When Envy Becomes a Political Weapon

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  Welsh mythology is a product of medieval Britain. It is found in medieval documents from Wales in various forms, such as poems, prose tales, and triads containing brief references to otherwise forgotten stories. Significantly, the Welsh are, along with the Cornish and the Bretons, the direct cultural successors of the ancient Celts of Britain. Hence, a traditional view among scholars has been to interpret several figures in Welsh mythology as evolved versions of ancient Celtic gods. But does the evidence really support this view?   Celtic Gods in Welsh Mythology Panel of the Mabinogi, by George Sheringham, c. 1887-1937. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Welsh mythology is largely, although not exclusively, set in the Arthurian era. That is, it largely involves figures who are presented as contemporaries of King Arthur. Consider, for example, the Four Branches of the Mabinogi, which tells the story of Pryderi, a prince of Dyfed. Taliesin, King Arthur’s chief bard, appears in one of the stories, and several Arthurian stories refer to characters from that narrative.   It is known that many of the figures who appear in the Arthurian legends were historical people. Examples include Urien, Gildas, and Maelgwn Gwynedd. However, this does not mean that all the characters in those legends were historical. Some of them appear to be thoroughly mythological. For example, a very fanciful and mythological Arthurian tale is Culhwch and Olwen, dated to c. 1100. Numerous characters from Welsh tradition feature in this story, making it a very useful source. Some scholars believe that several characters in this tale are evolutions of ancient Celtic gods.   Remains of a Roman temple dedicated to Nodens, Lydney Park, Gloucestershire. Source: Jeff Collins via Geograph   Examples include Mabon ap Modron. Both Mabon and his mother Modron are argued to be Celtic divinities, son god and mother goddess, respectively. Another example is Gwyn ap Nudd. Gwyn’s father, Nudd, is argued to be the Celtic god Nodens, attested in Britain in the Roman era. Gwyn himself is allegedly some kind of divinity who takes people to the underworld.   A particularly famous example is Beli Mawr. Although he does not appear in Culhwch and Olwen, many other sources mention him. He is presented in the records as a famous and prominent ancestor figure. His epithet, “Mawr,” means “Great.” Therefore, he is “Beli the Great.” Many scholars in the past have argued that he can be identified with Belenos, the prominent Celtic god attested in Britain and Gaul in the Roman era. This god, Belenos, was likely the “Apollo” mentioned by Julius Caesar as one of the chief gods of the Celts. However, was he really Beli Mawr from the Welsh tales?   Mabon and Modron Inscribed stone dedicated to Maponos, Hexham Abbey, Northumberland. Source: Mike Quinn via Geograph   Let us begin our examination by taking a closer look at the case of Mabon and Modron. The Celtic goddess Dea Matrona is attested on the continent as early as the 1st century BCE. The River Marne was named Matrona after her, as we see in the writings of Julius Caesar. Her name means “Mother Goddess.” In Roman Britain, there are a number of inscriptions that mention a certain “Maponos” or “Deo Maponos,” which means “Great Son God.” With one deity being attested as “Mother” and another being attested as “Great Son,” they would logically have been associated with each other.   The name “Mabon” is definitely an evolution of “Maponos,” and “Modron” is likewise an evolution of “Matrona.” Of course, that does not necessarily mean that real people never used these names. In fact, we know that Mabon was a genuine name used in the Arthurian era.   Nevertheless, the fact that Mabon, “Great Son,” is explicitly made the son of Modron, “Mother,” is highly suggestive that these figures are indeed evolutions of the Celtic deities from whom their names derive.   Origins of Nudd Culhwch and Olwen, in Jesus College MS 111, folio 201v, showing “Gwyn ap Nudd” in the center, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Library, Oxford   What about Nudd, another figure who appears in Culhwch and Olwen? There are two main reasons for concluding that he was a Celtic god. The first is that his name, Nudd, appears to be an evolution of “Nodens,” the name of a Celtic god attested in Britain in the Roman era. Secondly, Welsh texts appear to place his son, Gwyn, in a highly mythological context. For example, Culhwch and Olwen mentions that God had placed “the demons of Annwn” in him, Annwn being the Welsh Otherworld. Another relevant Welsh text is a poem found in the Black Book of Carmarthen. This poem refers to Gwyn as a fairy. It mentions various warriors whom he saw fall in battle. In the poem, Gwyn himself states that he is the “escort of the grave.”   For these reasons, Gwyn is viewed as an entirely mythological figure, meaning that his father, Nudd, could certainly be the evolution of the Celtic god Nodens.   Yarrow Stone with the inscription for “Nudus son of Liberalis,” Selkirkshire, Scotland, c. 6th century. Source: Canmore National Record of the Historic Environment   Is there an attested Celtic god from whose name Gwyn could be derived, and could this god plausibly be connected to Nodens, as in the case of Mabon ap Modron? The answer is no. If there were, then the case for Gwyn and his father being Celtic gods would be strong. As it is, the fact that Gwyn is heavily associated with mythological characteristics is not particularly significant. We see the same phenomenon with figures who are known to be historical.   Taliesin, for example, is widely accepted as historical. Yet Welsh sources present him in an equally mythological way. He portrays himself as having been present for all manner of important events throughout history, and one tale has him transform into an animal.   The name “Nudd,” whether it derives from “Nodens” or not, is well attested in this period. It is even found in a stone inscription dating back to the 6th century. The name “Gwyn” is also associated with numerous figures who are not obviously mythological.   Origins of Beli Mawr Jesus College MS 20, folio 34v, showing Beli Mawr at the end of the fourth line, c. 14th century. Source: Bodleian Library, Oxford   What about Beli Mawr, the famous ancestor figure? Welsh texts make him the father of Cassivellaunus, the Brythonic king who fought against Julius Caesar when he invaded Britain in 54 BCE. What is the basis for viewing him as a Celtic god? Put simply, the basis is that his name is considered to have derived from “Belenos,” and he has a prominent place in Welsh tradition. However, is this really enough to justify identifying him as a Celtic god?   Nothing about him in Welsh tradition suggests that he was viewed as anything more than a regular human. The only suggestion that he was viewed as connected to anything remotely divine is that his wife, Anna, is said to have been the cousin of the Virgin Mary. Aside from that, he seems completely ordinary. While he does have the epithet “Mawr” or “Great,” numerous historical figures were given that epithet in Welsh tradition.   The name “Beli,” while possibly deriving from “Belenos,” was used by numerous individuals in Welsh history, as were the related forms “Belin” and “Belinus.” Therefore, there is really nothing about Beli Mawr that suggests that he was a Celtic god.   Celtic God of Annwn and the Welsh Otherworld Opening of Preiddeu Annwn, in MS Peniarth 2, folio 25v, which mentions the nine magical maidens of Annwn, c. 1300-1350. Source: National Library of Wales   Finally, let us consider an example of a Celtic god which, like Maponos and Matrona, does appear to have found its way into Welsh mythology. This time, we will work in the opposite direction. In the 1st century CE, the writer Pomponius Mela mentioned that the Isle of Sena, just off northwest Brittany, France, was dedicated to a Gallic divinity. He explains that there was an oracle on the island, and there were nine priestesses who served there. They were alleged to have the magical abilities of healing and shape-shifting.   The connections between this record and the tale of Avalon are striking. Avalon is equivalent to Annwn in Welsh mythology, with which nine magical maidens are also associated. Therefore, the ruler of Avalon, or Annwn, can presumably be associated with the Celtic divinity mentioned by Pomponius Mela.   Exactly which figure from Welsh mythology may be associated with this Celtic god is difficult to determine, since Welsh tradition speaks of several different rulers of Annwn. Examples include Afallach, Arawn, Hafgan, and Gwyn. However, Afallach seems to be the most likely candidate.   Are There Really Celtic Gods in Welsh Mythology? Scene from the Gundestrup Cauldron depicting a Celtic god, Denmark, c. 1st century BCE. Source: National Museum of Denmark   In conclusion, the traditional understanding that Welsh mythology preserves some relics from ancient Celtic mythology is not entirely without basis. There is a very good basis for concluding that Mabon and his mother Modron are direct evolutions of the Celtic god Maponos and the goddess Matrona, respectively. Furthermore, it is very likely that the Celtic god who was worshipped on the Isle of Sena was preserved in Welsh mythology, possibly in the guise of King Afallach.   On the other hand, some popular identifications of supposed Celtic gods in Welsh mythology are far less likely. The identification of Beli Mawr as the god Belenos is founded on a very weak basis, with nothing substantial to recommend it. The argument that Gwyn was a Celtic god and his father Nudd was Nodens is more convincing, but still without solid evidence. Both Gwyn and Nudd were common names in that era, as was the practice of portraying historical figures with mythological characteristics.

  During the 16th century, the Catholic Church was one of the major forces at play. It was present in every aspect of life—cultural, political, and religious. However, the clergy became so materialistic and authoritative that the people began to rise against it. Some of the popes and cardinals were dishonest and led immoral, luxurious lives. It was in this kind of situation that Christians began to demand change from the Church and the clergy. People were angry about many things, and corruption was the burning issue—from this turmoil grew a new movement known as the Protestant Reformation.   The Main Reasons Behind the Protestant Reformation Portrait of Leo X, Raphael, 1518. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy   The principal cause of public dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church was the power and greed of the clergy. To get money to support their overblown lifestyles, the cardinals and the clergy were always on the lookout for new opportunities, better offices, and power.   This period also witnessed a series of so-called Renaissance popes such as Pope Leo X and Pope Clement VII, members of the powerful Medici family. These popes led luxurious lives and had extremely hedonistic habits. Such a behavior was not well tolerated by people, especially believers, who tried to live by the Bible and follow the word of God.   The final nail in the coffin for a lot of faithful people was the business of selling indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon for sins the Catholic Church was selling. They were presented as something that would wash away and remove the sins of the person who wished to be clean from before God. In other words, anyone who committed a sin could be absolved by simply buying the indulgence from a priest.   Portrait of Martin Luther, Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1528. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Coburg Fortress, Coburg, Germany   In the 16th century, this practice of selling indulgences became the symbol of the Catholic Church’s corruption and one of the reasons for the protestant movement in Germany led by Martin Luther. Another very present problem in the Church was simony, a practice of selling church offices. In all, immorality was not even veiled, it was quite open and not hidden at all.   The other factors that facilitated the success of the Reformation were the rise of nationalism and political sovereignty. During the late 15th century and early 16th century, many secular kings and rulers aimed to strengthen their power. They backed and encouraged Luther’s movement because it would bring more independence or distance from the papacy’s control. Most importantly, the separation from the Papal States’ influence involved the stripping of the church’s vast lands and stopping the payment of taxes to the Vatican. Hence, it is easy to imagine why European rulers would support a movement that meant more power and more money to them.   Martin Luther and the Beginning of the Protestant Reformation Portrait of Charles V, formerly attributed to Titian, now attributed to Lambert Sustris, 1548. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Alte Pinakothek, Munich, Germany   Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a German professor of theology who initiated the Protestant Reformation movement. He was born in Eisleben, a small town in central Germany. He took priesthood and was a part of the Augustinian order, one of the most recognized religious orders in the Catholic Church. He was a devout Christian and was keen on the theological and philosophical concern of the relation between God and man, which the Bible promotes.   Luther began to pay attention to all the inconsistencies between the Holy Scriptures and the state of the Catholic Church and the papacy. His theology aimed to establish a direct connection between believers and God, he never thought it was necessary to have an intermediary between man and the divinity. He was confident Christians can pray directly to God by reading the scripture.   As Luther built his theological system, he argued that the Bible is the only source of reference, not the practice and the culture that the Catholic Church incorporated and developed over the years. Moreover, he started preaching that salvation is not earned by work or, even worse, by paying for it. As a result of his convictions and interpretations of the Scripture, Luther could not even acknowledge and understand the existence of indulgences.   Martin Luther’s Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum (Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences), commonly known as the Ninety-Five Theses, Martin Luther, 1517. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Berlin State Library, Berlin, Germany   Luther’s trouble with the pope and the start of the reformation in Germany began with the protest against selling indulgences in 1517. His protest and demand for changes were voiced in the so-called Ninety-Five Theses, a list of propositions for debate he nailed to the door of the Schlosskirche (Castle Church) in Wittenberg on October 31.   The theses were a direct rebellious postcard to the Church and the public in which Luther stated that the pope had no jurisdiction over Purgatory and that God’s grace and forgiveness could not be purchased but only achieved through faith. His act did not go very well in the Vatican, and Pope Leo X threatened to put an end to Luther’s teachings. When Luther refused it, he was expelled from the Church and declared an outlaw. However, Martin Luther got a safe place and protection from Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony.   Germany at this time was comprised of many small self-governing states. The rulers of these regions were glad to use the Reformation movement in order to free themselves from the power of the pope and become more affluent. Thanks to Martin Luther and the Reformation, their efforts were successful, leading to the  Peace of Augsburg in 1555. This peace treaty was between Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, and the German rulers, and gave the princes of the German states the freedom to choose between Catholicism and Lutheranism. In the following year, the new practice began to spread like wildfire through the German areas.   The Reformation Spreads: John Calvin in Switzerland Portrait of John Calvin, anonymous, circa 1550. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Museum Catharijneconvent, Utrecht, Netherlands   John Calvin (1509-1564) was one of the most well-known Protestant leaders. He spread his authority and doctrine especially in Switzerland. He was born in France but was later compelled to flee to Switzerland because of religious persecution. He was very inspired by Martin Luther and discovered a new life and vocation in Basel, where he also worked and wrote some of his most important theological productions.   In particular, Calvin wrote about the doctrines of Protestantism, criticizing some practices of the Catholic Church. He ultimately ended up in Geneva, where he became one of the most influential religious people, contributing to creating a rigorous Protestant religious and political environment. Under his rule, Geneva became one of the first cities governed by Protestants according to a rigid set of moral rules and religious regulations.   Like Martin Luther, John Calvin demanded the reform of the church, and his preaching led to a new religious movement under the umbrella of Protestantism: Calvinism. In his view, religion was based on God’s supreme authority over humanity’s whole existence. According to his interpretation of the Holy Book, God chose some individuals for salvation while others were destined for Hell.   Also, like Luther, Calvin believed that the Bible was the ultimate way to approach religion and be closer to God. For him, the man-God relationship was a personal one. Calvin was a little more rigorous than Luther, and his doctrines did not permit some Roman Catholic practices, such as the adoration of images. He preached and practiced ultimate morality and discipline.   Calvin’s teachings spread widely throughout central Europe but were most prominent in Switzerland. His views about the Bible and morality attracted people who wished to lead a more austere lifestyle and rejected the Catholic Church.   The Consequences and Aftermath of the Protestant Reformation The Ratification of the Spanish-Dutch Treaty of Munster, Gerard ter Borch, 1648. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, Netherlands   While the Reformation began with Martin Luther and his act of turning against the Pope, it flourished due to the work of individuals like John Calvin. Before the appearance of those who wanted changes in the Church and in the behavior of the clergy, the Catholic Church had the last word about how and under what conditions people would be able to communicate with God.   In particular, the Church claimed that it was the only institution that could provide for the believers’ fate after death, ensuring that they would enter into the Kingdom of God. The emergence of Protestant thinkers and theologians made people develop a personal relationship with God, ultimately leading to the division and separation of some states from the Catholic Church.   The Reformation also resulted in the religious wars in the 16th and 17th centuries, including the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598) and the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). Of course, these wars were not only religious; they had political aspects and many more factors behind them. However, rulers used religious reasons and conflicts to usurp power and authority in their territories and liberate themselves from the papacy’s grip.   Because of intense persecution and armed clashes, Protestants sought refuge under monarchs in Scandinavia, some states in Germany, Switzerland, Scotland, the Netherlands, and North America. Protestants were among the early settlers in the New World, and that is why the religious profile of the US looks the way it does today.   Death of King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden at the battle of Lutzen, Carl Wahlbom, 1855. Source: Wikimedia Commons/Nationalmuseum, Stockholm, Sweden   While the struggle for the recognition of religious freedom was long, it was eventually successful in creating a more tolerant religious climate. The Protestant Reformation called out the misdeeds of the Catholic Church and grew popular by focusing on a person’s relationship with God. It also led to the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic Church’s response to the movement. The Counter-Reformation was an attempt that was somewhat effective in introducing some changes in the Catholic Church, such as reducing corruption and increasing religious virtues among clergy.   There were numerous root causes of the Protestant Reformation—religious, political, and economic. The Reformation had a significant impact on society, ultimately making the world more accepting of other points of view. As the Reformation movement developed and evolved, denominations appeared, resulting in the formation of branches such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Anabaptism, and Evangelicalism.

A top Democrat donor and anti-poverty activist has agreed to plead guilty to a nearly $250 million fraud scheme. Joe Sanberg, who co-founded the online financial services company Aspiration Partners, will admit to defrauding investors. “For years, Joseph Sanberg used his position at Aspiration to deceive investors and lenders for his own benefit, causing his victims over $248 million in losses,” said Acting Assistant Attorney General Matthew R. Galeotti of the Justice Department’s Criminal Division. “The Criminal Division is committed to pursuing, charging, and convicting fraudsters like Sanberg, who cause significant harm to their victims and undermine our financial institutions,” he added. “A billionaire ‘anti-poverty activist’ fraudulently enriched himself with a ‘carbon credit’ scheme where companies would pay for ESG indulgences and he’d plant trees in Africa, the DOJ said,” The Daily Wire reporter Luke Rosiak said. “The company’s financials were fake, Joe Sanberg admitted,” he added. How it started / how it's going A billionaire "anti-poverty activist" fraudulently enriched himself with a "carbon credit" scheme where companies would pay for ESG indulgences and he'd plant trees in Africa, the DOJ said. The company's financials were fake, Joe Sanberg admitted pic.twitter.com/4TRS1LPltM — Luke Rosiak (@lukerosiak) August 22, 2025 More from The Daily Wire: Sanberg and other high-profile Democrats started the carbon-credit platform and online banking app Aspiration Partners Inc., promising to plant trees and not invest in polluting industries. Its motto was “clean rich is the new filthy rich.” It was once a star of the “environmental, social, and governance (ESG)” movement that blended corporate finance with leftist politics, and counted actors Leonardo DiCaprio and Robert Downey Jr. as investors. But it was instead a scheme as corrupt as any on Wall Street, with Sanberg concocting fake customers for his tree-planting services to try to dupe investors into a $2 billion valuation, the Department of Justice said. Sanberg faces up to 40 years in prison after pleading guilty to two counts of wire fraud, according to the Department of Justice. Sanberg is a key player in California politics, a Gavin Newsom donor who personally spent $11 million backing a ballot initiative to raise the state’s minimum wage to $18 an hour. Voters blocked the initiative by one percentage point in 2024. A 2019 Atlantic story headlined, “Joe Sanberg Dares Trump to Call Him a Socialist,” said “the multimillionaire investor says the Democrats’ progressive agenda is best for jobs and economic growth.” But “this so-called ‘anti-poverty’ activist has admitted to being nothing more than a self-serving fraudster, by seeking to enrich himself by defrauding lenders and investors out of hundreds of millions of dollars,” according to Bill Essayli, the Acting U.S. Attorney of the Central District of California. “Joe Sanberg, the California Dem behind the state’s expansion of welfare to illegal immigrants & ballot initiative to raise the minimum wage to $18, was arrested today on suspicion of fraud related to his ‘green’ finance company, marketed as a more moral alternative to Wall Street,” Rosiak said earlier this year. Joe Sanberg, the California Dem behind the state's expansion of welfare to illegal immigrants & ballot initiative to raise the minimum wage to $18, was arrested today on suspicion of fraud related to his "green" finance company, marketed as a more moral alternative to Wall Street pic.twitter.com/ddiGRtyU5V — Luke Rosiak (@lukerosiak) March 4, 2025 The Los Angeles Times provided further info: Joe Sanberg, 46, of Orange will enter his plea in the coming weeks in L.A. federal court to two counts of wire fraud, felonies that each carry a sentence of up to 20 years behind bars, according to the U.S. attorney’s office. Ibrahim AlHusseini, 51, of Venice, a former Aspiration board member and investor, pleaded guilty in March to wire fraud for falsifying documents that aided in the scheme, federal prosecutors said. Prosecutors said Sanberg and AlHusseini fraudulently obtained $145 million in loans several years ago from two lenders by pledging shares of Sanberg’s Aspiration stock. Sanberg and AlHusseini also falsified AlHusseini’s bank and brokerage statements to inflate AlHusseini’s assets by tens of millions of dollars to secure the loans, court papers show. Beginning in 2021, Sanberg also defrauded Aspiration’s investors by concealing that he was the source of certain revenue recognized by the company, according to the U.S. attorney’s office. Court documents also state that Sanberg personally recruited companies and individuals to sign letters of intent with Aspiration in which they committed to pay tens of thousands of dollars per month for tree planting services. Sanberg used legal entities under his control to conceal that these payments came from himself rather than from customers. He also instructed Aspiration employees not to contact the customers that he had recruited to conceal his scheme, prosecutors stated.