On March 30‚ 1972‚ the aging revolutionaries in Hanoi’s Politburo abandoned the strategy of protracted struggle and launched an all-out conventional invasion of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN). By mid-April‚ the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) had committed its entire combat capability—14 divisions‚ 26 separate infantry regiments‚ and 1‚200 tanks‚ plus all its artillery regiments and engineer battalions. The NVA also introduced weapons heretofore not seen in Vietnam: large formations of T-54 tanks; AT-3 Sagger anti-tank missiles; and SA-7 shoulder-fired‚ heat-seeking anti-aircraft missiles. Fighting raged in Quang Tri province near the DMZ‚ in An Loc 60 miles from Saigon‚ and in the Central Highlands‚ threatening Kontum City. The U.S. press named it the Easter Offensive since it began on Holy Thursday‚ the first day of Easter celebrations for South Vietnam’s Catholic population.    My Mentor in Vietnam As in the early 1960s‚ the only Americans fighting on the ground were a handful of U.S. advisers with the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN). One of them was Lt. Col. Charles L. “Chuck” Butler‚ an adviser with the 31st ARVN Regiment‚ 21st ARVN Division‚ who I met the first week of May ’72.   I was a major‚ just assigned as the adviser with the 6th Airborne Battalion‚ Vietnamese Airborne Division. The battalion was co-located with the 31st Regiment and was reconstituting after being decimated near An Loc‚ Binh Long’s provincial capital‚ 15 miles north. Although I had served a previous tour in Vietnam with the 101st Airborne Division‚ I had no advisory training. When I received my orders in January 1972 to return to Vietnam in late April‚ I requested attendance at an abbreviated Vietnamese language course and adviser training school at Fort Bragg. My assignment officer in Washington‚ D.C.‚ denied both requests‚ stating I would be assigned to the MACV staff in Saigon. Little did he know!   Charles Lewis Butler. Butler was deployed to Vietnam in the fall of 1963 as an adviser to the 9th ARVN Division. He witnessed turmoil within the government of South Vietnam’s President Ngo Dinh Diem as well as the aftermath of the assassinations of Diem and U.S. President John F. Kennedy that November. Butler’s experiences gave him great insights into the conflict. Rather than retire‚ he opted to return to Vietnam in 1971. Chuck Butler was a seasoned combat veteran. He had been an adviser in Vietnam from 1963-64 and an infantry platoon leader during the Korean War. He was a true font of knowledge and had a great perspective on the war. His counsel proved to be invaluable to me as I was getting my feet on the ground. Because Chuck was a modest man‚ I didn’t learn of his heroism in Korea until years later.   Chuck in Korea Charles Lewis Butler was a member of the U.S. Military Academy’s class of 1950—670 men who graduated on June 6 that year. He and 197 of his classmates were commissioned in the infantry. Nineteen days later‚ North Korea invaded South Korea‚ drawing the United States into a war for which it was ill-prepared. The American defense establishment was gutted in the aftermath of World War II. Rapid demobilization‚ draconian budget cuts‚ and an inept management produced a hollow force. To stop the North Korean onslaught and fill the ranks‚ many members of the USMA class of 1950 were immediately sent to Korea‚ including Chuck Butler.   Chuck said goodbye to his new bride‚ Joan‚ and on Aug. 20‚ 1950‚ was aboard a troop transport sailing under the Golden Gate Bridge. He was assigned to F Company‚ 7th Infantry Regiment‚ 3rd Infantry Division. The division was needed in Korea but was woefully understrength. Due to the severe shortage of infantry lieutenants‚ recent West Point graduates were sent into battle without any training other than what they received at the Military Academy.   Chinese communist forces swarmed into North Korea in November 1950. Gen. Douglas MacArthur had discounted the possibility of Chinese intervention‚ but their appearance in large numbers prompted him to order the withdrawal of United Nations troops north of the 38th parallel. The 3rd Infantry Division was tasked to cover the evacuation of 1st Marine Division and the 7th Infantry Division as they left the Chosin Reservoir and moved to the port of Hungnam on North Korea’s east coast.   In Korea‚ Butler helped cover the evacuation of the 1st Marine Division and 7th Infantry Division from the Chosin Reservoir. Despite being shot twice‚ he provided covering fire for his task force from a tank’s mounted machine gun and was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. On Dec. 15‚ Chuck’s platoon was given five tanks and the mission to assist a beleaguered U.S. unit. Then-Lt. Butler described what happened as he led his small force. “We suddenly came around an S-curve in the road and on both sides of us the hills crawled with Chinese. I was hit in the arm…then I was hit in the groin.”   Unable to walk‚ he ordered his wounded men placed on the tanks‚ while he was lifted onto the lead tank. Although gravely injured‚ Chuck manned a turret-mounted machine gun and provided covering fire‚ allowing his task force to disengage from hundreds of Chinese and return to friendly lines. Butler was evacuated to Japan and hospitalized for three months. Upon returning to duty in Korea‚ he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross—the Army’s second highest decoration for valor.   To Vietnam Twelve years later‚ in the fall of 1963‚ Maj. Chuck Butler was in Vietnam‚ assigned as an advisor with the 9th ARVN Division‚ operating in the Mekong Delta. The delta region was the agricultural heartland of the RVN; its provinces contained two-thirds of the nation’s population and produced the bulk of its rice crop.   1963 was a period of great turmoil. President Ngo Dinh Diem failed to stem the growing communist insurgency or increase popular support for his government. Restrictions on religious freedoms ignited a crisis‚ resulting in Buddhist riots and self-immolations by monks. Diem’s refusal to initiate any liberal reforms in the face of mounting opposition caused President John F. Kennedy to lose all faith in him. It was the last straw for the Kennedy Administration and word was quietly relayed to Saigon that JFK was amenable to a regime change.   The ARVN generals spent more time plotting coups and jockeying for positions than opposing the communists. The ARVN stayed in their cantonment areas while VC cadres took advantage of their apparent paralysis. Frustration mounted among advisers like Maj. Chuck Butler‚ who wanted to challenge the enemy. However‚ no amount of prodding could energize the ARVN. Meanwhile Diem’s government continued to accept U.S. economic and military aid at the rate of $1.5 million dollars per day ($14 million per day in today’s dollars).   In the aftermath of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy‚ American politician and Vice­President Lyndon Baines Johnson takes the oath of office to become the 36th President of the United States as he is sworn in by US Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes (left) on the presidential aircraft‚ Air Force One‚ Dallas‚ Texas‚ November 22‚ 1963. Kennedy’s widow‚ Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy stands beside him at right. On Nov. 1‚ 1963‚ ARVN troops commanded by Gen. Duong Van Minh attacked the presidential residence in Saigon. Diem and his brother‚ Nhu‚ escaped and hid in the Chinese quarter of the city. The brothers surrendered the following day‚ assuming they would be sent into a comfortable exile. Gen. Minh had other ideas and ordered their execution.   Diem’s death was followed three weeks later by President Kennedy’s assassination on Nov. 22. It created uncertainty in Vietnam over what the new U.S. policy might be. Immediately‚ Kennedy’s successor‚ Lyndon B. Johnson‚ issued a directive emphatically stating that he would stay the course in Southeast Asia. LBJ saw the political fallout in 1949 when Mao gained power in China and was determined not to be the president who “lost Vietnam.” ARVN military leaders breathed a sigh of relief.   Aftermath of Assassinations In the coup’s aftermath‚ Minh and his Military Revolutionary Council enjoyed widespread acclaim. The euphoria dissipated when the new rulers showed little aptitude for governing‚ squabbling over every issue. No progress was made against recent VC inroads or instituting needed reforms. Political instability was perpetuated when a bloodless coup on Jan. 30‚ 1964‚ ousted the Military Revolutionary Council.   Butler‚ shown here as a major in 1963 during his time as an adviser to the 9th ARVN Division in the Mekong Delta‚ was always willing to lend his experience to junior officers and gained a reputation for being a good mentor. Chuck Butler noticed the turbulence created by the revolving door in Saigon. Political loyalties and family ties trumped military professionalism‚ so generals who were closely allied with the new leadership received choice assignments. They‚ in turn‚ brought their loyal subordinates with them to fill jobs throughout the ranks. Butler observed two rounds of leader changes‚ both of which degraded military effectiveness. When his tour concluded in September 1964‚ the downward spiral continued‚ resulting in the commitment of U.S. combat troops in the spring and summer of 1965.   Opting for a second Vietnam tour rather than retirement‚ Lt. Col. Butler returned in September 1971. Again he was assigned as an adviser in the Mekong Delta‚ but this time with the 21st ARVN Division. The unit was responsible for the southernmost portion of the Delta‚ which contained the famous VC sanctuary‚ the U Minh Forest. The ARVN had been relatively successful subduing the insurgency throughout the region and pacifying the countryside. Butler was pleased to see the improvement.   Helping Junior Officers in Vietnam The senior adviser to the 21st ARVN Division was Col. J. Ross Franklin‚ a legendary warrior-scholar with multiple Vietnam tours and a doctorate in international relations from American University. He also spoke fluent French. Franklin and Butler were West Point classmates and held each other in high esteem. Both had been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross during the Korean War and served together at Fort Benning’s Infantry School after the conflict. Franklin assigned Chuck as his deputy with a primary focus advising the division’s two principal staff officers‚ the G2 (Intelligence) and the G3 (Operations).   Within the 21st ARVN Division combat assistance team‚ Butler gained a reputation for mentoring junior officers. Capt. Ed DeVos‚ on his first assignment in Vietnam as an assistant adviser with the 33rd ARVN Regiment‚ was a beneficiary of Butler’s insights. Arriving in December 1971‚ the captain sought out Chuck Butler and asked him many questions about the role of a junior officer “advising” men who had been fighting their entire adult lives. A recipient of two Silver Stars during the Easter Offensive‚ DeVos cited his admiration for Butler in his 2020 book‚ The Last 100 Yards.   One of the junior officers he shared his wisdom with in Vietnam was the author of this article‚ John Howard‚ pictured here as a major assigned as an adviser to the 6th Airborne Battalion‚ Vietnamese Airborne Division in Quang Tri City in July 1972. The 21st ARVN Division’s mission abruptly changed on April 7‚ 1972. President Nguyen Van Thieu convened a meeting of key officials to assess the military situation. The border town of Loc Ninh had just fallen to the communist juggernaut and Binh Long’s provincial seat‚ An Loc‚ was the NVA’s next objective. If An Loc fell‚ there were no forces to stop an enemy advance on Saigon‚ 60 miles away. Thieu made the unprecedented decision to move the 21st ARVN Division from the Delta to reinforce the defenders of Binh Long Province.   Even in the face of the largest North Vietnamese offensive of the war‚ U.S. withdrawals mandated by the Vietnamization program continued. Personnel shortages in division and regimental assistance teams were the norm. Regimental teams were authorized a lieutenant colonel‚ three captains‚ and two sergeants but it was not unusual for only one or two Americans to be with an ARVN regiment; the U.S. Army replacement system simply could not keep pace with battle casualties‚ medical evacuations for sickness‚ and end-of-tour rotations.   Rather than allow a key vacancy to remain unfilled‚ Butler volunteered to be the senior adviser with the 31st ARVN Regiment. Chuck Butler always went to “the sound of the guns.” Still‚ he remained Franklin’s “go-to” guy for most problems and was in charge of the division assistance team in the senior adviser’s absence.   By April 12‚ the division was assembled in Lai Khe‚ the former base of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division‚ and told to open QL (National Route) 13 to An Loc. The 7th NVA Division had cut the road‚ further isolating An Loc‚ now surrounded by two NVA divisions‚ the 5th and 9th. The 21st ARVN had never operated in the field as a combat division. In its former area‚ commanders only supervised regimental and battalion operations. Battle-tested SOPs were nonexistent and staff work was shoddy‚ often lacking clarity. Attacks often failed due to a lack of proper coordination. Commanders at all levels became overly reliant on U.S. airpower‚ especially B-52 strikes‚ and were hesitant to move without them.   Facing Hardcore NVA Forces Nor had the 21st ARVN previously encountered large formations of hardcore NVA forces that stood their ground and employed heavy artillery in quantities not previously seen. Indirect fire from 130mm and 152mm guns became the major killer of friendly troops. Consequently‚ ARVN soldiers developed a bunker mentality and literally “went to ground.” Such behavior was particularly prevalent among the leaders. In a letter to his family‚ Butler said his ARVN counterpart‚ Lt. Col. Xuan‚ only left the regimental command bunker to answer the call of nature. By contrast‚ Butler regularly checked the troops‚ usually under fire. Butler’s bravery resulted in the award of the Silver Star‚ but his example had little effect. No amount of cajoling altered Xuan’s behavior. The commander’s abrogation of leadership responsibilities lowered morale and contributed to inaction.     While the 21st Division struggled along highway QL 13‚ I was experiencing a problem establishing a modicum of rapport with the 6th Airborne Battalion commander‚ Lt. Col. Dinh. He viewed me as useful when we were in a fight because I was the link to U.S. airpower‚ yet at other times‚ I was just excess baggage. He was vocal about not needing any tactical input from Americans. Butler attributed this attitude to the impact of Vietnamization. Many Vietnamese‚ including Dinh‚ believed they would ultimately be left high and dry by the United States. They were more perceptive than most Americans then serving in Vietnam.   The Division Fights On Butler said the specter of our imminent departure and the reduction of our robust logistical system fostered anti-American attitudes. However‚ he was not overly critical of men who harbored those beliefs. If the intellectual elite in our country and students at Ivy League universities were unable to differentiate between U.S. policymakers and those responsible for implementation of those policies‚ we shouldn’t be surprised such viewpoints existed here. His observation gave me a new empathy for my Vietnamese counterpart.   During a moment of levity‚ Chuck shared his opinion on advisers’ “can-do” attitude. He said it was part of our makeup—but was a blessing and a curse. We tried hard to make improvements‚ and then felt guilty when our efforts fell short. He left me with the following thought: “Regardless of how hard you try‚ sometimes you simply can’t make chicken salad out of chicken shit!”   Turning to an increasingly conventional approach in the war’s final stages‚ North Vietnam deployed armor en masse on the battlefield. This photo shows North Vietnamese T-54 tanks advancing during the 1972 Easter Offensive. In addition to increasing communist firepower‚ Butler and other U.S. advisers faced fraying relations with ARVN counterparts. The 6th Airborne Battalion completed rebuilding and retraining at the end of May and was committed back into the Binh Long battle. It fought through the 7th NVA Division’s defenses and linked up with defenders manning the southern portion of An Loc’s perimeter on June 8‚ 1972. The 6th was the first unit to break the siege and was cited in the U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff history of the Vietnam conflict. My relationship with Dinh had vastly improved‚ thanks to Butler’s sage counsel and my ability to put U.S. bombs on target.   On June 18‚ government officials declared the siege of An Loc broken and released the 1st Airborne Brigade (three ARVN airborne battalions‚ including the 6th) so the unit could join the fighting near the DMZ. Although the siege was officially lifted‚ the battle was not over. It took from June 18 to June 21 for the paratroopers to fight their way to Tan Khai‚ six miles south of An Loc. Tan Khai firebase was defended by the 31st ARVN Regiment and provided artillery support for An Loc. It was the furthest advance of the 21st Division and a thorn in the side of the NVA.   U.S. helicopters were ordered to lift the 1st Airborne Brigade from Tan Khai to Lai Khe so preparations could begin for its air movement north. QL 13 was the designated pickup zone‚ although airmobile landings near the firebase would attract more NVA incoming artillery fire.   The Last Time I Saw Chuck During the lull preceding the arrival of helicopters‚ I made my way to the regimental command post to see Chuck Butler. Our short reunion was dampened by the news that Lt. Col. Burr Willey‚ adviser with the 32nd Regiment‚ had been killed by NVA fire on June 19. Chuck believed helicopters would energize NVA gunners who had forward observers seeded throughout the area.   Ever concerned about others‚ Chuck told me to be careful and jokingly said: “The good Lord will look out for you but you have to help Him by not wandering around in artillery fire!” Our meeting was cut short when a radio call informed me the choppers were inbound. We shook hands. I wished him luck and said I hoped to see him again.   It was a 15-minute flight from Tan Khai to Lai Khe‚ the 21st ARVN Division command post. When I arrived‚ Col. Ross Franklin met our flight. He was visibly shaken‚ with tears in his eyes. He told me that Chuck Butler had been killed when the bunker he was occupying took a direct hit‚ probably from a 130mm artillery round. I was in a state of disbelief. I told him I had just been with Lt. Col. Butler less than 30 minutes earlier. Ross Franklin said that I was the last American to see him.   The author was the last American to see Butler alive.Less than 30 minutes after having a conversation with the author‚ Butler was killed by NVA artillery fire at the age of 44‚ leaving behind a wife and three children. The author has never forgotten Butler. Here he is pictured standing beside Butler’s final resting place at West Point in late 2023. Charles Lewis Butler was 44 years old when he died. He had recently completed 22 years of Army service. He left behind his wife‚ Joan‚ and three children‚ a son and two daughters. He was laid to rest at West Point on July 5‚ 1972‚ where his commitment to the profession of arms began years before. Chuck Butler joined the legion of USMA graduates who made the ultimate sacrifice for our country. He was one of 333 West Pointers who lost their lives in the Vietnam War. Their service personified the academy’s motto: “Duty‚ Honor‚ Country.”   Although five decades have passed since Lt. Col. Butler was killed on June 21‚ 1972‚ it seems like yesterday to me. Memories of him and those times are never far from my thoughts. He was very helpful during my initial days as an adviser and I meant to tell him so when we were together‚ but I missed the chance. It is a lifelong regret. I continue to mourn the passing of an outstanding soldier‚ a genuine war hero‚ and a friend.   During the 1972 Easter Offensive‚ John Howard was an adviser with the Vietnamese Airborne Division‚ serving with the 6th Airborne Battalion and the 11th Airborne Battalion. He serves on the advisory board of Vietnam magazine. This story appeared in the 2024 Winter issue of Vietnam magazine. this article first appeared in vietnam magazine See more stories SubscriBE NOW!  

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If you thought humans were going to be the first species invaded by mushrooms (thanks to The Last of Us for that recurring nightmare)‚ we’re sorry to tell you that our amphibious friends appear to have pipped us to the post. In what’s thought to be the first documented case‚ researchers have discovered a live frog with a mushroom growing out of its side.The discovery was made in a small pond in the foothills of the Kudremukha Ranges‚ India‚ by hobbyist naturalist Chinmay Maliye and Lohit Y.T‚ a wetlands specialist from WWF India. There‚ perched on a twig‚ the team found a Rao’s Intermediate Golden-backed frog (Indosylvirana intermedia) with a small‚ grey mushroom sprouting from its left flank.“To the best of our knowledge‚ never has a mushroom sprouting from the flank of a live frog been documented‚” the team writes in a report documenting the finding.Consultation with mycologists suggested that the mini mushroom was a Mycena species‚ also known as a bonnet mushroom. Often considered saprotrophic organisms‚ Mycena are commonly found living off decayed organic matter.The mushroom was found sprouting from the frog's left side.Image courtesy of Lohit Y.T./WWF-IndiaConsidering that‚ quite how the mushroom managed to get into the frog remains unclear. Frogs and fungi are often found near each other‚ well-adapted to living in moist environments‚ but the proximity seen here somewhat takes the biscuit. Frog skin is normally pretty good at keeping invaders out‚ so experts think something like an injury or an infection may have inadvertently let it in. “I would guess that this is a purely superficial skin infection with Mycena‚” said mycologist Cristoffer Bugge Harder‚ speaking to Forbes. “Those can be sustained over a long time‚ as most fungal skin infections in humans.”Harder had previously discovered that Mycena were not just restricted to living off dead plant hosts as previously thought‚ but could also invade the roots of living plants. With the discovery of it sprouting on a frog‚ and no previous documentation of a mushroom on a living animal host‚ it points to the mushroom’s adaptability. “If there ever was a mushroom genus that could opportunistically do this‚ Mycena would be a very good guess‚” said Harder‚ although it’s unlikely to do the same in humans.As for the fate of the frog‚ we’ll probably never know. “The frog was not collected‚ so no prognosis is possible‚” write the authors. It was alive and moving at the time though‚ so it seems fairly unlikely it’s gone zombie mode on its fellow frogs. Wherever mushroom frog may be‚ it’s definitely an un-spore-gettable case.The report is published in Reptiles &; Amphibians.

A new study has found a curious connection between human corpses that seems to be universal regardless of the location or environmental conditions in which they break down. It looked at the microbial network and found key bacterial and fungal decomposers that are rare in the wider environment‚ but consistently present in decaying human flesh.The assembly of microbes needed to break down dead bodies makes up part of the “decomposition ecosystem‚” something forensic entomologist Dr Devin Finaughty spoke about at IFLScience’s CURIOUS Live 2023 virtual event. They contribute to a vital recycling process that prevents us from having to deal with a surplus of corpses in the environment by decomposing organic remains.“Decomposition is technically defined as the consumption of organic material by other organisms‚ [and is] distinct from physical degradation of organic remains by physical‚ erosive forces‚ like water‚” Finaughty‚ who wasn’t involved in the new study‚ told IFLScience. “The decomposition system pivots around the dead body as a resource and that's mainly for food‚ but many organisms will also use it as a breeding ground as a nursery‚ and as a shelter.”It might sound grim but it’s a crucial part of life‚ as the recycling of dead material is how core ecosystem functions like plant production and soil respiration are fueled. We know microbial networks are a vital ingredient for decomposition to occur‚ but their exact ecology “remains in a black box‚ obscuring our ability to accurately understand and model ecosystem function‚ resilience and biogeochemical carbon and nutrient budgets‚” explain the study authors. To get a better idea of how decomposer microbial communities assemble‚ and who shows up when they do‚ a team of researchers buried 36 human cadavers that had been willed to science. The burial sites and study windows included three distinct locations and environmental conditions‚ and encompassed the four seasons‚ with researchers taking samples of the skin and surrounding soil for 21 days postmortem.The results revealed that the roster of microbes present was universal across their sample of 36 cadavers‚ regardless of the place they were buried‚ or what time of year it was. The groups were also rare in non-decomposition environments‚ indicating that they only flock together in the presence of fleshy remains‚ be they human or animal. As for how the gang gets together‚ the authors suggest that insects may play a role in transporting fungi and bacteria from one decomposing animal to the next. As well as providing a curious connection between dead animals in the environment‚ the study could have important implications for forensic science in determining time of death. The study authors were able to use a machine learning model to accurately estimate how long corpses had been dead based on the microbial timeline of their decomposition‚ highlighting these tiny communities as a potential source of crucial information in an investigation.The study is published in Nature Microbiology.

A peculiar new approach to extracting renewable energy from the oceans has been deployed successfully‚ and it uses a method that might be familiar to many people. It copies the movement of a kite to transfer energy from tidal and ocean currents efficiently. And‚ it is currently providing electricity to the grid in the Faroe Islands.The power generator was designed by a company called Minesto from Sweden‚ whose focus is marine energy technology. Their tidal energy kite is no lightweight toy. It has a wingspan of 12 meters (39 feet) and weighs 28 tons. But the weight doesn’t matter underwater. The Dragon 12 – as it is called – has been deployed in a narrow channel between the islands and tethered to the sea floor.The shape of the tidal kite allows for the repeated and consistent figure-of-eight movements that guarantee fast flow around the device. This flow spins a turbine‚ which generates electricity and transfers it through the tether and then to shore on cables across the sea floor. Dragon 12 is rated at 1.2 megawatts – Minesto has not released how much electricity it is providing to the roughly 55‚000 inhabitants of the islands‚ but at the maximum rate it could cover the needs of about 1‚000 homes.“This is a big day for Minesto. We have reached the most significant milestone in the history of the company by producing electricity to the grid with our mega-watt scale powerplant. We are both proud and happy and more than ever look forward to the journey ahead‚” Dr Martin Edlund‚ CEO of Minesto‚ said in a press statement.“What the Minesto team has achieved today is extraordinary and set a new agenda for renewable energy build-out in many areas of the world. The competitiveness of the Dragon 12 is straight to the point; it’s powerful‚ cost-effective and feeds predictable electricity to the grid.”The cost of tidal power generation with the Minesto setup seems to be significantly smaller than other tidal projects and just a bit higher than the cost for offshore wind turbines. This might change with scale‚ and it might end up being a competitive alternative to offshore wind generation for two reasons.One is that the tidal kite is much easier to deploy – it’s not a major engineering project. And‚ tidal currents happen with a certain regularity‚ unlike the variation experienced by the wind. It will be interesting to see the next steps for this technology.

The entire collection of literary works belonging to Charles Darwin has been reassembled for the first time‚ and is now available to view online. Researchers spent 18 years tracking down every book‚ article‚ pamphlet and journal owned by the legendary naturalist‚ revealing the staggering extent of his private collection.Introducing the assemblage‚ Darwin Online founder Dr John van Wyhe explains that “Charles Darwin's vast personal library‚ which he used to create his world-changing scientific works‚ was gradually dispersed after his death in 1882.” As a result‚ scholars have generally assumed that the collection was limited to the 1‚480 books that are known to survive at the University of Cambridge and Darwin’s home‚ Down House.However‚ van Wyhe writes that “we can now reveal that this is only 15 percent of the printed items Darwin owned in his lifetime‚” which in fact included 7‚350 titles across 13‚000 volumes and items. After painstakingly identifying each of these entries‚ the Darwin Online team has now released a 300-page catalog listing the entire collection‚ with around 9‚300 links to digitized copies of the works.Among the many sources used to fill in the enormous gaps in Darwin’s library were his original handwritten catalogs‚ which filled 56 paper boxes and contained frustratingly abbreviated references that researchers then had to make sense of to identify the works being cited. “Each one of these obscure records required its own detective story to discover the publication Darwin had noted as being in his library‚” writes van Wyhe.A further 426 missing titles were then identified from a 426-page handwritten catalog of Darwin’s library that was prepared for him in 1875.The resultant collection of publications is extraordinary in both its sheer size and the breadth of topics covered. According to van Wyhe‚ “most of the works in the Darwin Library are‚ unsurprisingly‚ on scientific subjects‚ especially biological and geological.” However‚ he goes on to state that “many others are works on farming‚ animal breeding and behavior‚ geographical distribution‚ philosophy‚ psychology‚ religion‚ and other topics that interested Darwin such as history‚ travel and language.” For instance‚ several works by the philosophers John Stuart Mill and Auguste Comte‚ as well as writings by Charles Babbage - who first came up with the concept of the programmable computer - are now known to have been present in Darwin’s library.Other surprising entries include an 1832 road atlas of England and Wales and a coffee table book of artworks entitled Sun Pictures. “There are also articles in Darwin's papers with the alarming titles 'The anatomy of a four-legged chicken' and 'Epileptic guinea-pigs'‚” explains van Wyhe.“Simply browsing through the list will give a modern reader a sense of just how thorough‚ erudite and often quirky Darwin's interests and sources were‚” he continues. If that’s piqued your interest‚ go check out the catalog!

Sit down and brace yourself‚ for we have disturbing news. Blueberries – the fruits that dedicate 36-44 percent of their name to telling you they are blue – don't actually contain any blue pigment."Blueberries are observably blue; however‚ the pigments found in blueberries are not‚" as a team from the University of Bristol put it in a new study. "The color variation of blueberries does not predominantly depend on pigmentation. The anthocyanins‚ contained in high concentrations in these fruits‚ generally have dark red scattering profiles."Simply put‚ you would not be able to extract that nice blue color through normal methods."The blue of blueberries can’t be ‘extracted’ by squishing – because it isn’t located in the pigmented juice that can be squeezed from the fruit‚" Rox Middleton‚ research fellow at Bristol’s School of Biological Sciences‚ explained in a statement. "That was why we knew that there must be something strange about the colour."Taking a closer look‚ the team found that the answer lay in the thin layer of wax that coats blueberries. Removing this layer – just two microns thick – and then recrystallizing it‚ they found it was made of miniature structures that scatter blue and UV light. Rather than appearing blue because of blue pigments within the fruit‚ it appears blue (and blue/UV to birds) because of the way light interacts with the randomly arranged crystal structures of the wax‚ according to the researchers. The wax‚ removed from the blueberries.Image credit: Rox MiddletonMost plants have a wax covering‚ but its prominent role in the coloration of blue fruit was unknown until now. The team hopes to find easier methods of recreating the coating.“It was really interesting to find that there was an unknown coloration mechanism right under our noses‚ on popular fruits that we grow and eat all the time‚" Middleton added.“It was even more exciting to be able to reproduce that colour by harvesting the wax to make a new blue coating that no-one’s seen before. Building all that functionality of this natural wax into artificially engineered materials is the dream."The study is published in Science Advances.

After solving some of the scientific hurdles associated with commercial octopus aquaculture‚ a Spanish seafood company has set their sights on building the world’s first octopus farm. However‚ the plan is meeting waves and waves of resistance from animal rights groups that argue it will be a disaster for animal welfare.Nueva Pescanova plans to build a 52‚691 square meter (around 567‚000 square foot) building complex dedicated to octopus farming along the dock of Las Palmas in the Canary Islands‚ a Spanish archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. The two-story building will deal with every step of the octopus aquaculture process‚ from birth and death to packaging and shipping. Larvae will be birthed and initially fed on a diet of seaweed. In the next stage‚ a development process that lasts from six to 15 months‚ the juvenile octopus will be fed crabs. Eventually‚ they will be placed in communal tanks where they complete their development‚ before being slaughtered‚ frozen‚ packaged‚ and shipped off. The farm has the potential hopes to produce around 3‚000 tons of octopus each year‚ amounting to the slaughter of around one million animals.Practically speaking‚ commercial octopus farming on an industrial scale is riddled with difficulties. There are numerous challenges in managing their reproduction cycle‚ keeping hatchlings alive‚ and providing the animals with a suitable living environment. With hopes of pioneering this lucrative field‚ Nueva Pescanova has been working with scientists to iron out these problems. In 2018‚ their researchers managed to birth dozens of common octopus (Octopus vulgaris)‚ the species most consumed in Spain. Remarkably‚ the offspring had a survival rate of approximately 50 percent. In the wild‚ this species has a survival rate as low as 0.0001 percent.While demand for their meat is rising‚ consumers are also becoming increasingly conscious that octopuses are highly intelligent creatures‚ capable of advanced problem-solving and feeling pain. Some scientists are even speculating whether they are conscious beings; just because they're invertebrates doesn't mean they are any less cognizant.This growing public awareness of cephalopod intelligence is‚ in no small part‚ thanks to the documentary My Octopus Teacher‚ which tells the story of a filmmaker forging a relationship with a wild common octopus. With the help of brilliant cinematography‚ the award-winning film provides a new‚ eye-opening perspective on these strange creatures.Their evident intelligence raises questions about whether it is ethically appropriate to exploit these animals for industrial-scale farming. Since 2019‚ numerous NGOs have expressed their deep concerns about the prospect of octopus farming becoming a new trend in the global food market.  In October 2023‚ a collective of animal welfare groups and environmental NGOs – including Compassion in World Farming‚ Eurogroup for Animals‚ Greenpeace Spain‚ and Oceana UK – sent a joint letter to the Canary Islands government urging them to rethink the planning application from Nueva Pescanova.They called on the government to cancel the plan on the grounds of unsustainability and animal cruelty. Furthermore‚ they argue that the current method of slaughter being chosen for the octopuses is inhumane and will result in millions of slow‚ painful deaths. “It is important to stress that octopuses are wild animals profoundly unsuited to farming‚ and there are serious sustainability and animal welfare problems associated with this industry's development‚” the letter read. “As naturally solitary animals‚ octopuses would not fare well in the group conditions and high stocking densities typical of farming systems. These intelligent animals could not express their natural behaviours‚ confined in barren underwater tanks."“Most importantly‚ there is currently no scientifically validated method for the humane slaughter of octopuses. According to reliable sources‚ Nueva Pescanova is planning to kill octopuses by submerging them in tanks containing water with ice‚ a method scientifically recognized for resulting in a painful‚ stressful‚ and slow death‚” it adds.