It is not uncommon to hear the claim that the Vikings practiced human sacrifice, and evidence supports that the practice existed. But how prevalent was it among the ancient warriors, and in what situations was it considered appropriate or desirable? This article will discuss the literary, visual, and archaeological evidence for the practice of human sacrifice among the Vikings.   Sacrifices to the Gods Woodcut of the pagan temple at Uppsala according to the description by Adam of Bremen, in Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 1555. Source: Lars Henriksson Collection   It is important to remember that the Vikings were not a unified people who followed a single religious canon. They were divided into many groups, identifying with their local tribe led by a local chief. It took centuries for them to form into the larger nations that we are familiar with today. The people we call Vikings—people from Scandinavia who also settled in other parts of Europe such as Iceland, Greenland, England, and Russia—shared language, cultural practices, and religious beliefs, but it is important to note that they were not a homogenous people. What happened in one place may not have happened in another.   That said, religious rituals in many ancient pagan cultures involved blood sacrifices, usually of animals. We know that the Vikings made animal sacrifices to their gods from several sources. The best description probably comes from the Saga of Hakon the Good, written by Snorri Sturluson in the early 13th century.   He explains how an earl named Sigurd was known for being diligent in his sacrifices and always presided over sacrifices at festivals. He says that during festivals, the people of the area would come together and bring with them animals, such as cattle and horses, for sacrifice. The animals were killed, their blood let, and collected in special vessels. Brushes were then used to sprinkle the blood over the altar and temple walls. The meat from the animals was used in the festival feast, with modest portions offered to the gods (Saga of Hakon the Good, 16).   While this passage makes no mention of human sacrifice, that does not mean that it did not take place. However, it does probably indicate that human sacrifice was a relatively rare phenomenon, reserved for special occasions or circumstances.   Human Sacrifices to Odin Reconstruction of a scene on a tapestry from Oseberg ship burial showing human sacrifices hanging from trees, Norway, c. 9th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Romans, no strangers to animal sacrifice, recorded that the Germanic tribes they encountered, considered ancestors of the Vikings, made human sacrifices to their chief god. The historian Tacitus, writing in the 1st century CE, calls this principal god Mercury, using the name of a familiar Roman god to identify Odin. Tacitus implies that he is the only god who demands human sacrifices, suggesting that the other chief gods, Thor identified as Hercules, and Tyr identified as Mars, accepted more usual sacrifices.   Later accounts also suggest that human sacrifice took place on certain occasions during the Viking Age. The German bishop Thietmar Merseburg, writing between 908 and 1018, records that Vikings met at Lejre in Zeeland every nine years in January and sacrificed 99 humans to the gods, alongside an equal number of horses, dogs, and hens or hawks.   This story is matched by another Christian author, a monk called Adam of Bremen, writing in 1072. He records a similar tradition at Gammel Uppsala in Sweden, where there was a temple of Thor, Odin, and Freyr. He said that they met every nine years to ensure the goodwill of the gods by sacrificing nine males of all kinds, including dogs, horses, and humans. They were all hung from trees around the sanctuary grove.   Both of these authors were Christians reporting on things that they had heard that the “barbaric” Vikings did, and not things that they had seen themselves. But elements of their accounts ring true. The number nine was sacred to the Vikings and appeared in many of their myths. Hanging victims from trees also seems to be a likely ritual. Odin famously hung himself from the world tree Yggdrasil for nine days and nights while pierced by his own spear to learn the secrets of the runes, which he then shared with mankind.   Detail of a human sacrifice from a Stora Hammars Runestone, Sweden, c. 7th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the Stora Hammars runestones from Sweden, probably dating to the 7th century CE, also appears to depict such a scene. In the middle, it shows a person who appears to be being sacrificed on an altar. Overhead, there is a large bird of prey, assumed to be a raven, a bird sacred to Odin. To the left is another person who appears to have a noose around their neck and is hanging from a tree. If this is a scene of human sacrifice, it aligns closely with the above stories.   Nevertheless, both of these accounts are often taken with a grain of salt because they are also full of Christian criticism of the practice. While Adam of Bremen acknowledges that the purpose of the ritual was purification, he also describes the bodies as hanging “promiscuously” and refers to the gods as “demons.” Reading through cultural perspective is always a challenge when analyzing comments made by members of one culture about another.   Human Sacrifice in the Sagas Drawing of King Aun of Sweden sending his 10th son away to be sacrificed, by Erik Werenskiold, 1899. Source: University of Victoria   While the descriptions are less detailed, there are also references to human sacrifice in the Norse sagas, mostly written by Christian Vikings after conversion, but drawing on older Norse texts.   The Heimskingla, written in the early 13th century, records how King Aun of Sweden, when he was 60 years old, went to Uppsala and sacrificed his son to Odin, and in return, he would live for another 60 years. He then returned to Uppsala and sacrificed another one of his sons. He was told by Odin that he would receive another ten years for every son he sacrificed. He continued making the sacrifices even when he could no longer walk and was eventually bedbound. When he had sacrificed nine sons and still had one remaining, the Swedes would not let him make the final sacrifice because it was his time to die. While this is a fanciful but grizzly story, it seems to confirm an association between Odin and human sacrifice.   In the Ynglinga Saga, we meet the Swedish King Domalde, whose lands were suffering from bad harvests and starvation. Initially, the people sacrificed oxen at the temple at Uppsala, but nothing improved. The next year they sacrificed men, but the harvest was even worse. In the third year, they decide to sacrifice the king himself and sprinkle his blood on the statues of the gods. Good harvests returned to the people, and the region was prosperous during the reign of his son. The Historiae Norwegiae verifies this story and adds the detail that he was hanged, like many of the victims in other stories.   Drawing of the sacrifice of King Dolmade, by Erik Werenskiold, 1899. Source: University of Victoria   This tradition of making human sacrifices in times of dire need may also be preserved in a Swedish fairytale. It recalls an epidemic that killed thousands of people and saw the churches abandoned. To stop the plague, they first buried a cock alive, and then a goat, to no avail. In the end, they buried a poor young boy alive in a grave, but the storyteller is not sure whether this had the desired effect.   Evidence of this type of practice may also be preserved in the archaeological record. At Trelleborg in West Zealand, a Viking Age sacrificial site has been found, predating the fortress built there in 980/1. Human and animal bones, along with jewelry and other tools, were found in five wells, each around three meters deep. There were five human victims, four of them aged between four and seven. A small enclosure was also found nearby, which may have been used for the ritual preparation of the victims. This seems to parallel the story of the poor Swedish boy.   It also seems significant that the victims were interred in wells, which were sacred to the Vikings. The world tree Yggdrasil was believed to be fed by three wells, the boiling well, the well of fate, and the well of wisdom. Odin plucked out his own eye as a sacrifice to drink from the well of wisdom. Therefore, a well may have been considered a very fitting place for human sacrifice.   Human Sacrifice Observed as Funerary Rituals Princess Olga looking at her dead husband Prince Igor of the Kyivan Rus Vikings, by Vasily Surikov, 1915. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In addition to the context of sacrifices to the gods, human sacrifice is also mentioned among the Vikings in relation to funerary practices. It is suggested that slaves, who were common in the Viking world, were often sacrificed and buried alongside their masters when they died.   The principal evidence comes from an Arab scholar and traveler called Ibn Fadlan, who was traveling in the early 10th century. He met a group of Rus, who were closely related to the Swedish Vikings, living on the Volga River. He recalls witnessing the funerary rituals for a dead chief, which involved the sacrifice of a slave girl to be burned beside him.   He describes rituals to prepare the girl, which included giving her intoxicating drinks and being raped by six men. He then says that four men held her down by her hands and feet next to the body of the dead chief. The presiding priestess, known as the “Angel of Death,” then wrapped a cord around her neck and gave the ends to another two men. She then proceeded to stab the girl in the ribs with a knife while they strangled her until she was dead. She was then burned on the funeral pyre alongside her master.   While this is a graphic firsthand account, on their own, the exact details cannot be trusted to be completely accurate. As an outsider, it is highly likely that Ibn Fadlan did not understand everything he saw, and he may also have had his own reasons to make the people he encountered seem “other” and “barbaric.” At the very end of the section discussing this ritual, he says that one of the Rus called the Arabs “fools” for burying rather than burning their dead, which again highlights this “otherness.”   Human Sacrifices as Burial Goods Sigurd and Brynhilde, by C. Butler, 1909. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Norse sagas preserve stories of people choosing to die on the funeral pyres of their loved ones. When the god Balder died, his wife Nanna reportedly threw herself on his funeral pyre to join him. Similarly, in the Lay of Sigurd, when Brunhild caused the death of her love Sigurd, she said to ensure that his funeral pyre was big enough for the two of them. She also made other comments about the preparation of the pyre, including that slaves should be killed, with two placed at the feet of the dead man and two placed at his head.   There is also evidence of this type of human sacrifice in the archaeological record. There are many examples of more than one body in a grave, such as the famous Oseberg ship burial that contained the bodies of two women. These may be examples of master and slave burials. However, there are also a few specific examples that seem to provide more concrete evidence.   For example, a burial from the Vendel Era, just before the Viking Era between 550 and 800 CE, at Birka in Sweden is known as Elk Man. It is the grave of an older man buried with a spear, shield, arrows, and an elk antler next to him. Next to and partly on top of him is the skeleton of a decapitated younger man in a contorted position with his head next to him and no personal objects.   Grave probably with beheaded slaves from Tommeide farm in Tomma. Source: University of Oslo   Another grave discovered at Bollstanas in Sweden contains two decapitated men buried belly down with no significant materials. They are buried on top of a layer of burned material rich with burial goods and the body of a third man.   At Flakstad in Norway, the remains of ten people have been found in multiple graves, and three of the bodies were decapitated. Analysis suggests differences between the decapitated individuals and the other people buried there. Analysis of carbon and nitrogen isotopes suggests that the decapitated individuals lived mainly on a diet of seafood, while the rest had a diet richer in land-based proteins such as meat and dairy products. This suggests a difference in social status between the different groups and could indicate slaves buried alongside their masters.   Placing individuals in the ground alongside other dead may have made sense in the Viking context. According to Odin’s Law, anything burned on a funeral pyre or personally placed into the ground could be taken into the afterlife (Ynglinga saga, 8). This is why burial goods were common in graves, as they were things that a person could use in the next life. It may have been believed that slaves could continue to serve. In addition, since the Vikings believed that only great warriors could make it to Valhalla, being buried with a great chief may sometimes have been an attractive prospect, as they could take you to Valhalla with them.

As mass unrest continues to spread across the UK, the number of councils vowing to take legal action to kick asylum seekers out of hotels has grown to at least nineteen. It is understood that [...] The post Councils Across England Vow To Take Legal Action Over Migrant Hotels appeared first on The People's Voice.

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The Riverside leader’s seventh side-project album, intended to be its penultimate release, continued his personal life-and-death story cycle

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There’s something magical about seeing the world through the eyes of someone else. Perhaps that is part of the charm in the videos posted by Life on Film. So many of their posts follow the same format but every single one could not be more unique. You see, Life on Film greatly values the power of photos. That is why, in each video, you will find them giving a disposable camera to total strangers. It doesn’t matter where these strangers are going or what they plan on doing; their goal remains the same: Take lots of photos! Once they’ve returned these images to Life on Film, they create a simple yet powerful video of these strangers’ adventures, no matter how simple or extravagant. Speaking of which, a couple that was setting out for a work trip were the perfect strangers for this beautiful project… see for yourself in the video below! Giving Disposable Cameras to Total Strangers Proves to Produce Some of the Most Magical Results This sweet couple, Elene and Rene, couldn’t have been better choices for Life on Film. So few people can say they’ve ever taken a tour of Antarctica, much less guided one of them! The sights they saw, the friendships they formed — all of it is so beautifully captured in these photos. It’s no wonder people love content like this so much. It helps us feel like we’re a part of the adventure! “Casually gave us some of the best photos ever, love these guys,” someone shares in reply to this viral video. Other commenters add, “I appreciate everyone involved in making this happen” and “Top tier people to stumble across. Modest in the fact they don’t see how rare and interesting what they’re doing would be to others.” You can find the source of this story’s featured image here! The post Man Gives Disposable Camera To Strangers — The Photos He Gets Back Are Incredible appeared first on InspireMore.

Often quoted to be the loneliest generation, Gen Z tends to struggle with relationships. This world lies about the value of biblical marriage and of relationships with those in different life stages, and it can become difficult to figure out the truth. The young writers who entered our essay contest know this all too well. They wrote about these truths in essays that discussed God’s gift of work, his purposes for marriage and sexuality, and his good plans for intergenerational relationships. Over the past month, nearly 100 young writers submitted original essays, and the editorial team reviewed them. They wrote about the men and women in their churches who had ministered to them, how they found joy in the Lord even in everyday work, and how God’s Word framed their worldview on marriage and sexuality. Thoughtful Writers The Gospel Coalition received essays from 81 young writers: They ranged in age from 16 to 22. Many were high school students; others were college students or just starting their adult lives. A little over half of this year’s writers were female, and just under half were male, unlike previous years. They’re members of local churches—Presbyterians, Baptists, and Anglicans predominated, with many nondenominational churches also represented. There were submissions from across the U.S. as well as from South Africa, Germany, Australia, and Malaysia. Many writers expressed the joy they’d found in pursuing godly work even in a mundane job where complaining would have been easy. Others wrote passionately about the older and younger members of the church they’d formed relationships with, detailing the sweet conversations over cups of coffee and meals in homes. Some writers dissected the difficult topic of sexuality and marriage in the Bible and expressed their gratitude for its clarity. The most selected prompt was “The Overlooked Ministry of Intergenerational Relationships,” with almost half the submissions covering this topic. We were encouraged by the prevalence of solid friendships that go beyond age and paint a picture of church unity. We pray your hearts will be warmed and your souls edified as you read these essays (and TGC will be publishing more of them over the coming months). Three Winners Among the essays, three pieces stood out as well crafted, thoughtful, and engaging. Our editorial team was clear about which winners to select, and we’re delighted to publish them on the site for you to read. First Place: “Find Joy in the Dish Room” by Garrett Fish Garrett’s essay showcased the joy that can be found in the often overlooked work of washing dishes. He made a clear argument for service among the least of these who are no less honorable in God’s kingdom. Readers struggling to view their day-to-day tasks in a positive light will appreciate his exhortation to apply a theology of work to any job. His writing urges the church to remember those the world forgets and to pursue a servant heart. Second Place: “My Best Friend Is a Church Grandma” by Charis Cooper In her essay on intergenerational relationships, Charis details the hard but beautiful friendships her church fosters. As Gen Z searches for meaningful relationships, perhaps the solution isn’t found within one generation. “We’re all going to be shaped by somebody,” Charis writes, and then she explains why she’s so grateful that somebody is the older woman from her church who mentors her despite how easy it would have been to leave her to peer friendships. Third Place: “How to Wash Windows for God’s Glory” by Evan Georgia Using his experience washing windows in Chicago, Evan points to the ultimate joy found in work when it’s done to please the Lord. Looking to Christ’s example of humility and service led Evan to understand that his heart posture of obedience was what mattered to the Lord. He urges readers not to pursue a worldly ideal of work. Instead, they should focus on what pleases the Lord, whether that’s a part-time gig washing windows, 30 years of carpentry, or a life of ministry.

Over the summer, I’ve been working at Calvin University. Not as a resident assistant, a researcher, or a teaching assistant. I’m a line server in the school’s dining hall. Not the most glamorous position, you think. There’s a rhythm to it. I wake up early, tie an apron behind my back, and spend the day scooping food onto plates for hungry campers and conference-goers. It’s repetitive. It’s sweaty. And it’s not what many people would expect from a biblical studies student, especially one with hopes of ministry. But this summer, I’ve worked with the cooks, the dish crew, and the janitors. I’ve seen their integrity, their tired smiles, their quiet pride in finishing a job well. And I’ve realized something: If my theology can’t find dignity here, it probably doesn’t belong anywhere. This isn’t my first blue-collar job. I’ve mopped classroom halls, mowed lawns, and painted fences under the July sun. I’ve picked up odd jobs through word of mouth—landscaping yards or cleaning basements. None of it will make it onto my academic résumé. Yet all of it has shaped my theology far more than another class on Reformation history ever could. Holiness in the Humble In many Christian circles, especially those adjacent to higher education, we fall into the subtle trap of professional elitism. We elevate the preacher, the professor, the published author—and rightly so, to a point. These are good and necessary callings. Somewhere along the line, we absorb the idea that these are the important jobs, the holy jobs. And the others? They’re just the backdrop. But Scripture doesn’t share that hierarchy. In the garden of Eden, before there was sin, there was work. “The LORD God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to work it and keep it” (Gen. 2:15). Work isn’t a curse; it’s part of what it means to be human. When we imagine Eden, we often picture eternal leisure. But God imagined joy in tending, cultivating, and creating alongside him. The fall introduced toil (3:17–19). Our bodies and the ground resist us now, but the call to work has never been revoked. Work isn’t a curse; it’s part of what it means to be human. Moreover, in Exodus and Leviticus, God gives his people instructions not only for worship and sacrifice but for farming, animal care, craftsmanship, and homebuilding. Bezalel and Oholiab, artisans filled with God’s Spirit, were tasked with constructing the tabernacle (Ex. 31:1–11). Their tools were chisels and thread. God used their hands to build a dwelling place for his presence. Paul echoes this holistic vision in the New Testament: “Aspire to live quietly, and to mind your own affairs, and to work with your hands . . . so that you may walk properly before outsiders and be dependent on no one” (1 Thess. 4:11–12). To the Colossians, he writes, “Whatever you do, work heartily, as for the Lord and not for men. . . . You are serving the Lord Christ” (Col. 3:23–24). This is foundational to whatever you do. Not only if you’re pastoring a church or writing devotionals, but also if you’re changing diapers, replacing tires, or wiping dirty fingerprints off glass. Another Kind of Service There’s no caste system in God’s kingdom. Jesus made this plain when he washed his disciples’ feet, an act so low it was normally reserved for the least of the servants. He tells them, “If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet, you also ought to wash one another’s feet” (John 13:14). No task is beneath us because no person is beneath us. The world assigns value based on prestige, platform, and paycheck. The Lord looks at the heart. What kind of heart pleases him? A faithful one. One that shows up on time, does the work well, and loves the people nearby, even when the work itself is unnoticed. I once served mashed potatoes to a man who barely looked up. He just mumbled “Thanks” and moved on. But my coworker, an older woman who’s worked in food service for more than a decade, smiled anyway and said, “You’re welcome, sweetheart. Have a good day.” Her words were a benediction. A tiny blessing offered over steam and aching feet. That’s what gospel work looks like too. Remember Christ Ironically, it’s these jobs—forgotten by many, avoided by some—that have taught me the most about pastoral ministry. If I ever preach the gospel from a pulpit, I pray I remember what it was like to wipe down sticky tables. To sweat through a lunch rush. To chat with the quiet dishwasher who rarely speaks but always helps carry the weight. Because real ministry begins with remembering the people the world forgets. And if our theology can’t embrace the janitor or the roofer or the cashier at Meijer, then we’ve misunderstood the incarnation. Christ didn’t consider equality with God something to be grasped but emptied himself—taking the form of a servant, becoming obedient even unto death (Phil. 2:6–8). God stooped. If our theology can’t embrace the janitor or the roofer or the cashier at Meijer, then we’ve misunderstood the incarnation. In a sense, every job done in love is an echo of that descent. A shadow of Christ’s humility. And when we honor ordinary labor, we honor the God who became flesh in a lowly manger. So yes, I’m a biblical studies student. And yes, I serve food behind a plastic sneeze guard. But in the strange economy of grace, this work isn’t beneath me. It’s preparing me to be a better disciple, not despite its mundanity but because of it. Here, in the “unimportant” jobs, I’ve discovered joy as the fruit of faithfulness. And maybe that’s where the kingdom begins: at the bottom of the ladder, with a heart learning to see God in the work of our hands. The world says, “Dream big.” Jesus says, “Be faithful in little” (see Luke 16:10).

Ask me who I connect one-on-one with most outside of family, and you might be surprised at my answer: a woman from church about 40 years older than me. Not a peer, or a cool twentysomething, but a church grandma. Why? Because intergenerational relationships matter. Our church pairs every student with a more mature believer in a discipleship relationship, seeking to intentionally pass along wisdom from older to younger Christians. So, twice a month, my discipler and I meet to do everything from decorating cakes to discussing biblical womanhood, from seeing a movie to hearing Christopher Yuan speak, from exploring the chai at new coffee shops to crying with each other while drinking it. It’s life-on-life discipleship: We do life with each other, for Jesus. Unusual? Yes. Hard? Absolutely. But beneficial? Far more than you might imagine. Better than Pizza and Games Intergenerational relationships are out of fashion in youth ministry, overlooked in favor of cool events and age-specific small groups. After all, don’t students want free pizza, fun games, and awesome friends more than they want to talk about the Bible with someone far removed from their own generation? I can’t speak for everyone, but I haven’t grown closer to Jesus because of the pizza. I haven’t formed life-changing relationships because of mafia nights. And I haven’t learned tested biblical wisdom from hanging out with people my age. I’m not criticizing any of these, and I enjoy them all, but I’ve realized more and more that I also need intentional relationships with those older and wiser than me. So, how is this discipling relationship—between people ordinarily far removed from each other—deeply beneficial? I have two answers. First, the Bible makes clear that intergenerational relationships are necessary to impart wisdom and reveal previously unseen facets of God’s glory. Christ calls the church to encourage and support one another as members of one body, each playing an invaluable role in the lives of the others. Paul describes the church like this: Just as the body is one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though many, are one body, so it is with Christ. . . . If the whole body were an eye, where would be the sense of hearing? If the whole body were an ear, where would be the sense of smell? But as it is, God arranged the members in the body, each one of them, as he chose. (1 Cor. 12:12, 17–18) By Christ’s radically unexpected grace, the church has become his blood-bought Bride. He brings together wildly disparate people that we may glorify God better together than we would apart, and that we may together love him first and love each other as he loved us. So of course we need intergenerational relationships; they’re integral to the church. God brings together wildly disparate people that we may glorify him better together than we would apart. People of different ages grow from the challenge of living with and loving each other, teaching and learning from each other, and reflecting God’s goodness to each other. The Bible explicitly declares we need one another: “Older women likewise are . . . to teach what is good, and so train the young women” (Titus 2:3–4). At the same time, Paul writes, “Let no one despise you for your youth, but set the believers an example in speech, in conduct, in love, in faith, in purity” (1 Tim. 4:12). Younger Christians need the wisdom of experienced saints, while older Christians need the example of youthful saints. It’s countercultural, but both need each other—and the church needs both. Second, I can affirm from my experience that I needed this. I was skeptical at the beginning of this relationship, uncertain if it was necessary. But it turns out, my discipler knows a lot more than I do. Not only has she instructed me through her teaching, but she has also shaped me through her intentional, faithful living as an older Christian woman. When I experienced a season of grief, she came alongside me and pointed me to our unshakable hope. When I worry about next steps, she offers biblical wisdom. When I struggle with sin, she encourages me as a pilgrim further along. We’re all going to be shaped by somebody; we’re all going to look to someone as a standard and example. My default would be to look at peers or culture, so I’ve been immensely thankful to God for putting her in my life that I might instead follow her as she follows Christ. Generation to Generation Because my church wants to see this work continue, I also, by God’s grace, have the joy of discipling a fourth-grade girl. For the past year, I’ve met one-on-one with her, building a countercultural relationship that points her to Christ as we enjoy ice cream, long chats, and a Bible study—a relationship we hope will support her through the formative teen years. While I’m being discipled, I’m also learning to disciple and to pass on what’s been entrusted to me (2 Tim. 2:2). We’re all going to be shaped by somebody; we’re all going to look to someone as a standard and example. Many forms of discipleship are effective, yet I can say from experience that intergenerational relationships teach much about wisely and lovingly following Christ in a skeptical world; indeed, they’re invaluable in forming a God-glorifying, Christ-centered church community. In an age of individualism, isolation, and tribalism, they radically reorient our vision and point to the all-surpassing goodness of our God. It’s dangerously easy to float with the culture in forming relationships, gravitating passively toward those who look like you, talk like you, and are the same age as you. This isn’t biblical. Christ-centered intergenerational relationships may be downplayed, discredited, or deserted altogether. But running this race together will prepare us for the day we behold Christ face to face.