could be a liquid saltwater ocean containing twice as much water as Earths oceans. Now‚ Nasas Europa Clipper the largest spacecraft ever developed by the US space agency for a planetary mission may have the tools to detect it.As the Clipper spacecraft undergoes final testing and preparations before its October 2024 launch‚ scientists using one of the nine instruments onboard have made an exciting discovery. As well as determining whether Europa could support life‚ the instrument in question should in fact be capable of directly detecting alien life itself should it exist there.The three key ingredients for life are energy‚ liquid water and the right chemicals. The spacecraft will provide more detail on these ingredients at Europa‚ and therefore its potential for hosting life.Europa gets energy from the extreme tidal forces caused by Jupiters gravity‚ which push and pull the material of the moon‚ generating heat within it. It is this process that supports the theory of a liquid water ocean beneath the surface.Europas extraterrestrial ocean might contain the chemical building blocks for life. These include chemical elements such as carbon‚ oxygen‚ phosphorus and sulphur. But the mission team will also be on the lookout for organic compounds‚ which contain carbon and comprise many of the more complex chemicals vital in biology.Detecting the signatures of these chemicals is the key goal of the Europa Clipper mission. If such evidence can be found‚ this would indicate that Europa may be another place in the solar system capable of supporting life.A serendipitous findingThe Suda (Surface Dust Mass Analyser) instrument‚ led by the University of Colorado Boulder‚ is one of nine instruments on Europa Clipper. It will collect tiny ice grains and dust from the region above the surface as the spacecraft flies by the moon. The primary objective is to determine the composition of this material‚ and by analysing the trajectory‚ find out where on Europas surface it originated.Scientists believe that some icy material may come from eruptions‚ or plumes‚ on Europas surface. These plumes could carry water from the ocean below into space‚ so analysing what this material is composed of will give a good indication of the habitability of the ocean. The Suda instrument will also be able to determine whether material has originated from Europa itself‚ or has come from another nearby solar system object such as another moon of Jupiter.Europas ice shell floats on an ocean with twice the amount of water present on Earth. Nasa/JPL-Caltech/Seti InstituteSpeaking before the latest findings‚ Murthy Gudipati‚ a planetary scientist at Nasas Jet Propulsion Laboratory‚ said: We are not a life-finding mission. Europa Clippers goal is to understand Europas ocean and the moons habitability.But recent research published in Science Advances has shown that Clipper could be a life-finding mission after all. A group of scientists (from the University of Washington‚ the Free University of Berlin and the UKs Open University) tested an impact ionising mass spectrometer‚ the same type of instrument as Suda‚ in the lab under simulated conditions similar to those expected during the Europa mission.In the tiny ice crystals fired towards the equipment‚ the scientists also included some bacterial cell material. They found that even when just 1% of a cells complete material was included in an ice grain‚ they could still detect the presence of bacterial material. They were also able to determine that different modes of the instrument were better for detecting different organic compounds‚ such as fatty acids and amino acids.Fabian Klenner‚ one of the researchers‚ told New Scientist: If life forms on Europa follow the same principle of having a membrane and DNA made from amino acids then detecting those chemicals would be a smoking gun for life there.The Suda instrument was not designed to detect life‚ but scientists think it might be able to. Nasa/Lasp-CU BoulderThe Suda science team will use these findings to analyse the data from Europa when it arrives. They have a little while to get things ready: the spacecraft wont arrive at Europa until at least 2030.It would be a sufficiently fantastic result if Clipper can demonstrate that Europa has the necessary ingredients for life‚ and would undoubtedly lead to much research and speculation‚ as well as possible preparations for a follow-up mission to detect potential life. If Clipper can do all that‚ plus gather direct material from alien life at the same time‚ it would be a landmark scientific discovery.To date‚ no concrete evidence has been found of life beyond Earth‚ though there are indications of suitable conditions on some other solar system bodies. Life on Europa would be the first extraterrestrial biology ever conclusively detected. While this life is not likely to communicate with us any time soon‚ it would answer the burning question of whether biology can exist anywhere other than Earth.Proving that Europa supports or has supported life will enable researchers to develop and test theories on how that biology came to be. This in turn could also provide insights into the origins of life on our planet.Lucinda King‚ Space Projects Manager &;amp; Mission Design Lead‚ University of PortsmouthThis article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

On his eponymous Sunday show‚ anti-Israel MSNBC host Ayman Mohyeldin spoke with Congressman Jamaal Bowman (D-NY)‚ and gave the ";Squad"; radical a forum to bash Israel while claiming to support the Jewish state.Mohyeldin‚ a former correspondent for Al-Jazeera English whose mother is Palestinian‚ set up the segment by oddly labeling former Speaker Nancy Pelosi as a ";moderate"; in spite of her stridently liberal record as he recalled a recent increase in congressional Democrats pushing President Joe Biden to pressure Israel over how it is conducting military operations in Gaza:So‚ for months‚ progressive lawmakers have been vocally denouncing Israel';s disproportionate retaliation in Gaza‚ and now today‚ six months into the war‚ that view is actually held by a majority of Americans. According to a Gallup poll‚ 55 percent of Americans disapprove of Israel';s military actions in Gaza. That is the majority. And‚ as we mentioned before the break‚ moderate Democrats including Nancy Pelosi who are‚ you know‚ strong supporters of Israel‚ have now joined that chorus.He added: ";In a letter‚ they have asked President Biden to suspend weapons transfers to Israel until a full independent investigation into the World Central Kitchen convoy attack is complete.";After Congressman Bowman talked up the likelihood of more Democrats joining together to be more critical of Israel‚ Mohyeldin followed up by sympathetically asking about AIPAC targeting his guest and other anti-Israel Democrats in their primaries:The American Israel Public Affairs Committee -- or AIPAC as we know -- expected to spend $100 million on trying to oust Democrats like yourself in their primaries before they even get to the general election. Another group -- the Democratic Majority for Israel PAC -- just endorsed George Latimer‚ the AIPAC-endorsed candidate who';s running against you in New York';s primary. What do you make of this? What do you say to these groups who are coming after you on this issue? Have you ever experienced anything like this in your short term in politics so far?He then followed up:Why though? Why is this happening? And‚ again‚ I don';t know of another part of our politics or a policy issue -- it doesn';t happen -- the gun lobby does not do this with your opponent. They don';t primary you if you';re not taking it -- the climate lobby doesn';t do this. The labor lobby doesn';t do this. So why is this happening?The far-left Democrat then made incendiary claims about Israel‚ calling it an ";apartheid state"; and referring to the founding of Israel that displaced Arabs as the ";Nakba"; (which means ";disaster"; in Arabic). Bowman:They don';t want any criticism of Israel. Listen‚ Israel is an ally. We want them to remain an ally. But just like your brother or your cousin or your friend‚ when they';re doing the wrong thing‚ you have to tell them they';re doing the wrong thing and hold them accountable so they can improve. Israel has been doing the wrong thing not just as it relates to this collective punishment in Gaza and the starvation that';s happening right now in Gaza‚ but prior to that‚ labeled an apartheid state‚ occupation‚ a blockade‚ the Nakba which nobody ever wants to talk about.Mohyeldin supportively asked that ";one of the critiques is like you';re too focused on foreign policy -- you';re not focused enough on your district -- and that';s what they';re trying to do with Rashida Tlaib in Michigan with other progressives. Does that hold any water?"; The New York Democrat answered:My district doesn';t want bombs and weapons and billions to be sent to Israel to kill babies. My district wants that money sent to our district so people can afford housing and child care and utilities and have better paying jobs and can afford food and take a vacation. We want peace‚ and we want investments in the American economy and the American people -- particularly those black‚ brown‚ marginalized and left behind.Transcript follows:MSNBC';s AymanApril 7‚ 20247:17 p.m. EasternAYMAN MOHYELDIN:So‚ for months‚ progressive lawmakers have been vocally denouncing Israel';s disproportionate retaliation in Gaza‚ and now today‚ six months into the war‚ that view is actually held by a majority of Americans. According to a Gallup poll‚ 55 percent of Americans disapprove of Israel';s military actions in Gaza. That is the majority. And‚ as we mentioned before the break‚ moderate Democrats including Nancy Pelosi who are‚ you know‚ strong supporters of Israel‚ have now joined that chorus. In a letter‚ they have asked President Biden to suspend weapons transfers to Israel until a full independent investigation into the World Central Kitchen convoy attack is complete.New York Democratic Congressman Jamaal Bowman is one of those who signed that letter. He joins me now.Let me start off with -- I don';t know if you had a chance to see our previous segment‚ but one of the critiques was: It';s only 37 lawmakers so far. You';re one of those lawmakers. Give us a -- give us a response to what you say of that critique.CONGRESSMAN JAMAAL BOWMAN (D-NY):Yeah‚ I mean‚ it';s 37 lawmakers responding to the American people. The majority of the American people demand a permanent ceasefire. We see what';s going on right in front of our eyes. We see hundreds of thousands of people and children starving to death in Gaza. So the American people are with us. We';re just leading the way and responding to what the people in our own districts are saying. And so‚ yeah‚ I mean‚ you say it';s 37 lawmakers now. It was only a few at the very beginning calling for a permanent ceasefire‚ and that number has grown exponentially. So you';re going to see this number grow. I think you';re going to see this number grow pretty rapidly.MOHYELDIN:Are you seeing any initial response or any backdoor channels of communication with the White House? How do these things work? You';ve sent the letter -- you';ve signed onto the letter. Do they start signaling to you‚ ";Hey‚ we welcome this‚ and you';re helping us‚ giving us more space so that we can -- the President can come out there now and start being critical of Israel on this issue";?(BOWMAN)Let me ask you about the Wisconsin vote again. We were talking about this in the previous segment. What do you make of the fact that the domestic politics in this country -- and you';re talking about democracy‚ the representation of the American people. You had about 48‚000 unrestricted voters in Wisconsin. The President won that state by 20‚000 votes. Is that a cause of concern for the reelection of President Joe Biden?(BOWMAN)Let me ask you about what you';re going through in terms of your own personal campaign. I want to kind of make sure I just got the number. The American Israel Public Affairs Committee -- or AIPAC as we know -- expected to spend $100 million on trying to oust Democrats like yourself in their primaries before they even get to the general election. Another group -- the Democratic Majority for Israel PAC -- just endorsed George Latimer‚ the AIPAC-endorsed candidate who';s running against you in New York';s primary. What do you make of this? What do you say to these groups who are coming after you on this issue? Have you ever experienced anything like this in your short term in politics so far?(BOWMAN)Why though? Why is this happening? And‚ again‚ I don';t know of another part of our politics or a policy issue -- it doesn';t happen -- the gun lobby does not do this with your opponent. They don';t primary you if you';re not taking it -- the climate lobby doesn';t do this. The labor lobby doesn';t do this. So why is this happening?BOWMAN: They don';t want any criticism of Israel. Listen‚ Israel is an ally. We want them to remain an ally. But just like your brother or your cousin or your friend‚ when they';re doing the wrong thing‚ you have to tell them they';re doing the wrong thing and hold them accountable so they can improve. Israel has been doing the wrong thing not just as it relates to this collective punishment in Gaza and the starvation that';s happening right now in Gaza‚ but prior to that‚ labeled an apartheid state‚ occupation‚ a blockade‚ the Nakba which nobody ever wants to talk about. So‚ because people like me are in Congress actually speaking the truth to hold Israel accountable so they can do better for themselves and for a free Palestine‚ now‚ AIPAC wants to come after us. They don';t want any criticism of Israel which is absurd and unacceptable and is not going to help us maintain a good relationship or maintain lives in Israel or Palestine.MOHYELDIN:One of their -- and we';re almost out of time -- but one of the critiques is like you';re too focused on foreign policy -- you';re not focused enough on your district -- and that';s what they';re trying to do with Rashida Tlaib in Michigan with other progressives. Does that hold any water?BOWMAN: Yeah‚ every accusation is a confession. My district doesn';t want bombs and weapons and billions to be sent to Israel to kill babies. My district wants that money sent to our district so people can afford housing and child care and utilities and have better paying jobs and can afford food and take a vacation. We want peace‚ and we want investments in the American economy and the American people -- particularly those black‚ brown‚ marginalized and left behind. That';s what my district wants.MOHYELDIN:Congressman Jamaal Bowman‚ always a pleasure.

TheFinal Fantasy 14benchmark for Dawntrail has been announced‚ alongside news that we';ll finally be able to create our own female Hrothgar ahead of the race coming to the MMO. Game director Naoki Yoshida also took some time to show off the graphical improvements coming with the 7.0 update‚ alongside what we can expect from upscaling technology options. Continue reading FF14 benchmark tool lets you ensure your PC is prepared for DawntrailMORE FROM PCGAMESN: The best MMOs‚ FF14 Dawntrail release date‚ FF14 Island Sanctuary guide

FF14 Dawntrail is almost here‚ and Ive been packing my shorts and sunglasses ready for our definitely just a holiday and nothing more dangerous trip to Tural in the new Final Fantasy 14 expansion. But as the critically acclaimed MMORPG takes us to shores anew‚ its important that our travels arent spoiled by any nasty holidaygoers or malicious locals. Thankfully‚ game director and producer Naoki Yoshida has just detailed the introduction of new FF14 blacklist features coming with the 7.0 update that will give you a way to avoid any potential problem players. Continue reading An FF14 Dawntrail blacklist will let you make problem players vanishMORE FROM PCGAMESN: The best MMOs‚ FF14 Dawntrail release date‚ FF14 Island Sanctuary guide

Trumps stumble onto the right abortion position obscures pro-lifers need to win the argument.

Arizona is abandoning restrictions on cottage food that tend to harm lower-income‚ independent sellers. But other states havent relented.

Inflation could sink Biden if Republicans get their act together.

Since the October 7 massacre‚ links between numerous journalists in the Gaza Strip and terror organizations have been exposed.