by Jonas E. Alexis, The Unz Review: If there is one commentator who has inadvertently revealed the underlying ideology driving much of neoconservative activity, it would be Ben Shapiro. Though Shapiro presents himself as a conservative voice in American media, he functions primarily as a Jewish activist whose commentary consistently defends Israeli policies and advances […]

  Living in the 4th century BCE, Aristotle emerged as one of the most important thinkers in ancient Greece. His numerous published works have had a profound impact on Western philosophy. Aristotle is thought to have written around 200 treatises, 31 of which survive today. Here are eight of his most important surviving works.   1. Metaphysics  Aristotle, a painting by Jusepe de Ribera, 1673. Source: Google Arts and Culture   Aristotle’s Metaphysics is one of his most studied works as it covers a diverse range of topics. Metaphysics begins with a discussion of the nature of knowledge (epistemology), foreshadowing the close link between the two disciplines in subsequent philosophical history. Aristotle posits that knowledge is derived from perception, that the most fundamental form of knowledge is wisdom, and that wisdom constitutes knowledge of first principles. It is only this latter form of knowledge that permits one to teach others the way things really are.   The Metaphysics then develops various other themes, including the paradoxes of philosophy, possible objections to the idea of “first principles” in understanding, the principle of contradiction, and the hierarchy of the sciences.   Much of the most important material in the Metaphysics is found in the latter portion of the book, which is concerned with topics conventionally understood to be “metaphysical,” specifically substance, matter, essence, potential, and actuality.   2. Poetics  Poetry, by Alessandro Turchi, 1606. Source: Royal Collection Trust.   Aristotle’s Poetics is often described as the first work on aesthetics, that is, the philosophical study of beauty, taste, art, and the elements of art. Certainly, Aristotle was not the first philosopher to discuss art or claim that a discussion of art is a distinctly philosophical concern. However, he offers a systematic treatment of the subject that genuinely seems novel.   The Poetics is conventionally understood as falling into five main parts. First, a discussion of the forms of poetry and the distinction between tragedy, epic, and comedy. Second, a discussion of tragedy and how it is to be defined. Third, a discussion of tragedy, the way it must be constructed, the effect that tragedy has on those who hear it, and a discussion of “catharsis.” Fourth, possible criticisms of both tragedy and epic. Finally, an argument is given for the superiority of tragedy over epic as a poetic form.   3. Nicomachean Ethics  Athenian Acropolis. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Nicomachean Ethics is Aristotle’s best-known work on moral subjects. It is also probably his last word on the subject, at least among his surviving texts. Aristotle begins with a discussion of the highest good for human beings, which has proven to be extremely influential among moral philosophers. The answer he gives is an ancient Greek concept with no direct English equivalent: eudaimonia. This refers to a concept that lies somewhere between “human flourishing” and “happiness.”   The association between flourishing and happiness can be understood within the context of Aristotle’s doctrine, which posits that the highest good for human beings is equivalent to that which constitutes the proper function of the human soul or nature. Much of the rest of the book moves from this very abstract discussion to offer some more concrete analysis of the “virtues,” which are qualities of a good human being. He gives examples to distinguish where praise and blame are more appropriate.   4. Eudemian Ethics 19th-century print of the ancient philosopher Aristotle. Source: Harvard Art Museums/President and Fellows of Harvard College.   This work on ethics is believed to predate the Nicomachean Ethics, though this assumption is controversial. Both books cover much of the same territory, but with certain topics explored in more depth in the Eudemian Ethics. Specifically, it introduces additional virtues and discusses the epistemological aspect of virtue. It also discusses good luck and kalokagathia, which is the good nobility of a gentleman that encompasses both moral virtue and good fortune.   While not as well-known today as the Nicomachean Ethics, both were among the most transmitted of Aristotle’s works in the ancient world. Some historians argue that the Eudemian Ethics served as the standard textbook on Aristotelian ethics until at least the second half of the 2nd century CE.     5. Politics The School of Aristotle, by Gustav Adolph Spangenberg, c.1883-1888. Source: La Soga.   Aristotle’s Politics is arguably understudied in comparison to his ethical theory and is overshadowed by what Plato presents in his Republic. Yet the Politics contains some fascinating and important discussions of the various ways in which the political realm, or the polis, differs from or relates to other social units. For example, modern philosophers, like Hannah Arendt, explore his theories about how government structures are extensions of family structures.   Aristotle’s politics can be understood as partly an attempt to make sense of politics as a distinct field of intellectual inquiry, and at the same time, to understand the emerging complexity of urban political arrangements as an extension of yet more basic forms of social organization.   6. De Anima The Passing of the Soul at Death, by Evelyn de Morgan, c. 1910-1919. Source: De Morgan Collection.   Aristotle’s De Anima is one of his most significant and influential works, in part due to its extraordinary influence on Christian, Muslim, and Jewish theologians, as well as its role in the development of modern philosophy of mind.   For Aristotle, some form of soul inheres in every living thing. Indeed, to have a soul is a mark of what it is to be a living thing. The vegetative and animal souls are, in a sense, components of our souls (human beings have the nutritive and motive capacities possessed by plants and animals, respectively). Aristotle considers our capacity for understanding as a distinguishing characteristic between human beings and other living things.   Of the many arguments from De Anima which have been lifted from it for distinctly religious purposes, none is more important than Aristotle’s argument for the immortality of the soul, which he justifies on the basis that the active principle of our minds has no corresponding bodily organ. The attempt to draw parallels between mental processes or entities and their physical correspondents has been a feature of the philosophy of mind ever since.   7. Categories  Bust of Aristotle by Lysippos, after 330 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Aristotle’s work on Categories constitutes one of the most significant contributions to metaphysics and introduces the very idea of “categorisation” as a philosophical concern. In the Categories, Aristotle attempts to categorize perception. That is, he sets out to sort all our perceptions into one of ten different categories.   Part of the Categories is concerned with developing what we would now call a “philosophy of language,” given that Aristotle begins by discussing the question of equivalence in language to justify the categorical terms he applies. The Categories are, in effect, an attempt to make sense of the most basic elements of reality, to offer us a way of relating seemingly disparate perceptions into something approaching a more coherent whole.   8. Organon Manuscript of Aristotle’s Prior Analytics in Latin, c. 1290. Source: Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence   The works of Aristotle that we have today do not survive in their original form, but in collections edited by students and later philosophers. Aristotle’s works on logic, including the Categories, survive in a compilation of six books called the Organon, compiled by Andronicus of Rhodes around 40 BCE. They were among the few works by Aristotle available to thinkers in the Middle Ages, translated into Latin by Boethius, before his other works became accessible starting in the 12th century.   The collection begins with Categories, followed by On Interpretation, which introduces the concepts of proposition and judgment, as well as the relationships between affirmative, negative, universal, and particular propositions. Next is Prior Analytics, which introduces his syllogistic method and inductive inferences. Next Posterior Analytics covers definition, demonstration, inductive reasoning, and scientific knowledge.   The final two books are Topics and On Sophistical Refutations. The first explores constructing valid arguments in dialectic and an inference that is probably rather than certain. The latter addresses logical fallacies and draws connections to Aristotle’s work, On Rhetoric.     Who Was Aristotle? Aristotle with a Bust of Homer, by Rembrandt, 1653. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Aristotle was born in Stagira, a city in northeast Greece, in 384 BCE. As a young man, he studied under Plato at the latter’s famous “Academy.” After a stretch in Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), where he likely developed interests in subjects such as marine biology, he was summoned by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor to Philip’s son, a thirteen-year-old Alexander the Great.   Aristotle eventually returned to Athens, where he founded his own school, the Lyceum, which focused on teaching and allowed Aristotle to research and produce his 200 treatises. The Lyceum seems to have offered a broader curriculum than Plato’s Academy, which was more squarely focused on philosophy. Aristotle was eventually compelled to flee Athens due to political reasons and died on the island of Euboea, off the Greek coast, in 322 BCE.

  Much like other engagements on North American soil, such as the American Revolutionary War and the American Civil War, the War of 1812 was fought on several fronts across a large expanse of territory. Each key location influenced the course of the war through unique tactical and strategic advantages and challenges. By mapping the conflict, modern historians can ascertain how geography manipulated the course of the War of 1812 from the attempted invasion of Canada at the conflict’s inception through its final battle at New Orleans.   Old Northwest A modern map depicting Michigan’s strategic importance to the Great Lakes by Stephen Fryholm, 1978. Source: Smithsonian Institution   The Old Northwest region of the United States, composed of the current-day states of Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, and Michigan, witnessed extensive combat during the War of 1812. While the war was not formally declared until the following year, what is now considered the conflict’s first major engagement occurred on November 7, 1811 in northwestern Indiana at a site now known as Battle Ground. There, Governor of the Indiana Territory William Henry Harrison faced off against Tecumseh’s Confederacy.   While marching to the Shawnee stronghold near the conjunction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash Rivers, American forces were targeted by a surprise attack by Native American forces led by Tecumseh’s brother, Tenskwatawa. Known as the Prophet, Tenskwatawa’s ambush fell short of its objective despite the strategic advantage of dense forest terrain and being able to pin their adversaries against the Tippecanoe River. With control of the high ground during the Battle of Tippecanoe, Harrison’s troops successfully countered the Native American assault and destroyed a vital enemy supply hub.   After the War of 1812 officially began, the Old Northwest saw additional exchanges across the territory. In August 1812, the United States surrendered Detroit to the British, limiting access to the Great Lakes. Less than half a year later, the British once again defeated American forces in Michigan at the Battle of River Raisin. The United States did not achieve decisive victory in the Northwest until Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry turned the war’s tide at the Battle of Lake Erie, cementing American control of the region.   Niagara Frontier Map of European colonial empires in 1812. The British Empire is shown in pink. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Following the American Revolutionary War, England held a significant colonial influence worldwide, including control over the United States’ neighboring northern territory, Canada. After the United States declared war on Britain, American forces marched north to bring the fight to the enemy, attempting to invade Canada at the Battle of Queenston Heights on October 13, 1812. The American invasion was hampered by the restrictive terrain, with US forces having to navigate steep cliffs that proved challenging to safely circumvent.   Despite this early setback, the capture of Fort George in 1813 transferred control of present-day Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, back to the United States. While the region’s open fields facilitated the deployment of American artillery, the proximity of Fort George to the Niagara River enabled the amphibious assault. Strategically, the region offered unopposed access to exploit local waterways and control of the Great Lakes at the mouth of the Niagara River.   While the Niagara frontier offered plenty of action throughout 1813 including the American burning of Niagara-on-the-Lake, the British capture of Fort Niagara, and American losses at the Battles of Stoney Creek and Beaver Dams, fighting largely migrated south and west over the course of the war. However, continued activity in the area provided the United States with a strategic foothold in enemy territory, weakened British alliances with Native American groups, and contributed to logistical difficulties in supplying detached outposts. Simultaneous and subsequent actions in the Great Lakes region highlighted the importance of naval warfare in the War of 1812.   St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain   Aside from the Niagara region, other waterways in the northeast were strategically vital during the War of 1812. The St. Lawrence River, as a primary supply route for British troops, weapons, and supplies from Upper Canada to Montreal, was a particularly enticing target for American offensive operations. Early in the conflict, the United States burned an unmanned military depot near the St. Lawrence River, but the British responded with two significant victories in the region at the Battles of Ogdensburg and Chrysler’s Farm. By maintaining control of the river, the British maintained access to the pivotal city of Quebec, but defeat at Lake Champlain helped turn the tide of the war.   In 1814, American forces achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Plattsburgh. Also known as the Battle of Lake Champlain, the engagement gave the United States control of the namesake body of water, giving American forces the upper hand in the war’s northern frontier. As a narrow lake sandwiched between New York and Vermont near the Canadian border, American naval officers demonstrated their skill in fighting close-range warfare on water to defeat the British.   Control of the lakes improved the US negotiating position during the peace talks that resulted in the Treaty of Ghent. Defeating the world’s most capable navy under challenging conditions at Plattsburgh near Britain’s operational headquarters, in addition to unexpected success at the Battle of Lake Erie, was a major success for the nascent US navy.   Chesapeake Bay Map of the Potomac River, a major waterway that flows into the Chesapeake Bay, by T. Clarke, 1798. Source: Smithsonian Institution   The War of 1812 was fought on considerably different terrain further south in the Chesapeake Bay region. Early in the conflict, British forces exploited vulnerable open fields, urban areas, and strategic inlets for military advantage. In May 1813, the Redcoats destroyed an American military depot in Havre de Grace, Maryland, looting the town for supplies.   Closer towards the capital of the United States, weak barricades and defenseless avenues of approach enabled the British to achieve swift victory at the Battle of Bladensburg in August 1814. Following the collapse of the American defenses, the British marched into Washington DC and set the White House, the Capitol building, and other government facilities ablaze in a crushing symbolic defeat for the United States. For the remainder of the war, President James Madison fulfilled his commander-in-chief responsibilities from the Octagon House and Seven Buildings near the destroyed capital.   While urban areas in the highly populated Chesapeake region proved susceptible to British attacks, American fortified defenses in the region held strong. The heavily defended island of Craney Island resisted British assaults in 1813, and one year later, American forces successfully repelled the overnight British bombardment of Fort McHenry. The successful defense of the fort prevented the British from seizing Baltimore and was celebrated by a poem by Francis Scott Key, which became the American national anthem more than a century later.   Southeast French map of the Southern United States and Gulf of Mexico by Chacacants, 1782. Source: Smithsonian Institution   During the War of 1812, fighting in the Southeastern United States primarily consisted of engagements between American forces and Native Americans in the Creek War. Also known as the Red Stick War due to the Creek-affiliated Red Stick tribe’s opposition to American settlers despite its sister clan’s accommodations, the Creek War was part of the larger conflict between the United States and England. Although Tecumseh travelled south to encourage the Red Stick faction to join the war effort in 1811, the Creek War did not begin until 1813.   On August 30, 1813, the Creek War expanded the War of 1812 in southern states with the Fort Mims Massacre, where hundreds of American citizens and militiamen were slaughtered by the Red Sticks. Future president Andrew Jackson led a counteroffensive against the Creeks, navigating dense Alabama terrain and swamps in the Battles of Tallushatchee and Talladega. By March 1814, Jackson led American troops to a decisive victory that all but ended the Creek War. In the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, the United States neutralized over 800 Red Stick warriors.   Victory on southern battlegrounds and exploitation of Native American vulnerabilities led to the opening of land for American settlement in modern-day Georgia and Alabama. The 1814 Treaty of Fort Jackson surrendered over 23 million acres of Creek land to the United States. In addition to significant territorial gains, Jackson’s actions in the southeast contributed to his rise as a national hero alongside further success in the Gulf Coast region.   Gulf Coast Map of French colonies of Florida and Louisiana by Mark Catesby, 1731-1746. Source: Smithsonian Institution   After achieving victory in the southeast, Jackson’s forces traveled west in one of the best-known engagements of the War of 1812, the Battle of New Orleans. Prior to the clash, Jackson’s capture of Pensacola, Florida rid the British from a Spanish fort in the Gulf Coast in November 1814. One month later, however, British naval triumph on Lake Borgne allowed the British army under Edward Pakenham (the Duke of Wellington’s brother-in-law) to land troops near New Orleans to prepare for the assault of the city.   In the final major exchange of the War of 1812, the Battle of New Orleans took place on January 8, 1815. Although the Treaty of Ghent had been signed the previous month, it had not yet been ratified and news of the peace agreement did not reach the Gulf Coast. Jackson prepared his diverse army, composed of regular American soldiers, militiamen, Native Americans, and free African Americans, for battle against Pakenham’s numerically superior British force.   Fought near Chalmette Plantation in New Orleans, the ensuing battle was an unmistakable victory for the United States. By fortifying his position with a series of earthworks and deploying his forces in staggered defenses, Jackson’s men inflicted over 2,000 British casualties, including Pakenham himself, while suffering only 70 themselves. The remarkable American victory bolstered Jackson’s previous successes in the southeast, helping the general gain a degree of popularity and recognition that would eventually see him become president in 1829.   The course of the War of 1812 saw fighting gradually shift from the north in Canada all the way south to New Orleans, where Jackson’s men won their crushing victory in the final engagement on the conflict.

  Brussels (French, Bruxelles; Dutch, Brussel; German, Brüssel) is the capital of the Kingdom of Belgium. But Brussels is more than the capital of one European country. In fact, the city boasts a unique status as a regional, national, and continental capital. As Professor Alex G. Papadopoulos points out, the existence of a “European Quarter” hosting multiple institutions of the European Union has made Brussels the de facto EU capital city.   The city’s foundations date back to 580 CE. However, as historian Paul F. State notes, Brussels was formally established between 977 and 979 CE. In this article, we’ll explore the history of Brussels through 11 iconic monuments, each of which tells a story about the city’s evolution and identity as Belgium’s capital and de facto capital city of Europe.   1. Everard t’Serclaes Monument Photograph of the Everard t’Serclaes Monument, Brussels. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Everard t’Serclaes was a fourteenth-century citizen of Brussels and Lord of Kruikenburg. Historian Paul State explains that t’Serclaes helped drive out the Count of Flanders from Brussels in 1356. Louis de Male, Count of Flanders, disputed Joanna of Brabant’s right to succeed her father, John III, as ruler of Brussels.   Upon John III’s death in 1355, the Count of Flanders invaded Brussels and seized the city. But historian Samuel Humes says that Everard t’Serclaes led a daring evening attack on Brussels in October 1356. As a result, the Flemings were driven from the city, and Joanna and her husband Wenceslaus reclaimed Brussels.   In 1388, t’Serclaes was ambushed and murdered amid a land dispute. He was honored with this monument in 1902. The monument was sculpted by Julien Dillens. Local legend says that touching the monument’s arm can bring good luck.   2. Brussels Town Hall – Grand Place Photograph of the Brussels Town Hall in the Grand Place by Guilhem Vellut. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This iconic central square has hosted a marketplace since the eleventh century. Historian Paul State explains the city’s Town Hall (French: Hôtel de Ville, Dutch: Stadhuis) is on the south side of the central square (Grand Place/Grote Markt).   Built in the Gothic style, it dates to the first half of the fifteenth century. Historian Paul State says that its construction encouraged the city’s merchants and artisans to build structures worthy of their status as participants in the municipal government.   Today, the result of this construction boom is evident in the form of numerous guild houses surrounding the square. Nearby towns like Bruges, Ghent, Antwerp, and Ypres became centers of the cloth trade and thus joined Brussels as major commercial hubs in Early Modern Europe.   Historian Samuel Humes explains that French King Louis XIV’s army devastated Brussels and the Grand Place during a 1695 siege. However, the city and the impressive buildings lining the Grand Place recovered quickly from this attack.   3. Mannekin Pis Photograph of Mannekin Pis statue. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The quirky statuette known as Mannekin Pis is a small boy urinating into a fountain. It is synonymous with Brussels. As Paul State points out, “Mannekin” means “little man.”   Mannekin Pis debuted in 1619 as a bronze statuette by Jérôme Duquesnoy the Elder. However, State says references in historical archives hint at a similar statuette’s existence in Brussels as far back as 1450.   This tiny statuette has always attracted attention. For example, State points out that invading armies have stolen it multiple times. Moreover, it served as a rallying symbol for the city, including during the 1695 siege by the French troops of the Sun King, Louis XIV.   Today, the Mannekin is often dressed in various costumes to commemorate holidays and special events. The city’s municipal museum houses his growing collection of ceremonial outfits.   4. The Royal Theater of La Monnaie Postcard depicting the Royal Theater of La Monnaie by Henri Borremans, c. 1840s. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The theater is Belgium’s equivalent symbol of the storming of the Bastille at the onset of the French Revolution. In other words, this is the place where the country’s revolution began. Indeed, historian Samuel Humes notes that theatergoers joined protestors on the streets of Brussels in 1830.   Citizens of Brussels and many French-speaking Walloons resented King William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands’ autocratic style, anti-Catholic policies, and his preference for Dutch rather than Belgian officials and administrators. Worsening economic conditions in Belgium proved to be the spark that set off the massive demonstration outside the theater.   A patriotic aria, L’Amour Sacré de la Patrie, from the Daniel Auber opera La Muette de Portici, compelled the audience to join demonstrators in the streets of Brussels. The demonstrations outside the theater set in motion events in 1830-1831, which saw Dutch troops driven out of Belgium and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha elected as King of the Belgians.   5. The Royal Palace Postcard depicting the Royal Palace, Brussels, 1911. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Royal Palace is the centerpiece of the Royal Quarter. Built in the eighteenth century, It is the official workplace of the Belgian monarch. It sits on Coudenberg Hill and overlooks Brussels Park.   Historian Paul State points out that there have been castles and palaces on Coudenberg Hill since the eleventh century. Various ruling dynasties governed Brussels from this same spot, including the Dukes of Brabant, the Dukes of Burgundy, and the Habsburgs.   Samuel Humes explains that the current structure became a royal palace after Brussels became the co-capital of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands following the Napoleonic Wars.   The Royal Palace of Laeken in northern Brussels is the official residence of the Belgian royal family.   6. The Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert Photograph of the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert. Source: Wikimedia Commons   King Leopold I inaugurated the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in June 1847. Historian Paul F. State said the galleries constituted the first shopping arcade in Europe. The shopping arcade consists of three connected halls.   Architect Jean-Pierre Cluysenaer designed a neo-Renaissance style shopping arcade. State mentions that the luxury shops and cafés became a popular meeting place for nineteenth century society. For example, literary giants like Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas attended events at the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert.   King Leopold’s inauguration of the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert reflected Belgium’s economic growth in the early years of independent statehood. At the same time, Samuel Humes points out that the shopping arcade also illustrates the growing demand for consumer goods and the rise of shopping as a leisure activity during the mid-nineteenth century.   Today, the shopping arcade remains a popular shopping and dining area in the heart of Brussels’ historic lower town.   7. Cinquantenaire Park Photograph of the Cinquantenaire Park by Marc Ryckaert. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Historian Samuel Humes explains that the park opened in 1880 to commemorate Belgium’s 50th anniversary of independence. It hosts a Triumphal Arch, several museums, monuments, and walking paths. Although the triumphal arch was intended to celebrate the country’s 50th anniversary, it was not completed until 25 years later.   The expansive park also contains the Great Mosque of Brussels. While the building was initially constructed as an exhibition space in 1897, it became a mosque in 1978.   8. Art Nouveau Architecture Photograph of Grand Bazar Anspach (Destroyed) by Victor Horta, undated. Source: Horta Museum Brussels/Wikimedia Commons   Art Nouveau emerged as one of the leading architectural movements of the first half of the twentieth century. The hallmarks of Art Nouveau design include decorative lines, stained glass, floral frescoes, and elaborately curled and twisted metalwork. Alex G. Papadopoulos points out that thousands of buildings constructed in Brussels around the turn of the last century reflected Art Nouveau styles.   Art Nouveau architecture in Brussels is synonymous with Victor Horta. Historian Samuel Humes points out that the Belgian architect oversaw numerous projects across the city, including private residences and public buildings.   Paul State mentions that Horta also originally designed the Brussels Central train station, which was inaugurated in 1952. One of the finest examples of Horta’s work is the building that houses the Horta Museum, which had been both Horta’s home and studio. Horta’s home and three of the architect’s other Brussels residential projects have made the UNESCO World Heritage List.   Other prominent practitioners of Art Nouveau architecture in Brussels include Paul Hankar and Jules Brunfaut.   9. The Atomium Photograph of the Atomium. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Historian Paul State points out that, like the legendary Eiffel Tower in Paris, the Atomium was initially meant to be a temporary monument. Built for the 1958 World’s Fair, the Atomium is a futuristic monument that has become one of the city’s most iconic landmarks. Yet, as recently as the early 1990s, the Atomium was nearly demolished.   Shaped like a giant atom, the Atomium offers panoramic views of the city from its observation deck and houses several exhibitions on science, technology, and design.   10. The Berlaymont-Headquarters of the European Commission Photograph of the Berlaymont Building. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Professor Desmond Dinan tells us that the European Commission’s Brussels Headquarters, the Berlaymont, is known to some as the “Berlaymonster.”   The European Commission is the EU’s main executive body. Simon Usherwood and John Pinder point out that the Commission also initiates legislation and oversees compliance. The Commission comprises 27 commissioners, each responsible for a particular policy area.   The Commission’s history with the Berlaymont dates to the 1960s. Brussels also became the headquarters of NATO in the 1960s, further reinforcing the city’s international and cosmopolitan credentials.   According to Desmond Dinan, the Berlaymont underwent a controversial, lengthy, and expensive renovation in the 1990s and early 2000s.   11. The Espace Léopold-European Parliament Complex Photograph of the European Parliament Complex. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Along with Strasbourg, France, and Luxembourg City, the Espace Léopold is home to the European Parliament. According to Chris Bickerton, the parliament’s arrangement involving these three separate host cities is the cause for much confusion among the European Union’s population.   The European Parliament (EP) is the EU’s only directly elected body. As such, Simon Usherwood and John Pinder note that the EP has substantial powers over legislation, the EU budget, and the European Commission.   The postmodernist complex is nicknamed “Caprice des Dieux” (“Whim of the Gods”).   The Leopold or European Quarter, where these EU institutions are located, dates to the early days of Belgian independence. Indeed, Professor Alex G. Papadopoulos explains that the district was established in 1837. This neighborhood initially housed the country’s commercial and political elite.   However, by the first half of the twentieth century, many residents began relocating to newly built suburbs. By the 1950s, Papadopoulos pointed out that the quarter had started its transformation into the de facto capital of the EU.   References and Further Reading   Bickerton, C. (2016). The European Union: A Citizen’s Guide. Pelican.   Dinan, D. (2010). Ever Closer Union: An Introduction to European Integration, (4th ed). Lynne Rienner.   Humes, S. (2014). Belgium: Long United, Long Divided. Hurst &Company.   Papadopoulos, A.G. (1996). Urban Regimes and Strategies: Building Europe’s Central Executive District in Brussels. University of Chicago Press.   State, P.F. (2015). Historical Dictionary of Brussels. Rowman & Littlefield.   Usherwood, S. & Pinder, J. (2018). The European Union: A Very Short Introduction, (4th ed.). Oxford University Press.

  The kingdom of Thailand traces its history to the 13th-century kingdom of Sukhothai. Sukhothai reached its zenith under King Ramkhamhaeng, the inventor of the Thai script. During the 14th century, Sukhothai was eclipsed by the kingdom of Ayutthaya, a major regional trading center. Expanded by King Trailok, restored by King Naresuan, and reaching commercial heights under King Narai, Ayutthaya was sacked by the Burmese in 1767. King Taksin reunified the Siamese Kingdom through his conquests, laying the foundations for the current Chakri Dynasty. Read on to discover more about the kings of Thailand.   1. Ramkhamhaeng Statue of King Ramkhamhaeng at Sukhothai Historical Park, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy Chen   King Ramkhamhaeng was the third ruler of the kingdom of Sukhothai, the earliest independent Thai state. Located in north-central Thailand, Sukhothai had been part of a Dvaravati kingdom centered on present-day Lopburi, which was, in turn, subject to cultural and political influence from the Khmer Empire in Cambodia. From the 9th century onwards, the area was settled by the Tai people (ancestors of modern Thai) from southern China. As the Lopburi Kingdom declined, the Tai took control of the city in the 11th century but were, in turn, subjugated by the Khmer.   In 1238, a Tai chief named Bang Klang Hao rebelled against the Khmer and ruled over Sukhothai and nearby Si Satchanalai under the name Si Inthrathit. By the end of his reign in 1270, his realm encompassed the upper valley of the Chao Phraya River. Si Inthrathit was succeeded by his son Ban Mueang, who ruled for a decade. In 1280, Si Inthrathit’s youngest son became King Ramkhamhaeng.   The name Ramkhamhaeng means “Rama the Bold.” The Kingdom of Sukhothai is believed to have reached its greatest territorial extent during his reign, though the “kingdom” resembled a network of city-states rather than a centralized entity. In 1287, Ramkhamhaeng formed an alliance with two kings in northern Thailand: Ngam Mueang of Phayao and King Mangrai of Lanna, the founder of the city of Chiang Mai.   Ramkhamhaeng is best known in Thailand as the inventor of the Thai script, which was adapted from the Khmer script. The so-called “Sukhothai” script made its first appearance on the Ramkhamhaeng Stele, discovered at Sukhothai by the future King Mongkut in 1833 and dated to 1292. The inscription gives a brief account of the king’s life and reign, including his military exploits and patronage of Buddhist monasteries.   2. Trailok Statue of King Trailok. Source: Gavroche Thaïlande   The power of the Kingdom of Sukhothai waned in the century after Ramkhamhaeng’s death in 1298. As the political center of gravity moved south, Ramkhamkhaeng’s descendants shifted their power base to Phitsanulok. During the second half of the 14th century, Sukhothai was eclipsed by Ayutthaya, which became wealthy through trade with China.   Ayutthaya owed its name to Ayodhya in India, a city associated with both the Buddha and the Hindu god Rama (a manifestation of Vishnu), who plays a major role in Thai royal culture. Ayutthaya was officially founded in 1351 by a man named U Thong, known by his regnal name of Ramathibodi I. U Thong expanded his realm by marrying into the royal families of Suphanburi and Lopburi. A power struggle ensued after his death, and by the 15th century, the lords of Suphanburi gained control of the throne of Ayutthaya (Baker and Pasuk, p. 56).   The kings of Ayutthaya formed close marriage ties with the rulers of Sukhothai, creating a political culture that combined elements from north and south. King Boromaracha II of Ayutthaya (r. 1424-1448) married a Sukhothai princess. When his brother-in-law, King Maha Thammaracha IV of Sukhothai, died in 1438, Boromaracha named his seven-year-old son, Prince Ramesuan, as viceroy of Sukhothai, marking the end of Sukhothai’s independence.   Wat Phra Si Sanphet, one of the most iconic temples in Ayutthaya, Thailand. King Trailok’s ashes are believed to be interred in one of the three chedis pictured, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2017. Source: Jimmy Chen   Prince Ramesuan succeeded his father in 1448 under the name King Trailokkanat (or Trailok). He was the first king of Ayutthaya to be descended from the royal house of Sukhothai. After Trailok reneged on a promise to appoint his cousin Prince Yuthisthira (a male line descendant of the house of Sukhothai) as viceroy in Phitsanulok, the latter escaped to Lanna and encouraged King Tilokarat to go to war against Ayutthaya.   King Trailok spent much of his reign fighting against Lanna. In order to supervise military operations more effectively, he moved his capital to Phitsanulok in 1463 after appointing his eldest son as junior king in Ayutthaya. Many northern cities remained under the control of Lanna until Ayutthaya secured a crucial victory at Si Satchanalai in 1474, which is commemorated in the epic poem Yuan phai. Although hostilities continued for many decades, the victory ensured that Ayutthaya re-established its influence over the northern cities.   Despite his absence from Ayutthaya, Trailok introduced important reforms to the Thai bureaucracy by establishing a hierarchy of towns and a corresponding hierarchy of governors or lords for the cities, who were expected to carry out civil and military functions (Chula, pp. 33-34). This system remained in place until King Chulalongkorn’s administrative reforms in the early 20th century. When Trailok died in 1488, Ayutthaya resumed its function as the primary capital, but Phitsanulok remained a secondary capital for the next century.   3. Naresuan Statue of King Naresuan in Ayutthaya, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2027. Source: Jimmy Chen   By the middle of the 16th century, the kingdom of Burma to the west emerged as the main rival to Ayutthaya. A Burmese invasion in 1548 is considered the first of more than 20 Burmese-Siamese conflicts that continued until the early 19th century. The Burmese laid siege to Ayutthaya but were forced to withdraw. However, the war witnessed the dramatic sacrifice of Queen Suriyothai, who rode her elephant into harm’s way to save the life of her husband, King Maha Chakkraphat.   The Burmese returned in 1563 and briefly occupied Ayutthaya, deposing Maha Chakkraphat and installing his son Mahinthra as a vassal in the process. When Mahinthra encouraged his father to resume the kingship in 1568, the Burmese invaded in 1569 and captured Ayutthaya again. The fall of Ayutthaya owed much to Maha Thammaracha of Phitsanulok, who defected to the Burmese. Both Chakkraphat and Mahinthra were killed, and the Burmese made Maha Thammaracha the new vassal king of Ayutthaya.   Maha Thammaracha, a descendant of the House of Sukhothai, was granted considerable powers over the northern cities in 1548 after helping Maha Chakkraphat secure his throne. In a demonstration of his fealty to the Burmese kingdom, Maha Thammaracha was required to send his sons Naresuan and Ekathosarot to the Burmese court at Pegu as hostages in 1569 (or possibly earlier in 1563).   The lines of history and legend become blurred in the figure of Naresuan. According to the Thai chronicles, the young princes received military training at Pegu and enjoyed cockfighting with the Burmese princes. By around 1570, in response to a plot to kill Naresuan, the Siamese princes escaped, and Naresuan established himself as viceroy at Phitsanulok.   Equestrian Statue of King Naresuan in Ayutthaya, Thailand. photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2027. Source: Jimmy Chen   During the 1570s, the young Naresuan distinguished himself in battle by defeating internal uprisings and invasions from Cambodia. In 1584, he made the fateful decision to declare independence from Burma’s vassalage. This led the Burmese army to launch annual campaigns against Ayutthaya between 1584 and 1587. Naresuan evacuated the northern cities, strengthened Ayutthaya’s defenses, and recruited Portuguese and Japanese mercenaries who joined his army to attack the Burmese siege camps and force the enemy to retreat.   When Naresuan became king in 1590, Phitsanulok was downgraded in status, and Ayutthaya became the sole capital. The conflict with Burma climaxed with the Battle of Nong Sarai near Suphanburi in January 1593. The battle is known in Thailand for a legendary elephant duel between Naresuan and the Burmese crown prince Mingyi Swa, his supposed childhood playmate. Despite being mounted on a smaller elephant, Naresuan emerged victorious and killed his adversary. Burmese chronicles and European accounts do not mention the elephant duel and indicate that Mingyi Swa was killed by a gunshot.   In 1599, Naresuan led an invasion of Burma that saw Siamese armies reach the gates of Pegu. While he was unable to subdue the enemy capital, he secured the passes into Siam. Between 1602 and 1604, Naresuan established suzerainty over Cambodia, which lasted a decade. His death in 1605 during a campaign in Lanna brought an end to major hostilities. While Naresuan is venerated as a heroic figure in modern Thailand, contemporary Siamese chroniclers emphasized his cruelty and bloodlust as a conqueror (Baker and Pasuk, pp. 111-118).   4. Narai Statue of King Narai at Lopburi, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2018. Source: Jimmy Chen   Naresuan’s brother and successor, King Ekathotsarot, preferred diplomacy and commerce to war and established trade links with the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. Lucrative trade was also conducted with the Chinese, Japanese, and Muslim Indian merchants. Ayutthaya thus became a major entrepot facilitating trade between Europe and Asia.   In 1628, the ruling house of Ayutthaya was overthrown by an aristocrat named Prasat Thong with the assistance of the head of the Japanese trading colony. Prasat Thong’s reign also witnessed the arrival of a small but influential body of Persians who assumed high office. The Persians played a key role in the accession of Prasat Thong’s younger son Narai, who outmaneuvered a brother and an uncle in the power struggle after his father’s death in 1656.   Persians, therefore, continued to occupy key government positions during Narai’s reign, and the king relied on Persian and Chinese merchants to resist the Dutch East India Company’s demands for monopolies. In 1666, Narai ordered the construction of a new summer palace in Lopburi, his secondary capital, whose architectural features were inspired by Safavid Persia. Ayutthaya flourished during the reigns of Prasat Thong and Narai, and the city’s wealth was exhibited in newly restored temples with golden Buddha images.   A gate in King Narai’s Palace at Lopburi, photograph by Jimmy Chen. Source: Jimmy Chen   European influence at Narai’s court increased significantly in the late 1670s. The king was curious about European astronomy and had observatories built at Ayutthaya and Lopburi. The most famous European who served Narai was a Greek adventurer named Constantine Phaulkon, who spent much of his life working for the British East India Company. After being introduced to the king in the early 1680s, he quickly became Narai’s chief adviser with the title Chao Phraya Wichayen and used his influence to enrich himself.   Phaulkon organized a Siamese embassy to the King Louis XIV of France which arrived in 1685. The ambassadors made a good impression, and a reciprocal French embassy arrived in 1687, conveying Jesuit scholars and a few hundred French soldiers to garrison a couple of forts near the mouth of the Chao Phraya River in what is now Bangkok. Phaulkon’s actions also provoked a brief conflict with his former East India Company masters.   By the late 1680s, Narai was spending most of his year in Lopburi. His health was in steady decline, and during his final illness in 1688 a conservative nobleman named Phetracha launched a coup seeking to eliminate foreign influence at court. Phetracha seized the palace in May 1688, took Phaulkon captive, and executed him a few weeks later. Narai was too weak to protest, and Phetracha claimed the throne upon his death on July 11.   5. Taksin Statue of King Taksin at Rajabhakti Park, Hua Hin, Thailand, photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2020. Source: Jimmy Chen   The kingdom of Ayutthaya was plagued with instability during the 18th century, inviting a Burmese invasion in late 1759. This first attempt was repulsed, but following a second invasion in 1765, the Burmese laid siege to Ayutthaya for 14 months and sacked the city on the night of April 7, 1767.   A few months before the fall of Ayutthaya, a talented Thai-Chinese general named Taksin escaped from the city and began organizing an army. After establishing his base at Chanthaburi in southeastern Thailand, Taksin moved his headquarters to Thonburi on the west bank of the Chao Phraya River, now a district of Bangkok. By early 1768, he managed to retake Ayutthaya from its small Burmese garrison. However, Taksin made no attempt to rebuild Ayutthaya; instead, he retained his headquarters at Thonburi, making him the first (and only) king of Thonburi.   For the next seven years, Taksin personally led campaigns against the Burmese as they sought to reestablish their position in Siam. In the meantime, he brought together former Siamese territories in the north and south through a combination of force and diplomacy. From 1775 onwards, Taksin remained in Thonburi to focus on reviving the economy and restoring trade relations with China.   Monument to Seven Kings of Thailand at Rajabhakti Park, Hua Hin, Thailand (Left to right: Ramkhamhaeng, Naresuan, Narai, Taksin, Rama I, Rama IV, Rama V), photograph by Jimmy Chen, 2020. Source: Jimmy Chen   The military campaigns were left to two brothers who had been given the titles of Chao Phraya Chakri and Chao Phraya Surasi. The brothers repulsed another Burmese invasion in 1776 and secured the submission of Laos before extending Thonburi’s influence into Cambodia.   By the early 1780s, Taksin began behaving erratically, demanding to be worshiped as a Buddha and torturing members of his own family. This behavior inspired a revolt from an official named Phraya San, who quickly occupied Thonburi. Taksin offered no resistance and relinquished the throne. Upon learning of the news, Chao Phraya Chakri hurried back to Thonburi and took control of the government.   While Taksin expressed his wish to become a monk, the official history states that Chao Phraya Chakri executed him and took the throne himself. According to an alternative theory, Chao Phraya Chakri granted Taksin’s wish, and the dethroned king lived out his life in obscurity as a monk in the southern city of Nakhon Si Thammarat. The new king, known to history as Phra Phutthayotfa or King Rama I, founded the city of Bangkok on the opposite bank of the Chao Phraya to Thonburi. Today, the Chakri Dynasty, founded by Rama I, continues to reign in Thailand under King Vajiralongkorn (Rama X).   Reference List:   Baker, C. and Pasuk P. (2017). A History of Ayutthaya: Siam in the Early Modern World.   Chula C. (1967). Lords of Life: A History of the Kings of Thailand. Alvin Redman Ltd. (Original work published 1960.)

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1905 - The steamer "Hilda" sinks in the English Channel (100 people drown) 1919 - US Senate rejects the Treaty of Versailles by a vote of 55 to 39; Congress two years later approves resolution ending hostilities with Germany and Austria-Hungary 1942 - Joseph Goebbels visits "German Theatre in the Netherlands" 1969 - Apollo 12's Charles Conrad and Alan Bean become the 3rd and 4th humans on the Moon 1977 - Egyptian President Anwar Sadat arrives in Israel 1983 - Robert Whitney (79) conducts his final concert, leading the Louisville Orchestra at the opening of the Whitney Concert Hall at the Kentucky Center for the Performing Arts in Louisville, Kentucky 1994 - Aishwarya Rai, 21, of India, crowned 44th Miss World 2023 - Brazil records its highest-ever temperature - 44.8C (112.6F) in Araçuaí, Minas Gerais state More Historical Events »