by Rhoda Wilson, Expose News: Trust has broken down in public discourse. Lies have been normalised. We are now reaping the harvest of untruth. Lies are not just tolerated but are now the default approach. Internationally, we are pummelled by agencies such as the United Nations, World Bank, G20 and World Health Organisation to give […]

by Wolf Richter, Wolf Street: The Japanese Nikkei 225 stock index plunged 12.4% on Monday, after having plunged 5.7% on Friday, and 2.5% on Thursday, bringing the three-day drop since the Bank of Japan meeting on July 31 to 19.6%. On July 31, the BOJ announced the end of free money, a wakeup call for the free-money-addicted […]

from Man in America: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  SUMMARY Imposing Structure: The Statue of Liberty stands 151 feet tall from base to torch, with the entire monument reaching 305 feet when including its pedestal and foundation. It has many steps leading to the crown platform, offering views over New York Harbor. French Origins and Construction: Designed by French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi and gifted by France in 1886, the statue’s parts were shipped from France in 214 crates. Gustave Eiffel assisted with the internal support structure. Copper Coating and Historical Uses: Coated in copper that has oxidized to a green patina, the statue’s original reddish-brown color has changed over time. It operated as a lighthouse for 16 years before ceasing in 1902 due to ineffectiveness. Visitor Access and Location: Tourists can climb 162 stairs to access the crown, which reopened in 2022 after a pandemic closure. Although located in New Jersey’s waters, Liberty Island is part of New York City.   Standing tall on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, the Statue of Liberty is a potent symbol of American history, representing the nation’s liberty, freedom and inclusivity. Designed by French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi, the famous statue was a gift from France to the United States, to commemorate the alliance forged between Americans and French during the American Revolution. The constituent parts of the statue were built in France and made their way across the pond in 214 shipping crates. In 1886 the statue was completed, and it has remained in place ever since. But just how tall is this colossal monument? Let’s take a closer look, along with some fun facts about Lady Liberty.   1. The Statue of Liberty Is 151 Feet Tall (93 meters) Manhattan skyline with the Statue of Liberty and a ferry, photo by Bernd Dittrich   The height of the Statue of Liberty varies, depending on how you are measuring it. From the statue’s base to the torch, the total height is 151 feet. But if you also include the pedestal and the foundation, the entire construction is an impressive 305 feet tall, making up one of the largest monuments in the entire world. To put these measurements into context, the Statue of Liberty is equal in height to a 22-story building from the ground to the tip of the torch flame. There are 167 steps leading from the main lobby of the statue to the crown platform, which offers views out across New York Harbor.   2. Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi Almost Made the Statue in Egypt Presentation Drawing of “The Statue of Liberty Illuminating the World” by Frederic Auguste Bartholdi, 1875. Source: the Metropolitan Museum, New York   French sculptor Frederic-Auguste Bartholdi was the man behind this world-famous monument. His first concept for a huge female monument was a lighthouse in Egypt, to commemorate the French construction of the Suez Canal. But when that fell through, Bartholdi set his sights on commemorating the alliance between France and the United States. The rest, as they say, is history.   3. Gustave Eiffel Assisted in the Construction of the Monument Photo of Gustave Eiffel standing by the Eiffel Tower.   The French engineering workshop Gaget, Gauthier & Co. constructed the Statue of Liberty’s head, arms, and exterior in parts while Gustave Eiffel, designer of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, assisted with constructing the internal pylon tower that supports them. They spent 9 years putting it all together, before pulling it into parts and shipping it to New York City.   4. The Statue of Liberty Is Coated in Copper The gold torch on the Statue of Liberty following restoration work in the 1980s.   Have you ever wondered why the Statue of Liberty has a green hue? The entire statue is coated in a thin layer of copper, as thin as two pennies stuck together, which covers an internal structure made from cast iron and stainless steel. This copper has slowly aged over time, changing from a reddish-brown hue to the distinctive pale green patination we know and love today. Meanwhile, painters covered the gleaming torch in 24K gold during restoration work in 1986.   5. No One Knows Who Lady Liberty is Modelled After The Statue of Liberty detailed view.   Likely, the inspiration for Lady Liberty’s chiseled features and strident pose came from a range of sources. Some believe she might have been based on an Arab woman, in line with Bartholdi’s earlier designs for Egypt, while others speculate that she bears an uncanny resemblance to Bartholdi’s mother.   6. The Torch Used to Have a Viewing Platform with Public Access The torch of the Statue of Liberty. Source: New York Tickets   From the years 1886 until 1916, visitors could access the Statue of Liberty’s torch through a ladder in her arm. At the top of the torch, tourists could exit through a small door to a balcony, providing breathtaking views of the water. The viewing platform closed after the arm needed restoration following a nearby explosion and never reopened. Today, the original torch from the Statue of Liberty resides in the Statue of Liberty Museum.   7. The Statue of Liberty Was Once a Lighthouse The Statue of Liberty lit up at night.   For the first 16 years of its existence, the Statue of Liberty operated as a lighthouse, which was supposed to guide ships coming into New York harbor. While the original idea was to place lights inside Liberty’s crown, these were too bright, and safety officers feared they might blind passing ships. Instead, the light came from the torch. While other lighthouses were still run from kerosene lamps, the Statue of Liberty was the first lighthouse to be lit with electricity, powered by a steam electricity plant. Unfortunately, because there was no amplifying lens in the torch, the statue wasn’t much use, and it ceased its lighthouse activities in 1902.   8. Visitors Can Access the Crown of the Statue of Liberty Statue of Liberty from below. Source: Statue of Liberty   Limited visitors can access the crown viewing deck inside of the Statue of Liberty. Tourists must buy tickets to visit the crown due to its extreme popularity. To get to the crown, one must climb 162 stairs, which the official website warns is strenuous.   Statue of Liberty Crown Viewing Platform. Source: Mark D. Levine   Once visitors complete the climb, they can look out over the harbor through windows in Lady Liberty’s crown. The viewing platform closed in 2020 due to the pandemic but reopened in 2022. Manhattan Borough President Mark D. Levine shared the above image of tourists in the crown to announce the reopening of the viewing platform.   9. It Is Closer to New Jersey than New York A view across to the Statue of Liberty from the water.   Technically the Statue of Liberty resides in the waters of New Jersey. However, Liberty Island is part of the 8th Congressional District of New York, and New Jersey has never tried to claim the land, so we can safely say Lady Liberty lives in New York City.   Originally published: February 22, 2023. Last update: August 3, 2024 by Elizabeth Berry

SUMMARY Designed by Gustave Eiffel: The Eiffel Tower, crafted by the renowned engineer Gustave Eiffel, was a highlight of the 1889 Paris World Fair and showcases his expertise in metal frameworks. Remarkable Construction: Completed in 22 months with no reported injuries, the tower’s construction was a notable achievement for its time, using robust ‘Puddle Iron’ for durability. Iconic Structure and Functionality: Standing at 986 feet as the tallest building in the world until 1930, the Eiffel Tower features three visitor floors, with the top accessible only by stairs. Cultural and Artistic Impact: The tower inspired numerous artworks, including those by Robert Delaunay, and will be given a golden paint makeover in 2024 to celebrate the Paris Olympics.   The Eiffel Tower is the ultimate symbol of Paris, towering over the city with its distinctive lattice structure that curves upwards towards the sky. Once the tallest building in the world, the Eiffel Tower became a symbol of ingenuity and modernity during the 20th century. Since then, it has been the inimitable, historical icon of Paris, attracting millions of tourists every year. It can also be seen from much of Paris, making it an important emblem for the people who live there. We take a look through some of the most fascinating and unusual facts about the Eiffel Tower to celebrate this marvel of architectural engineering.   1. It Was Designed by Gustave Eiffel Portrait of Gustave Eiffel in the late 19th century   The Eiffel Tower was designed by the esteemed engineer Gustave Eiffel, who ran a busy workshop in Levallois Perret, near Paris. His engineering company specialized in metal frameworks, many of which featured the same distinct lattice metalwork seen in the Eiffel Tower. Some of his most notable constructions include the Porto Viaduct in Portugal, the Viaduct du Garabit in France, and the metal framework for the Statue of Liberty. Eiffel won an open competition to design the Eiffel Tower, which was to be the crowning glory during the Paris World Fair of 1889.   2. It Took 22 Months to Complete   The construction of the Eiffel Tower took around 22 months to complete, a remarkable feat for a time when workers had far fewer of the machines and tools we rely on today. Miraculously, given how high workers had to climb, no one was killed or hurt during the tower’s construction.   3. The Eiffel Tower Is Made of Iron A view from one of the Eiffel Tower restaurants.   Gustave Eiffel had a reputation for producing iron monuments that could withstand all weather conditions, and the Eiffel Tower was no exception. He used a particular type of iron for the tower called ‘Puddle Iron’, derived from the Pompey Forges in the East of France. The name of this iron comes from the refining or ‘puddling’ process the metal goes through, which eliminates excess carbon after melting the ore. Gustave argued this type of iron was the most robust building material in the world.   4. The Eiffel Tower Has Three Floors   The Eiffel Tower has three floors in total, all of which are open to visitors. Visitors can access the first two floors by stairs and an elevator, while they must climb steps to reach the top level or summit. The first two floors feature restaurants and cafes, while on each level there is an observational deck for looking out into the city of Paris from on high.   5. It’s as heavy as an Entire Freight Train Eiffel Tower and exhibition buildings on the Champ de Mars as seen from Trocadero, Paris Exposition, 1889 Source: Library of Congress, Washington   Perhaps unsurprisingly, the weight of the Parisian tower is impressively high, coming in at about the same weight as an entire freight train. In total, estimates suggest it is around 10,100 tons. The metal framework alone weighs around 7,300 tons, while the thick layer of protective paint on its surface is 60 tons!   6. Robert Delaunay Created Countless Paintings of the Eiffel Tower The Eiffel Tower and Gardens, Champ de Mars, by Robert Delaunay, 1920s   Cubist and Opphist artist Robert Delaunay lived most of his life in Paris and painted countless paintings of the Eiffel Tower. For Delaunay and his contemporaries, the tower represented the pinnacle of achievement in society. His works based on the tower span several years and styles, starting with Cubism and later returning to painting the tower in the Orphist style.   7. The Eiffel Tower Has to be Repainted Every 7 Years Repainting the Eiffel Tower.   Under Gustave Eiffel’s strict instruction, the Eiffel Tower must be repainted with a thick layer of protective paint every 7 years, to protect the iron from the corrosive effects of the weather. The Parisian government has stuck to these conditions over the past century, which is one of the reasons why it still appears in such pristine condition today. Over the years, the tower was painted in various colors, from the original reddish-brown shade to bright yellow. In 1968, a specially mixed paint shade called “Eiffel Tower Brown”, was adopted by the French, which is still in use today.   8. Artists Staged a Protest About the Eiffel Tower The Tower during a Paris World Exposition   Parisians did not universally accept the tower in its day – in fact, a group of 300 artists and academics staged an angry protest calling for its immediate removal, referring to the tower as “…the useless and monstrous Eiffel Tower,” likening it to a “gigantic black factory chimney.”   9. It Has a Limited Visitor Capacity The opening of the Eiffel Tower in late 19th century Paris.   The Eiffel Tower might be a hefty monument, but it has a limited visitor capacity of 5,000, split over different levels because of the tower’s tapered shape. The first and largest level can carry the weight of 3,000 people, the second level is narrower and can hold around 1,600, while the much smaller top level can house only 400 people.   10. It Was Once the Tallest Building in the World   The Eiffel Tower was part of the ‘race to the sky’ in the late 19th century, and it hit the record for the world’s tallest building in 1889, at 986 feet. However, it only stayed in the top spot for four decades, after which time both the Chrysler Building, followed by the Empire State Building set new records.   11. Smaller Replica Eiffel Towers Exist Around the World Eiffel Tower in Las Vegas, Nevada. Source: Caesar’s Palace   The tower is so famous today that a series of small replica towers of the same design exist in cities around the world. These include Las Vegas, Tokyo, Brazil, Riga, and Sydney.   12. The Eiffel Tower is Going Gold Ahead of the 2024 Olympics Olympic Rings with the Eiffel Tower, Paris 2024 Olympics. Source: Paris Olympics   In 2024, they revamped the Eiffel Tower with a golden paint hue to coincide with the Paris Olympics. The repainting job will be one of the tower’s most extensive revamps in 130 years.   Originally published: April 26, 2023. Last update: August 5, 2024 by Elizabeth Berry

  Famed alliances have impacted history for generations; most noteworthy include the Allied Powers in WWII or the French support of the newly forming United States in the American Revolutionary War. However, one lesser-known collaboration paved the way for the success of not only their own entities but later the colonial powers that would consume them. The Iroquois Confederacy, or the Haudenosaunee, was an immense North American power for years, an entente that would hold power over economics, politics, and culture for many people. They impacted trade, drove out competitors, and helped their allies win wars that altered the course of history.   The People of the Longhouse A New York Museum Model of a longhouse being built. Source: New York Museum via YouTube   The title “Iroquois Confederacy” actually refers not to the Indigenous people who make up the alliance but to the language they speak. This term was given to the group by French settlers, and English colonists called them “The League of Five Nations.” The alliance has also been referred to as the “Iroquois League.”   However, a more appropriate term for the group is the Haudenosaunee, which translates to “people of the longhouse.” This group of five, later six, tribes formed around their common language, close proximity, and cultural similarities to defend their common interests and protect their people. The Iroquoian language group that the more common name of the organization comes from is not a single language but over ten. Other tribes speak Iroquoian languages that are not part of the Confederacy, such as the Cherokee. Iroquoian is one of approximately twenty language groups encompassing dozens of Indigenous tongues across North America.   A map of upstate New York in 1788 showing the locations of the Haudenosaunee tribes. Source: Neighbors of the Onondaga Nation, Syracuse Peace Council   The People of the Longhouse were aptly named for their unique homes. While Native Americans are often associated with tipis, those structures were only realistically used by a few tribes, such as the Lakota. Longhouses were more appropriate for the Iroquois-speaking people and their environment in the Northeast and Eastern parts of North America, where winters can be harsh.   Most of their traditional territory stretched across what is now New York State but could reach further south and north at times. Longhouses were often arch-shaped and, as the name implied, long. They were covered in bark for protection from the elements and much more permanent in nature than a tipi.   However, communities typically relocated every twenty to thirty years as resources dwindled, particularly firewood and bark for home repair. The five tribes that originally encompassed the confederacy were the Mohawk, Cayuga, Oneida, Onondaga, and the Seneca. The Tuscarora later joined to complete the six. This alliance is one of the oldest and longest-lasting democracies in the world.   Formation and Organization Portrait of Ossahinta, leader in the Onondaga nation, by Sanford Thayer, 1845. Source: Smithsonian American Art Museum, Washington DC   When considering the history of what is now the United States and Canada, many people think about the beginning as when the first settlers arrived and began colonizing. However, those European explorers were encroaching on a thriving land that was already home to hundreds of thousands of people with successful economies, governments, and families. The Haudenosaunee was flourishing upon the arrival of European colonizers and, in some cases, was responsible for those settlers’ survival. A still from a PBS film about the founding story of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. Source: PBS Learning Media.   Members of the Haudenosaunee nation may have been present in North America as far back as 4000 BCE. Estimates of when the alliance formed are varied, but it is estimated at approximately 1142 CE based on a mixture of oral tradition and archaeological evidence.   According to Haudenosaunee oral tradition, the confederacy was founded by a prophet known as the Peacemaker, with help from a man known as Aionwatha. Aionwatha is more commonly known as Hiawatha but should not be confused with the main character in the famous poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, “The Song of Hiawatha.” Though the poem refers to him, the protagonist is actually Algonquian, not Iroquois, and this is a common cultural misconception.   Ladies Lead Haudenosaunee Women. Source: PBS Learning Media   Each of the six nations in the alliance operates in a matrilineal clan system. Matrilineal refers to how family lineage is emphasized on the mother’s side rather than on the father’s side, as in many European traditions. Clans are groups of extended families that are headed by a clan mother. Each clan has its own name, usually in reference to an element of nature.   In the past, clans lived together in one large longhouse, with uncles, aunts, grandparents, cousins, siblings, and more sharing living quarters. Typically, about sixty people lived in a longhouse. Upon marriage, a man moved in with his wife’s family but still had responsibilities to his mother’s family and would aid in raising any nieces and nephews if he had sisters. Haudenosaunee Seneca woman Caroline Parker Mountpleasant in traditional dress, circa 1850. Source: Rochester Museum & Science Center   Clan mothers weren’t just heads of the family. They had important duties to their communities. The clan mother was responsible for making all major decisions affecting the clan, naming all children, selecting a male counterpart to help run the clan, and ensuring that all clan members were fed and cared for appropriately.   The male leader of the clan was the hoyaneh and was generally chosen on the basis of honor and concern for others. If found unfit for his position, he could be removed by the clan mother. The hoyaneh would serve on councils for the entire confederacy. The Grand Council dealt with issues that affected all the nations within the confederacy and had members from each tribe. This image, titled Peace Queen, depicts a female leader pointing two war parties to put down their weapons and enter a longhouse. She is standing under a tall pine tree, the Haudenosaunee symbol of peace. Painting by Ernest Smith, 1936. Source: NY Heritage   The Grand Council took place in both a physical and symbolic longhouse. Each tribe had its role within the symbolic longhouse based on the history of the confederacy. The Onondaga were the Keepers of the Fire. The Onondaga, along with the Mohawk and Seneca, were also the Elder Brothers within the longhouse, while the Cayuga and Oneida were considered the Younger Brothers. Having joined later, the Tuscarora are represented in council affairs by the Oneida.   Members of the council met to discuss and decide on issues. The confederacy had a constitution and still maintains one to this day, though when it was actually written down is unknown. However, the effectiveness of this document is undeniable, as it was considered an inspiration to the framers of the United States Constitution, particularly Benjamin Franklin, who was thoroughly impressed by the efficiency and long-standing success of the group. The Grand Council, and in turn, the confederacy, places equal emphasis on law, nature, and society in its proceedings and governance.   Conflict and War The French & Indian War was a precursor to the American Revolution. Source: Open Ended Social Studies   Historically, the alliance fought fiercely when faced with a common enemy. In the 17th century, they were involved in a number of conflicts, particularly against the Algonquian. Like the Six Nations, the Algonquian were not a single tribe but a confederacy united on the basis of cultural similarities and a common language. The conflict between these two groups resulted from their pursuit of a shared interest: furs, particularly beaver pelts.   The fur trade was booming at this time, with beaver hats and similar fashions all the rage in Europe. French and British traders were working with Native Americans to purchase the raw materials necessary to profit from these goods, and it was a race to see who could supply them with the most and the best furs.   The Iroquois-speaking nations had hunted beaver to near-extinction in their homelands via British trade by the mid-17th century. They then decided to push westward to Algonquian-occupied lands in pursuit of fresh game. The Algonquian were heavily involved in the fur trade themselves and engaged in transactions with the French. Conflicts quickly arose and would last until the end of the century, often referred to as The Great Beaver Wars.   A Revolution Comes A pictorial of the chaotic Battle of Oriskany, in which Haudenosaunee warriors ambushed Patriot militia in 1777. Ballou’s Pictorial, 1857. Source: All Things Liberty   The Six Nations remained allied with the British during the French & Indian War but grew concerned with continued British expansion and civil conflict during the Revolutionary War period. The Council chose to remain neutral at the onset of the war. However, pressures from both England and the rebel colonists soon gave way to splits–not only among the member nations but even within nations and families.   Some worried that their people had a better chance of survival with the British, their old allies, while others believed that the rebels better understood the plight of the Indigenous people and their desire for freedom and would help them keep their land. Though individuals did vary, the Oneida and the newly joined Tuscarora were the only two bands that largely gave their support to the rebel colonists.   It was the first time history has noted any major rift in the confederacy, and the war would leave physical and emotional wounds that would take a great deal of time to heal. The Treaty of Paris that ended the Revolutionary War did not take into consideration any Indigenous tribes, their opinions, or needs, though many were greatly entrenched in the matters of the war.   A map of Onondaga Territory being divided up in 1792. The land would be used for colonial settlement and eventually become towns and cities such as Syracuse, New York. Source: Gerrit Smith Papers via WAER   After the Revolutionary War, the majority of the Haudenosaunee became confined to reservations rather than living in their traditional lands. It was during this time that many adapted from living in longhouses to living in European-style wood-frame homes. However, longhouses were still maintained as community gathering places and for cultural ceremonies.   The Haudenosaunee Flag. Source: Syracuse University   The Haudenosaunee would maintain their confederacy and presence throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries despite their new living situation. Haudenosaunee culture was an inspiration to women’s rights leaders in the nineteenth century, as they watched Iroquois women make decisions of their own free will while married white women lived without any rights or freedoms, at least in the eyes of the law.   Contemporary Presence Haudenosaunee reenactors at a National Park Service event. Source: National Park Service   The six nations of the Haudenosaunee are still active today. Though white encroachment and assimilation policies reduced their power and influence steadily throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the groups still number in the tens of thousands today. Their traditional lands have been reduced to reservations, but they are some of the most populous reservations today, particularly in Canada.

  Occupying the arid desert valleys of southern Peru, the Nazca were the creators of the Nazca Lines. They formed a culturally cohesive society of independently organized chiefdoms. Historians believe that the Nazca operated independently while occasionally unifying for religious ceremonies or as other needs drove them together.   Because their civilization resided in the arid coastal desert region of Peru, the society centered around survival and using the land for sustenance. Religion centered around fertility and agriculture with the Nazca worshiping the gods of the earth, the sea, the sky, fire, water, and the wind. Shamans conducted ceremonies to bring on good rains and harvests and sites with water likely had religious significance for them.   The Nazca People Creators of the Nazca Lines Burial mound at Cahuachi, Antoine 49, October 11, 2013, via Flickr   The city of Cahuachi was the main Nazca religious city as evidenced by large temples and archaeological remains of pottery and religious objects. Small villages dotted the more fertile valleys, with residences built on terraced hillsides near irrigated floodplains. The Nazca traded with other civilizations in South America, as evidenced by textiles made of llama and alpaca fur, neither of which can survive in the region. Additionally, researchers have discovered Nazca mummies wearing headdresses donning the feathers of rainforest birds.   The Cantalloc puquios, by PsamatheM, January 30, 2019, via Wikimedia Commons   The arid environment of the Peruvian coastal desert made for difficult farming and survival. The Nazca grew maize, squash, beans, and peanuts. They also ate small amounts of fish. The Nazca likely depended on trade to supplement their diet.   To irrigate land for agriculture, the Nazca built a complex aqueduct system. These aqueducts connected underground water to channels. The channels deposited the water in irrigation canals for agricultural purposes or deposited water in small reservoirs for domestic use. The domestic reservoirs had numerous access holes along the surface that operated like modern manholes. People would descend into the reservoirs to collect the necessary water.   Culture Tunic with Confronting Catfish, Nasca-Wari, ca. 800-850 CE, via the Metropolitan Museum of Art   The Nazca culture was a stratified hierarchical society. Priests and military leaders concentrated power in their hands, having the ability to organize community work, and direct ceremonial activities. The leaders lived in pyramid-like buildings.   Artisans, such as ceramists, architects, weavers, astrologists, musicians, and soldiers, lived in small cities and other ceremonial centers. The artisans served the priests and military leaders while working their craft. Farmers and fishermen were at the bottom of Nazca society. They also lived the furthest away from cities and ceremonial centers in the valleys. They generally lived in thatched-roof huts organized into a small village.   There was no central government in Nazca society. Rather, individual groups, or manors, governed themselves. The manors had their own authority figure, usually a priest, who led the people within their region of authority. Historians generally accept that the Nazca had a strong military, as evidenced by remains of fortified cities in the region, weapons discovered in tombs, and the discovery of trophy heads.   Plaza for ceremonial gatherings and burial mounds at Cahuachi, Antoine 49, via Flickr   Religiously, the Nazca conducted rituals to their gods of the sea, the sky, the earth, fire, water, and the wind. The main purpose of these rituals was to avoid drought and ensure a successful harvest. The Nazca lines also played a role in religious ceremonies. Considered by many to indicate ceremonial sites, some researchers believe that people used the lines to travel from one religious site to another.   Mummy in Chauchilla Cemetery, via Wikimedia Commons   The Nazca mummified their dead and buried them in a shallow pit. The mummy was placed in the fetal position or sitting upright and wrapped in layers of blankets. The tombs of the elite were usually adorned with pottery, textiles, blankets, plumes, and other ornamental objects. Those of the common people were basic.   Archaeologists have also discovered mummified heads around Nazca sites. This practice has a long history in the central Andes and continued through the Inca civilization. The heads were either displayed as a single element, held or tied to the belts of warriors or shamans, or else associated with a mythical creature.   Art and Architecture Border detail, the Paracas textile, 100 BCE – 300 CE, via Wikimedia Common   The Nazca created fine pottery and textiles, many of which still rest in tombs and graves. They made their pottery in a variety of shapes and forms. Pottery makers ornately decorated the pottery. Typical Nazca pottery had a white, red, or black background before artisans expertly decorated it with depictions of patterns, gods, shamanic imagery, or natural or mythical creatures. Some pottery depicted battle scenes.   The Nazca were unique from other South American cultures because they weaved textiles but also painted plain cotton with colorful images. Thanks to the extremely dry climate, textiles have been preserved well. Figures were the most favored design, often depicting harvest scenes. Animal figures were also popular designs.   Beaten gold mask, ca. 100 BCE-500 CE, by Daderot, via Wikimedia Commons   In addition to pottery and textiles, the Nazca were expert metalworkers who used gold to create masks, hair plumes, and other ornamental jewelry and masks. Shamans probably used the masks and decorations in religious ceremonies.   The Nazca people were also skilled engineers. Because of the desert climate, the Nazca built a complex series of irrigation aqueducts. In the city of Ventilla, a complex of underground aqueducts provided water to the city and fields. The water flowed on descending, spiral ramps to be stored underground. Underground storage ensured a good water-supply during the dry seasons and reduced the amount of evaporation.   Entrance to Nazca aqueduct, via Wikimedia Commons   The Ventilla also featured ceremonial mounds, walled courts, and terraced housing. The religious city of Cahuachi included adobe sanctuaries in the shape of a terraced pyramid, the Great Temple, a 20-meter-high (66-foot) mound used for religious ceremonies, and other mounds within a grand plaza. A low wall surrounded the plaza.   The Nazca Lines Monkey Nazca Lines, 200 CE-600 BCE, via Penn Museum   While the Nazca were a complex and thriving society in Peru, today, most people know them for their prolific geoglyphs. Geoglyphs are lines or depictions etched into the earth’s surface. Known around the world as the Nazca Lines, the complex series of geoglyphs span the Peruvian desert, scarring the land. While cultures around the world created geoglyphs, the Nazca are well-known because of their astonishing size, state of preservation, and intricate designs.   Researchers estimate that they cover a combined distance of 1,300 km (808 Miles) in the Peruvian desert. The glyphs depict images that fall into one of two categories: representational (natural forms, animals, birds, insects, other living creatures, flowers, plants, and trees, deformed and fantastical representations of daily objects) and lines (generally straight lines that crisscross in all directions, as well as geometrical shapes), some of which radiate from a central point or encircle it.   Owlman aka the Astronaut, ca. 200 BCE-600 CE, via Wikimedia Commons   Some of the most recognizable lines include depictions of a human-like figure, a monkey, a whale, a condor, and great flowers and insects. These glyphs vary in size, and many are best viewed from the air to gain an appreciation for their true size and scope.   Researchers believe that the Nazca created the lines by simply scraping away the oxidized top layer, thereby exposing the desert floor. Because this was such an uncomplicated process, workers could create glyphs quickly.   Hands Nazca Line, ca 200CE-600BCE, photo by PsamatheM, via Wikimedia Commons   The Nazca people created glyphs for hundreds of years, adding to existing glyphs left by previous civilizations. Often, newer glyphs overlap older ones. Other theories state that the Nazca used the lines to “point” to water sources and other important sites. The navigational purpose could help ease the process of gathering water during dry seasons. Other lines connect mountains and religious sites.   Other theories about the purpose of the lines include astronomical purposes, such as depicting an astronomical calendar. Other researchers have largely dismissed these theories since there is no correlation between celestial changes and the organization or pattern of the glyphs.   Nazca Lines, ca. 200 BCE-600 CE, via Wikimedia Commons   Other researchers hypothesize that the lines served different purposes as times changed. Because new glyphs were often constructed over existing ones, some believe that as times and needs changed, so too did the purpose of the glyphs.   In 1997, a group of researchers from a variety of disciplines including archaeology, geophagy, and archaeometry researched the lines, determining that the Nazca used the lines to connect or lead to ceremonial sites. They determined that by walking many of the lines, people would be able to walk from one ceremonial site to another. A straight line connects the cities of Cahuachi and Ventilla.   While the lines are best viewed from the air, many glyphs can still be viewed well from the ground or from hill. Some glyphs are built into the side of hills, allowing them to be viewed from the ground.   Nazca Lines, ca 200 BCE-600 CE, via Escales Ponant Magazine   In 1994, the Nazca Lines became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. UNESCO cites the unique design, cultural and religious importance, and millennia-long survival of the lines as reasons for their continued preservation.   The Nazca lines are a significant historical artifact that reflects the culture of a long-gone civilization. The inclusion of figures from the glyphs in the textiles and pottery of the culture suggests that these images were vital to the society’s beliefs. As desert-dwelling people, reliance on favorable environmental shifts was paramount to their survival. While the true purpose of the Nazca Lines may never be fully understood, they are nonetheless an important key to studying the Nazca culture and civilization.