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  Sargon II ascended the Assyrian throne in 722 BCE and reigned until 705 BCE. Little is known about him before his contentious rise to power. Throughout his tenure as king, Sargon II entangled himself in political disputes, which often led to war, and in most cases, he emerged victorious. In addition to his wars with Urartu and Babylon, the construction of his city, Dur-Sharrukin, cemented his name among the most successful Assyrian kings. Sargon II seemed to have set himself up for a glorious and peaceful end to his reign, but tragedy struck on his final campaign.   Sargon II: Heir to the Throne? Bronze mask of Sargon the Great, Nineveh, c. 2300-2200 BCE. Source: Iraq Museum   Sargon II claimed that he was the son of Tiglath-Pileser III (ruled c. 745-727 BCE) and was potentially the brother of Shalmaneser V (ruled c. 727-722 BCE), but nothing is known of him before he became king. Many historians suggest that Sargon II was not intended as an heir and that he was a more distant relative of the ruling family. This is why he is considered the founder of a new dynasty, the Sargonid Dynasty, which would reign over the Neo-Assyrian Empire until its fall in 609 BCE.   Shalmaneser V was deposed in 722 BCE, and the details are unclear, as Sargon II rarely mentions his predecessor. In one inscription, he effectively stated that Shalmaneser V was a heretical despot who was cruel to the Assyrian people. Sargon II continued that it was the gods that ousted Shalmaneser V and made him king instead. It is assumed that he was killed either during or after the coup that placed Sargon II on the throne. The Babylonian Chronicles stated that Sargon II immediately succeeded Shalmaneser V and was between 40 and 50 years old upon his ascension.   Sargon II likely chose his regnal name to emulate the famous Sargon of Akkad or Sargon the Great, who was king from c. 2334 to c. 2279 BCE and had gained almost mythical status by the time of Sargon II. Fragmentary remains of the story of the legendary birth of Sargon were found in the library of Ashurbanipal, which substantiates the cultural significance of Sargon the Great during the later Neo-Assyrian Empire. Notably, Sargon the Great also usurped the throne and went on to become an infamous conqueror who ruled over Mesopotamia as well as areas of the Levant and Elam.   Initial Opposition Relief depicting Sargon II with a dignitary from the walls of Dur-Sharrukin, Khorsabad, Iraq, c. 721-705 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   When he ascended the throne, Sargon II immediately removed some of Shalmaneser V’s unpopular policies, namely forced labor and high taxes. Although he admits in some inscriptions that these schemes had been in place before his predecessor’s reign, they contributed to making him unpopular. Nevertheless, many people within the Assyrian heartland were displeased with the new King Sargon II, and rebellions quickly erupted, resulting in many vassal states gaining independence.   For example, Babylon had been ruled by Assyria for eight years, but in 721 BCE, a Chaldean tribal leader named Merodach-Baladan invaded the city and reinstituted Babylonian autonomy. Merodach-Baladan then established an alliance with the Elamites, which strengthened Babylon’s position. Sargon II had to pacify the revolts within Assyria before he could turn his attention to the lands Assyria had just lost. In 720 BCE, the two kings fought, and the Babylonians emerged as the victors.   Relief depicting Sargon II from the walls of his palace in Dur-Sharrukin, Khorsabad, Iraq, c. 722-705 BCE. Source: Iraq Museum   The Kingdom of Israel had fallen to Assyria at some point during the 720s BCE. Sargon II claimed he subjugated the area and named it Samerina. However, the Babylonian Chronicles and the Hebrew Bible both credit Shalmaneser V with this conquest. Either way, Sargon II found himself at war with an alliance of city-states in the Levant, including Damascus, which had rebelled against Assyrian rule. These provinces were presided over by local royalty, but the rulers were selected and supported by Assyria. The inhabitants of the cities rose up and murdered many Assyrian representatives while Sargon II was at war with Babylon.   Sargon II defeated the leader of the coalition, Yahu-Bihdi of Hama, and had him flayed alive in Ashur. A large number of people from the area, including thousands of Assyrians, were deported and resettled in new locations, which Sargon II described as an act of compassion. The Assyrians were probably those who had opposed his position as king.   Sargon II continued south and crushed another rebellion in Gaza. However, the kingdom was allowed to remain somewhat self-governing due to its tactical location near Egypt, which had bolstered their revolt.   Assyrian War With Urartu Map of Urartu during the reign of Rusa I. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By 718 BCE, Sargon II began to involve himself in disputes with Urartu. Urartu had once challenged Assyria’s dominance in northern Mesopotamia but had become less powerful. It still remained a thorn in Assyria’s side. The kingdom of Mannea, to the west of both Assyria and Urartu, boiled over into a civil war when the Assyrian vassal king was challenged by a noble who was associated with Urartu. Sargon’s troops quashed the rebellion, but the Mannean king passed away soon after. Sargon embroiled himself in the order of succession where, again, one heir was backed by Assyria and the other backed by Urartu.   Sargon II became increasingly concerned about Urartu’s activities and wanted to thwart an alliance between Urartu and the Anatolian Kingdom of Phrygia. With this in mind, Sargon II campaigned against small kingdoms who consorted with Phrygia. Carchemish, which had sided with Sargon II against earlier uprisings in the Levant, was now also colluding with Phrygia. In 717 BCE, Sargon II marched on the city, and after its defeat, he deported the entire population. In addition, so much loot was brought from Carchemish to Assyria that the Assyrians changed their economy from bronze-based to silver-based.   Griffin-headed deity/demon from Toprakkale, Urartu, Turkey, c. 800-700 BCE. Source: British Museum   In 715 BCE, Urartu attempted to conquer the Cimmerians to their north but lost dramatically, which allowed the Cimmerians to pillage their way through Urartu. During the chaos, Rusa I, the King of Urartu, seized the lands of vassals loyal to Assyria, including the kingdom of Mannea. In retaliation, Sargon II reclaimed Mannea and crushed some smaller kingdoms that had rebelled in Media, which had only just been conquered by Assyria for conspiring with Urartu. The politics in the area shifted, as it was obvious that Rusa I and Sargon II would go to war. Kingdoms switched sides: some who were loyal to Urartu sent Sargon II tribute, and others who were allied with Assyria began to send Rusa I representatives.   The quickest journey from Assyria to Urartu was through a pass in the Taurus Mountains, but Rusa I had fortified the area in case of an Assyrian attack. Therefore, Sargon II marched his forces along a much longer route, which exhausted the soldiers by the time they made camp at Lake Urmia. When the Urartians arrived, Sargon II’s men would not fight until the Assyrian king and his inner circle of bodyguards rushed forward in a daring, if not suicidal, move. The Assyrian army was inspired by their brave king and followed suit.   Rusa I was defeated and retreated into the mountains, and Urartian troops were driven off west. On their return to Assyria, Sargon II and his army pillaged Musasir, one of Urartu’s most important cities and a religious center. The Assyrians remained victorious and carried off vast amounts of loot. Although Urartu retook Musasir the following year, the kingdom did not pose a threat to Assyria for the remainder of Sargon II’s reign.   Assyrian Conquest of Babylon Stela depicting Merodach-Baladan, King of Babylon, c. 722-694 BCE. Source: Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin   Sargon II spent the years from 714 to 710 BCE crushing minor rebellions throughout his empire, particularly within southern Anatolia, which was fairly stable after an uprising in Gurgum, a Neo-Hittite state, was crushed. In 712, the population of Ashdod in the Levant overthrew their Assyrian vassal state and attempted to create a coalition with neighboring Judah and Egypt, which both rejected the offer. Moreover, Sargon sacked Ashdod, forcing their king to flee to Egypt, but the pharaoh had him deported to Assyria.   The Assyrian king had been biding his time, waiting for the alliance between his two largest foes, Babylon and the Elamites, to deteriorate. By 710 BCE, Babylonian and Elamite relations were amicable, but their formal military pact had fallen apart. Sargon II seized the opportunity. He left his son Sennacherib in charge of building his new city, Dur-Sharrukin, as well as the empire’s everyday administration as he marched into Babylonia.   Archery scene from Sargon II’s palace in Dur-Sharrukin, Khorsabad, Iraq, c. 710-705 BCE. Source: British Museum   Sargon II began negotiations with smaller cities in Babylonia, some of which sided with the Assyrian king over the Babylonian Merodach-Baladan, such as the city of Sippar. After destroying many settlements on his journey, Sargon II approached Babylon from the southeast. Merodach-Baladan, seemingly with little support at home and a dwindling army, attempted to flee to Elam. However, while the Elamite king accepted Merodach-Baladan’s bribe, he would not let him enter the kingdom and did not send aid. This prompted Merodach-Baladan to escape to his home city of Dur-Yakin.   Meanwhile, Sargon II met little resistance in Babylon. Historians theorized that the priesthood at the time favored an Assyrian king over a Chaldean. Sargon II enjoyed some local ceremonies before heading back out to war to find Merodach-Baladan. The Assyrian army met that of Merodach-Baladan outside the walls of Dur-Yakin, which resulted in an Assyrian victory. Yet, Merodach-Baladan was able to escape back behind the city walls as the distracted Assyrians gathered up loot from the fallen soldiers. A siege began, and the Assyrians failed to take the city. Only through negotiations in 709 BCE did Dur-Yakin agree to surrender and take down their city walls if Merodach-Baladan would be left alive. Merodach-Baladan was then exiled to Elam with his family.   Dur-Sharrukin Decorations from Sargon II’s palace in Dur-Sharrukin, Khorsabad, Iraq, c. 717-706 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   Sargon II spent the next three years in Babylon and took part in a host of local rituals and religious events while Sennacherib effectively ruled Assyria. By 707 BCE, Sennacherib had sent word to his father that Dur-Sharrukin was complete and the king moved back the following year.   It is thought that the construction of the city began in 717 BCE. Its name translates to Fortress of Sargon. The settlement covered just under two kilometers and was arranged in an almost perfect square. Equally as impressive was the city’s outer wall, which was 12 meters high and 14 meters thick. Dur-Sharrukin’s crown jewel was its four-story ziggurat and the city was heavily decorated in images of the king. Sargon II’s prosperity grew when an Assyrian expedition to Cyprus resulted in him receiving tribute from multiple Cypriot kings. However, his success would not last for long.   Death and Legacy of Sargon II Clay cylinder of Sennacherib found during excavation of the Library of Ashurbanipal, Nineveh, Iraq, c. 705-681 BCE. Source: British Museum   In 705 BCE, Tabal in Anatolia rebelled against Assyria, and Sargon II decided to lead his troops into battle once more, despite having delegated this role in many recent campaigns. The fighting ended in tragedy for the Assyrians as Sargon II was killed in battle and his body lost amidst the disarray. Back in Assyria, the king’s death was viewed as an immensely bad omen, particularly because he was seemingly the only Assyrian king who had died in battle.   Sennacherib had the Assyrian capital quickly relocated from Dur-Sharrukin to Nineveh. The impact of Sargon II’s military disaster manifested during his son’s reign. Sennacherib dissociated himself from his father. His actions during his reign displayed that he was skeptical of Sargon’s relationship with Babylon, which his father had preserved and respected due to its religious importance. When Merodach-Baladan rose again under Sennacherib, the Assyrian ruler showed no mercy to the city and razed it to the ground, which was thought to be a major factor in his disastrous death.   Mainly due to the efforts of Sennacherib, little evidence remained of Sargon II’s reign. Yet his view of his father appears to have been a complex one. Upon Sargon II’s death, his son renovated a temple of Nergal, the god of the underworld, perhaps an attempt at easing Sargon’s spirit. The Assyrians believed the unburied would continue as restless ghosts. Similarly, Sennacherib sent Assyrian troops to Tabal to kill their leader in 704 BCE, but no source has been found that remarked on its results.   The remains of Dur-Sharrukin were found unintentionally in 1843, yet Sargon II was not confirmed as an individual king until the 1860s. However, since then, historians have dubbed him one of the most influential Assyrian kings due to his monumental expansion of Assyrian territories and his success as a military strategist until his final campaign.

  The one-eyed Cyclops is one of the most recognizable monsters in Greek mythology, but there is more to the story of the Cyclops than meets the eye. Homer depicted them as familiar, uncivilized brutes, while Hesiod described them as equals to the Titans and praised them as the original blacksmiths of the gods who forged Zeus’s thunderbolts. Cyclopes were also considered incredible builders and stonemasons who constructed the massive Cyclopean walls of Mycenae and Tiryns. Keep reading to delve into the fascinating story of these multifaceted, one-eyed giants.   What Did They Look Like? Photograph of A first century CE head of a Cyclops, part of the sculptures adorning the Roman Colosseum, by Steven Lek, 2015. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Cyclopes—meaning “round-eyed” or “circle-eyed”—were a group of human-looking giants described by Hesiod as resembling the Titans, except for their distinct singular eye. Modern depictions of Cyclopes show them with a single large eye instead of the typical two eyes. However, in ancient Greece, they were often represented as having an eye in the middle of their forehead, along with a human’s usual two eye sockets. These two sockets were always empty and often depicted as permanently closed eyes. While this version of the Cyclopes was the more common representation, they were sometimes described as having three eyes.   Types of Cyclopes: One-Eyed but Not One-Dimensional The Cyclops, by Odilon Redon, 1914. Source: Kröller-Müller Museum   Throughout history, writers have identified three distinct groups of Cyclopes. These are the Hesiodic Cyclopes Brontes, Steropes, and Arges, described by Hesiod in the Theogony as skilled craftsmen who forged Zeus’s thunderbolts; the Homeric Cyclopes such as Polyphemus, famously portrayed in Homer’s Odyssey as uncivilized, cannibalistic shepherds; and the Cyclopean wall builders, also known as Bellyhands or hand-to-mouth Cyclopes, who reportedly constructed the large stone walls of Mycenae, Tiryns and Argos that still partially stand today.   While all three groups presumably consisted of one-eyed giants possessed of supernatural strength, they differed in their origins, motives, and dispositions.   The Hesiodic Cyclopes: The Original Blacksmiths of the Gods Forge of the Cyclopes, by Cornelis Cort, 1572. Source: Los Angeles County Museum of Art   The earliest and most well-described type of Cyclopes is the Hesiodic Cyclopes, first found in Hesiod’s Theogony. According to Hesiod, the original Cyclopes were brothers named Arges (Bright), Brontes (Thunder), and Steropes (Lightning). Their names foreshadow their most famous creation as the smiths of light and storms—the thunderbolts of Zeus. They predated the Olympians and were the sons of the primordial gods Uranus, the personification of the sky, and Gaia, the personification of the earth. As the sons of Uranus and Gaia, the Cyclopes were the siblings of the Titans and fellow giants, the Hekatoncheiries (Hundred-Handers).   At the time of the Cyclopes’s birth, Uranus was the supreme ruler of the universe. However, like all supreme rulers in Greek myth, Uranus was insecure about his position and feared that one of his children would overthrow him. When Uranus first met his one-eyed sons, he was disgusted by their appearances and feared their immense strength. He imprisoned them and the Hekatoncheires in the depths of the earth to ensure his gigantic sons could not overthrow him.   The deformed polyp floated on the shores, a sort of smiling and hideous Cyclops, by Odilon Redon, 1883. Source: National Gallery of Art   Uranus’s imprisonment of their children was the final straw for Gaia. She convinced her son, the Titan Cronos, to usurp Uranus and free his siblings. With the assistance of the other Titans, Cronos liberated the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers, who agreed to support him in overthrowing their father.   Cronos defeated Uranus with his siblings by castrating him and assuming control as the supreme ruler. Cronos, however, revealed himself to be just as insecure as his father. Fearing his giant brothers, he imprisoned them in the depths of Tartarus in the Underworld. Cronos seemed even more paranoid about losing his position than Uranus and set the monstrous dragon Campe to guard the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers to ensure they never escaped.   A generation later, the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers were freed by Zeus, a rebellious son of Cronos, after he sneaked into Tartarus and killed their guard, Campe. Zeus asked them to help him and his allies overthrow Cronos. Both the Cyclopes and Hundred-Handers agreed to help Zeus dethrone their brother. The Hundred-Handers would fight alongside Zeus in the Titanomachy (War of the Titans), while the Cyclopes took on a different but arguably more important role in the fight.   The Greek gods Vulcan, by Wenceslaus Hollar, 1607-1677. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While imprisoned, the Cyclopes honed their skills at the forge and offered to create powerful weapons for Zeus and his allies to give them an edge in the battle. They forged Zeus’s thunderbolts, Poseidon’s earth-shaking Trident, and Hades’s Helmet of Invisibility. Before the war began, the Cyclopes also forged an altar upon which Zeus’s allies swore their allegiance to him and their cause. Later, the altar would be elevated into the skies as the constellation Ara. The myth explained the ancient Greek custom of swearing oaths on an altar to demonstrate good faith.   With their Cyclopean weapons, Zeus and his allies defeated the Titans and established a new regime on Mount Olympus. Although Zeus had his own insecurities about maintaining his new position, he was unafraid of the Cyclopes. As a gesture of appreciation, Zeus, the new King of the gods, invited the Cyclopes to his court and later assisted his son, Hephaestus, the new god of blacksmithing. The Cyclops brothers agreed and joined Hephaestus’s workshop within the volcano Mount Etna in Sicily.   Multiple sources report that Arges, Brontes, and Steropes had numerous Cyclops children who, like their fathers, became invaluable assistants in Hephaestus’s various workshops. With the help of their children, the Cyclopes assisted Hephaestus in creating weapons for mortal heroes and gods, including arms for the hero Aeneas, Ares’s chariot, Athena’s Aegis, and Apollo and Artemis’s bows and arrows. In Nonnus’s Dionysiaca, all three Cyclops brothers join Dionysus’s conquest of India and prove to be exceptional warriors, helping Dionysus and his army defeat their enemies.   Apollo Killing the Cyclops, by Domenichino and assistants, 1616-1618. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The story of the Hesiodic Cyclopes Arges, Brontes, and Steropes, who first forged weapons from the gods, comes to a tragic and unnecessary end. Their downfall began with the emergence of a renowned doctor and son of the god Apollo named Asclepius, who introduced innovative medical and surgical techniques. With the help of Athena, Asclepius invented an elixir that could cure death itself. The new elixir angered Hades, the lord of the underworld because it prevented new souls from entering the Underworld. Hades complained to Zeus, who agreed that no mortal should be able to defy death. As a result, Zeus struck down Asclepius with one of his thunderbolts to prevent further use of the new elixir.   Asclepius’s death angered his father, Apollo, who could not enact revenge on Zeus and decided to take out his anger on the innocent Cyclopes who forged the thunderbolts. He stormed into Hephaestus’s workshop and killed the Cyclops brothers. In some accounts, Apollo killed the Cyclops brothers’ children, not them. Yet another version of the myth claims that Zeus killed the Cyclopes to prevent anyone else from gaining access to his thunderbolts.   The Homeric Cyclopes: The Uncivilized Giants of Greek Myth The Cyclops Polyphemus, by Annibale Carracci, 1595-1605. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The second and most well-known type of Cyclopes is the Homeric Cyclopes, first described by the storyteller Homer in his epic poem, the Odyssey, and later expanded on by the playwright Euripides in his satyr play Cyclops. While both types are defined as one-eyed giants possessing great strength, their similarities end there. While Homer never specified where they lived, Euripides placed the Homeric Cyclopes on the island of Sicily, where they dwell in caves. They were the children of Poseidon and sea nymphs such as Thoosa, the mother of Polyphemus.   The Homeric Cyclopes were brutal, impious, and uncivilized shepherds who could not perform civilized skills like agriculture, winemaking, or metalwork. They were also perceived as lawless, lacking a government, and disregarding the sacred laws of hospitality known as Xenia. They were thought to be violent and sadistic monsters, sometimes even engaging in opportunistic cannibalism. The Hesiodic Cyclopes were civilized and considered nearly equal to the gods they lived among. They were praised for their mastery at the forge and other technical crafting skills, and they were very different from the uncivilized cave-dwelling Homeric Cyclopes in almost every way.   The Homeric Cyclopes: Polyphemus The one-eyed Polyphemus, by Logan Marshall, from Myths and Legends of All Nations, 1914. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The most famous Homeric Cyclops is Polyphemus, whom Odysseus meets on his voyage home after the Trojan War. When Odysseus and his men make a pit stop in Sicily, they explore the island and discover a cave full of sheep and cheese. While Odysseus’s men suggest stealing some of the provisions, Odysseus insists on staying and meeting the shepherd who lives in the cave. Later, Polyphemus arrives and seals the cave with a large boulder, trapping Odysseus and his men inside.   Polyphemus disregards all notions of hospitality and immediately kills and eats two of Odysseus’s men and, over the next day, proceeds to devour four more of Odysseus’s crew. Odysseus then escaped by tricking Polyphemus, telling the Cyclops his name was “nobody,” and getting him drunk on strong wine. Odysseus then sharpened a stick, hardened it in fire, and used it to blind Polyphemus by stabbing him in the eye.   When Polyphemus screamed for help, none of his neighboring Cyclops came to help, as he proclaimed that “nobody” was attacking him. Odysseus and his men then escape, hiding under Polyphemus’s sheep.   Odysseus in the cave of Polyphemus, by Constantin Hansen, 1835. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Polyphemus is also featured in a very different myth concerning Galatea, the sea nymph. Galatea was a Nereid, one of the 50 daughters of the Oceanid Doris and the minor sea deity Nereus, the “Old Man of the Sea.” Galatea was considered the most beautiful of the Nereids and caught the attention of Polyphemus, who began attempting to seduce her.   Galatea was repulsed by Polyphemus’s appearance and rebuffed all of his advances. However, Polyphemus did not give up and attempted to improve himself to impress her. He tried to change his appearance and learn to play musical instruments, such as the cithara and panpipe, to seduce her. While later versions of the myth show Polyphemus successfully winning Galatea’s heart and, together, they have a son named Galas, in the early versions, she still rejects him despite his attempts to improve himself.   Galathea, by Gustave Moreau, 1896. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In an alternative version of the myth first presented by the Roman poet Ovid, Galatea falls in love with a handsome man named Acis. When Polyphemus discovers Galatea and Acis’s romance, he becomes consumed by rage and jealousy. He then rips a large boulder off the side of Mount Etna and hurls it at Acis, crushing him to death. Galatea gathers her lover’s blood and uses it to create a river starting at the base of Mount Etna in Sicily, which would later be named after him.   The Cyclopean Wall Builders: The Hand-to-Mouth Cyclopes Photograph of the Cyclopean walls of Mycenae, by George E. Koronaios, 2019. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Cyclopean walls of Mycenae, Tiryns, and Argos were built by a lesser-known third type of Cyclops. They were known as the Gasterocheires (Bellyhands) or the Cheirogastores (Hands-to-Mouth) because they used their hands for manual labor to feed themselves. These Cyclopes were skilled stonemasons and builders, possessing abilities similar to those of the Hesiodic Cyclopes. Both groups were skilled artisans who worked to benefit the gods and humankind. Given these similarities, it may have been the case that the two types of Cyclopes were related.   There is very little known about the Hand-to-Mouth Cyclopes. According to the ancient geographer Strabo, the mythical King of Argos, Proetus, seven Cyclopes from Lycia in southern Anatolia were brought to construct the walls of Tiryns. However, some argue they were initially from Thrace or brought to Greece by the hero Perseus from his home island of Seriphos.   Photograph of Cyclopean Masonry, the backside of the Lion’s Gate Greece, Mycenae, by Berthold Werner, 2017. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Cyclopes were known for constructing impressive fortifications in the ancient cities of Mycenae, Tiryns, and Argos. These stone walls were built using massive unworked limestone boulders that were tightly fitted together without mortar. The ancient Greeks believed that the enormous size and intricate placement of the stone boulders in the walls surpassed human capabilities in strength and skill. They thought only a creature as strong and technically skilled as a Cyclops could have built them. This unique and impressive type of stonework is known as Cyclopean Masonry. It also describes other astonishing ancient stone fortifications, such as the Cyclopean Wall of Rajgir in the Indian state of Bihar.   The Cyclopean wall builders were also credited with constructing a labyrinth in the caverns of Nauplia in the Peloponnese and a stone sculpture of Medusa at Argos. In his book Natural History, Pliny the Elder reported an account, first attributed to Aristotle, that the Cyclopes were the inventors of stone masonry towers. Pliny also praised these wall-building Cyclopes as the first to work with iron and bronze.

  Few dynasties have had the cultural or historical impact that the Qin Dynasty had. China has a rich, varied, and sometimes complex history—but it all had to start somewhere. The Qin Dynasty was ancient China’s first imperial dynasty, and its legacy meant that China would be ruled by imperial dynasties (more or less) for over 2,000 years. Despite being the shortest-lived of all the major Chinese dynasties, the Qin deserves to be remembered in equal stead when compared to other major Chinese dynasties such as the Ming, Song, and Tang.   The Origins of the Qin Dynasty Map of the Warring States Period. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The short-lived tenure of the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE) does not mean that its origins were equally as short. On the contrary, the origins of the Qin Dynasty can be traced back well over 100 years before the dynasty itself was established.   Much of the groundwork for the establishment of the Qin can be traced back to the period of Chinese history known as the Warring States Period. While this era lasted for centuries, the period during which the Qin originated came towards the end of the Warring States Period, hence it being such a significant moment in Chinese history.   At that time, imperial China was made up of seven states (Han, Yan, Zhou, Wei, Chu, Qi, and Qin). The leading state was Zhou, who ruled using an early form of dynastic rule. Zhou was the superior state, and the Qin were often thought of as less developed than those who lived in Zhou. A notable example is that the Zhou stopped human sacrifices many years before the Qin did. It was almost a point of moral superiority as to why the Zhou ruled.   It was through centuries of oppression and years of strategic planning such as diplomatic marriages that the Qin managed to formally start their own dynasty.   The Influence of Duke Xiao and Shang Yang Statue of Shang Yang. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Duke Xiao was the ruler of the Qin state from 361 to 338 BCE, and it was during his reign that the majority of the preparations for war were made. The appointment of his advisor and close political ally Shang Yang (who was originally from the state of Wei) as chancellor really set the wheels in motion.   Shang Yang was one of the first statesmen recorded to openly speak about a unified China, rather than several states having their own set of rules, loosely “united” together under the notion of Chinese identity.   One of the ideas that Shang Yang is credited with is the expansion of the Chinese army in the state of Qin. Instead of the nobility marshaling soldiers for their own private armies, Shang Yang suggested that peasants should have the choice to enlist, in return for more land. This idea went down a storm, and huge numbers of peasants enlisted, greatly swelling the numbers of the Qin army—and because land was cheaper than money, the cost of maintaining such an army was incredibly low.   However, the phrase old habits die hard comes to mind. Following Duke Xiao’s death in 338 BCE, the aristocracy (who were likely afraid or uncomfortable with Shang Yang’s seemingly radical ideas about state reform) charged Shang Yang with treason, and he was sentenced to death, which involved the excruciatingly painful punishment of having his body torn limb from limb by five chariots.   However, the seeds were already planted in the Qin state. The revolution was coming.   The Unification of China Under Emperor Qin Qin Shi Huang, 19th century. Source: National Geographic   The rise of the Qin from 316 BCE onwards can be traced to the early expansion of the state when the microstates of Ba and Chu went to war. Both states pleaded with the Qin for help in the form of resources and men, but the Qin responded by conquering them both and therefore expanding their own territory.   As the territory of the Qin grew, so did its influence and power. Over the course of the next 40 years, the Qin relocated thousands of families into the newly conquered territory to fortify it and make use of the agricultural land that had come with it, adding another stream of revenue to the governance of the Qin state.   Ying Zheng took control of the Qin state aged 13 years old. He is often considered the first Emperor of China—his claim came from the fact that he was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin, who died after three years on the throne in 247 BCE.   Upon becoming Emperor, he took the regal name Qin Shi Huang Di, meaning “the first emperor of Qin.” His early years took on the form of a military-expansionist policy, much as he had seen growing up in the Qin state as a young boy.   The biggest breakthrough came in 221 BCE, when the Qin had successfully taken the territory of all the remaining Zhou states, formally establishing the Qin Dynasty.   Rubbing of 1st edict on bronze standard weight in Qin dynasty, circa 221 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Naturally, incorporating seven states and their different cultures, landscapes, and territories under one label—the Qin Dynasty—needed some serious work. How could all these people simply be united under one banner?   Arguably the most important step that Emperor Qin took was to revise the Chinese alphabet—this immediately standardized letter-writing under one script and language, replacing all of the individual state alphabets and languages. While this can seem like a huge loss to history and especially to cultural historians, the unification of China under the Qin Dynasty would have been almost impossible without such a drastic step.   It was also important to unify the language so that those in different areas of the empire could communicate with one another. Because this required most people to learn a new language and writing system, it inadvertently led to the creation of several academies (early universities) throughout the empire, to help with the learning of the new script and language.   Another cultural unification under the Qin was the standardization of the economy—which again, was another absolutely necessary step. Different states had used different currencies, but the Qin opted to use bronze coins for trade and commerce purposes.   The alphabet and the economy were the two most important aspects of unification, and the Qin managed to get both of them right. This helped to unify the Warring States for the first time in history, and the Qin rightly deserved to rule them as one. The name China even comes from an archaic spelling of Qin, which was sometimes written as Ch’in.   Culture Under the Qin Dynasty The Great Wall of China at Jingshen. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The majority of the population in the Qin Dynasty was made up of peasants—approximately 90% of the population, according to some recent estimates. Most of these people rarely left their villages or towns their whole lives, and while there were a number of professions available, the Qin Dynasty was largely characterized by farming. Just as the emperor inherited his position through his father, the sons of peasants would inherit their father’s job—so most families worked as farmers for generation upon generation.   Perhaps the most important cultural creation during the Qin Dynasty was the beginning of one of the Seven Wonders of the World: the Great Wall of China.   The Qin constructed a 500-mile-long road, which was called the Qinzhidao (literally translated as “Straight Road”), which ran across the Ziwu Mountain Range. This road was key in the development of the Great Wall of China, as it helped to transport materials from quarries to the wall itself.   The wall was built as a northern defense against other states, and these walls would eventually become connected together, forming what would come to be, centuries later, the Great Wall of China.   A man named Meng Tian oversaw this immense construction project, and it is estimated that over 300,000 workers were brought to work on the wall in the Qin Dynasty alone—showing how culturally significant it really was.   Qin Shi Huang’s Tomb Portrait of Liu Bang from the album Portraits of Famous Men, Unknown Chinese artist, 19-20th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons (Philadelphia Museum of Art)   If the Great Wall of China was the most significant cultural monument from the Qin Dynasty, then Qin Shi Huang’s tomb was the second.   Throughout his life, Emperor Qin loved the building of extravagant monuments. In fact, in his magnificent capital city of Xianyang, he commissioned replica buildings of his conquered enemies’ state palaces to be built, each serving as a reminder that their territory was now his.   Unsurprisingly, he spared no expense when it came to planning his own final destination. His tomb would also, two millennia later, go on to become one of the Modern Wonders of the World. He sent 700,000 workers to create a magnificent tomb at the base of the Lishan Mountains.   This was no ordinary burial place, though—it was an underground city complex that was designed so that Emperor Qin could rule in the afterlife, or rule from beyond the grave.   This “city” included temples, chambers, magnificent halls, bronze sculptures, animal burial grounds, administrative buildings, a replica of the Imperial Armory, a fishpond, and a river. But this was not the most impressive aspect: the most impressive (and famous) aspect was the replica Terracotta Army—made up of statues of everyone from soldiers to acrobats to government officials and more—all to guard the emperor’s tomb.   The End of the Qin Dynasty and Its Legacy The Terracotta Army. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For such an extravagant man, it comes as little surprise that his death was no simple affair, either. Qin died while on tour in eastern China in 210 BCE, but his officials wanted to keep his death a secret.   In order to do so, they stored his body in fish barrels to disguise the smell of his rotting corpse, and forged a letter to Fu Shu, the crown prince, ordering him to commit suicide. Remarkably, Fu Shu did commit suicide, and Emperor Qin’s younger son, Qin Er Shi, took control of the realm.   After centuries of hard work leading up to the establishment of the Qin, it lasted less than three years under the rule of Qin Er Shi.   The majority of the empire had revolted against the new empire, and when 90% of the population was made up of farmers, it was hard to combat them. Constant revolts and rebellions left the coffers empty and the emperor and his officials exhausted.   The final moment came when the warlord Xiang Yu defeated the Qin army in a pitched battle in 207 BCE, and the emperor was executed and the empire split into eighteen different states.   This would only last until 202 BCE when a leader of one of the states, Liu Bang (who was given the Han Valley to rule), waged war against Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu committed suicide, and Liu Bang took the reigns—formally establishing the Han Dynasty while doing so.   Of all major Chinese dynasties, the Qin is sadly often overlooked. However, due to its role in unifying the Warring States, it should be held in much higher esteem. Furthermore, it was the Qin who really set the foundations for Chinese dynastic rule (for better or for worse) for the next 2,000 years—a feat that cannot be underestimated.

  Continuous Seljuk raids and sieges in Anatolia in the 11th century CE culminated in a war between these nomadic newcomers and the Byzantine, or Eastern Roman, Empire. When the Seljuk sultan, Alp Arslan, and the Byzantine emperor, Romanos IV Diogenes, met on the fields of Manzikert, or Malazgirt, neither could have imagined the outcome: the weakening of Byzantine rule and the gradual Turkification of Anatolia.   The Byzantines in the 11th Century CE Mosaic of Theodora, Basilica of San Vitale, Italy, c. 547 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In the mid-11th century CE, the Byzantine Empire was experiencing political and economic turmoil. In 1057, a civil war broke out between two rival Byzantine factions. A few years earlier, the Pechenegs, a semi-nomadic Turkic people employed as mercenaries, had revolted. The numerous wars that the Byzantines were involved in worsened the already stagnant economy.   They were also experiencing a religio-political crisis. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches had developed theological differences that led to each side being branded as heretics and blasphemers by the other. By 1054, this dispute had exploded into a full-blown schism between the two Churches.   From 1025 to 1081, the Byzantines had seen a total of 13 emperors. The quick turnaround of emperors (and empresses) reflected the divisions amongst the ruling class. Factionalism grew as the military class began to support royals who they believed would enlarge their estates in the provinces.   Amidst all of this, the Turks, nomadic newcomers to Western Asia, had begun to chip away at the Byzantine frontiers. Destructive raids on eastern and central Anatolian cities encouraged locals to migrate to safer areas, allowing the Turks to encroach further into the Byzantine heartland.   Arrival of the Seljuks Coronation of Seljukid Sultan Sancar, by Rashid-al-Din’s in “Jami-al Tawarih,” c. 14th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Seljuks first emerged on the world stage in the 11th century CE. Originally a nomadic pastoralist people, the Seljuks lived a tribal lifestyle on the steppes of Central Asia. They were part of a large political confederation-turned-ethnic group called the Oghuz Turks. In the late 10th to the early 11th centuries, a chieftain named Seljuk led his clan on a long migration through Central Asia. His warriors worked as mercenaries for local dynasties like the Ghaznavids.   Sometime during these migrations, Seljuk and his tribe converted to Islam, which changed the nomads’ relationships with existing Islamic powers. Under Seljuk’s grandsons, Tughril and Chaghri Beg, the clan besieged and conquered several Central and Western Asian cities, including Merv (in modern-day Turkmenistan), Nishapur (Iran), and Baghdad (Iraq). This Turkic influx into Western Asia caused civil and political unrest as sedentary and semi-nomadic populations encountered one another.   At the same time, both the Turks and the existing Islamic civilisations had to learn to adapt and accept one another. The so-called “civilized” sedentary lands began to appreciate the strength and conquering power of steppe armies, while the Turks were introduced to Islamo-Persian styles of governance and bureaucracy.   A shrewd and efficient leader, Tughril Beg quickly realized that he and his people would have to adapt to survive in these new lands. He had the khutbah (traditional Friday sermon) read in his name and declared himself Sultan in the Islamic style. Since he died childless, Tughril was succeeded by his nephew, Alp Arslan. Under Alp Arslan, Turkmen, another name for the nomadic Turks, conducted raids into the nearby Christian territories of Georgia, Armenia, and Eastern Anatolia.   Seljuk Raids and Conquests Turkmen soldiers of the Seljuk Court, in “Book of Antidotes of Psuedo-Gallen,” c. 1250. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Turkmen were a militaristic people. They were fiercely loyal to their hierarchical and highly patriarchal tribes, clans, and families. This type of system developed on the volatile Central Asian steppe, where nomadic empires and tribes frequently raided, subjugated, and even enslaved one another.   The Oghuz had 24 paramount tribes. The Seljuk clan belonged to the Kinik tribe, considered a princely and royal one. The Turkmen tribes were critical to Seljuk military successes. Tribal chieftains had thousands of warriors under their command. The Seljuks certainly understood the value of these people. The Persian vizier and philosopher Nizam-ul-Mulk encouraged the Seljuk sultans to keep the Turkmen satisfied because they had played a great role in the Seljuk conquests.   While the Seljuk dynasty was increasingly taking on the personality of a sedentary empire in the 1040s, the Turkmen tribes began to grow discontented. They pillaged and plundered many Muslim towns, risking the legitimacy of the Seljuk government. Probably to direct the Turkmens’ energy elsewhere, Sultan Alp Arslan organized multiple raids in the 1050s-60s.   Taking advantage of Byzantine military weakness, the Seljuks routinely raided Anatolian provinces, even going as far as Sivas (Central Anatolia) in 1059. Although the main effort was to secure pasturage and plunder, in 1064 the raid of Ani, a medieval Armenian city, turned into a siege and conquest.   When Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes ascended to the Byzantine throne in 1068, he quickly implemented military reforms to stop the Turkish advance. Several failed peace treaties throughout the 1060s culminated in Romanos IV’s decision to wage war against the Seljuks.   The Battle of Manzikert Archeological dig to locate the site of the Battle of Manzikert, Eastern Turkey. Source: Arkeoloji Sanat Yayınları   Diogenes IV sent his weary army on a long trek across Anatolia. The diverse force, numbering roughly 40,000 soldiers, consisted of Byzantine troops and mercenaries of Pecheneg, Bulgarian, and Frankish origin. Romanos ordered half of these troops to march to Ahlat to take the nearby fortress while the rest continued to Manzikert, significantly reducing the size and power of his army.   Still, on the 23rd of August, he captured Manzikert. A few days later, the Pecheneg and other Turkic mercenaries deserted to the Seljuk side. As a force of around 40,000-50,000, the Seljuks now outnumbered the Byzantine army. Despite this, Seljuk troops began to disengage with their enemies, and when pursued, their cavalry withdrew. Byzantine forces, initially confused, became convinced that the Turks were retreating. What they did not realize was that the Seljuks were using a classic tactic of steppe warfare in which horse archers, feigning retreat, would hit their enemies with a barrage of arrows.   Initially, it seemed as though the Byzantines were to have the upper hand when they captured some of Sultan Alp Arslan’s camp. However, a series of confusions ultimately caused their destruction. Romanos was aware of his army’s exhaustion and called for a retreat. Instead of covering this withdrawal, the rearguard also withdrew, leaving the Emperor and his Varangian Guard to be encircled by the Seljuks. Taking advantage of the confusion, the Turks used the crescent tactic, also known as a pincer movement, to surround and destroy the Byzantine army.   Capture of Romanos IV Diogenes Alp Arslan stepping on the throne of Emperor Romanos IV, from French manuscript MS Français 232, fol. 323, c. 15th century CE. Source: National Library of France   The Seljuks, now having the upper hand, were quick to find Emperor Romanos, who was wounded. He was taken prisoner to the camp of Sultan Alp Arslan, who was surprised at the state of the emperor. Appearing ragged and dirty, the Emperor was now at the mercy of Alp Arslan.   According to legend, the Sultan placed his foot on the Emperor’s neck, forcing him to the ground in a ritual of submission. It is more likely that the two kings showed courtesy towards one another, both aware of their opponent’s nobility. Romanos stayed in captivity for eight days, during which the two sides reached a peace agreement.   Romanos was set free once the Byzantines agreed to pay an annual tribute and a ransom to the Seljuks. Yet Romanos’ troubles were just beginning. Taking advantage of the chaotic situation, a prominent family named Doukas and their supporters overthrew the emperor, replacing him with Michael VII Doukas. Romanos was then blinded with a red-hot iron, a common form of punishment in Byzantium, and exiled to the island of Prote, where he died in 1072.   Alp Arslan, on the other hand, gained fame and popularity from the victory. Contemporary sources wrote about his dominating, elegant, and kingly appearance. The battle also became a symbol of his righteousness and struggle for God’s cause. In an interesting twist of fate, five months after Emperor Romanos’ demise, Alp Arslan was killed after being stabbed by the rebel commander of Berzem fortress.   Aftermath of Manzikert Extent of the Byzantine Empire by 1170 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Battle of Manzikert had major socio-political ramifications, like the Battle of Hastings in England only five years earlier. It was the decisive point after which the Byzantines began to lose control of Anatolia and started a protracted Turkic migration and settlement in the region.   However, these changes did not occur immediately. Although the Byzantines conceded the cities of Manzikert, Antioch, and Edessa to the Seljuks, the latter returned to their capital of Ray (in Iran). From there, they focussed their attention on raids in Georgia and their struggle against the Fatimids, the North African rivals of the Abbasid Caliphate.   The effect of Manzikert on Byzantium was much greater. It caused another bout of internecine strife as the court, again factionalized between Emperor Romanos and a contender from the noble Doukas family. Western European mercenaries, like Roussel de Bailleul, took advantage of the political chaos to increase their power by forming principalities. De Bailleul further destabilized the Byzantine Empire after he and his army sacked a district of Constantinople and supported John Doukas as a challenger to the throne.   Turkification of Anatolia Atlas showing a bey (Turkmen lord) and the beyliks (principalities), by Abraham Cresques, c. 1375 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Although Anatolia was still largely controlled by Crusader and Byzantine forces after the battle, the Seljuk victory allowed Turkic generals to carve out their own principalities. Especially in the uj or frontier territories, Turkmen generals were encouraged to settle with their clans and protect Seljuk borders. As always, the nomadic Turkmen clans played a major role in increasing the territories of their overlords. Not only did they supply manpower during battle, but they were constantly in search of new pasture land for their flocks, the main source of their livelihoods. Historians note that Byzantine-Seljuk peace treaties were often breached not by the Seljuks, but Turkmen nomads who invaded Byzantine villages in search of fields to graze their animals.   By 1100, an array of Turkic principalities including the Artukids, Saltukids, and Danishmendids, cemented their power. These border principalities, which in later centuries would include the Ottomans, advanced their states through the patronage of art, architecture, and knowledge. They built religious structures, including madrasahs (schools) and mosques, as well as secular structures, like caravanserais.   As the Turkmen clans began to settle in cities with rich pasturage, they also interacted with local populations. These interactions did not solely revolve around raids and plunder. On the frontiers, both Byzantine and Turkmen populations were isolated from the cultural and legal centers of their respective governments. They developed a mutual culture based on chivalry and heroism, reflected in their folk music and poetry. Assimilation and intermarriage were thus not unusual in these areas, occurring over centuries of co-existence.   For the Turks, the Battle of Manzikert became a symbol of the beginning of the Turkish conquest of Anatolia. For the Byzantines, it was seen as a disaster that triggered another bout of political and economic decline, which eventually ended in the Turkish conquest of Constantinople in 1453.

  The question of Genghis Khan’s genetic history arose in the 2000s, when academics began looking into how many descendants belonged to the fearsome leader. Researchers have tracked Khan’s Y chromosome and discovered a dizzying number of relations, tracing Genghis Khan’s genetic path all the way from China to Europe. Many of Genghis Khan’s sons went on to become conquerors themselves. Mongols settled in these areas, taking local women as wives and concubines.    The Estimated Number of Khan’s Descendants Mongol Empire Greatest Expansion Source: Wikimedia   Khan’s far-flung conquests and family led to this astonishing number: 16 million. Or, 0.5% of the world’s men are thought to possess the Y chromosome of this ruthless, adaptable ruler. How so many people related to Genghis Khan or his family need some explanation. First, invasion and conquest established the genetic footprint. Simply taking so much territory and people into their sphere meant intermingling.   The Mongols also practiced polygamy, a common practice of the time. Genghis Khan had numerous wives or concubines. Whether gained by alliances, conquest, rape, or tribute, the Khan and his sons produced many children ensuring the spread of their Y chromosome.    Inadvertently, the father-to-son system (patrilineal) established by Khan ensured that his lineage remained dominant. Like any smart ruler, Khan sought to keep those close loyal. He allocated conquered lands to his sons and generals.    Khan encouraged marriage between the Mongol elite and local nobles. Wisely the Mongol ruler gave important administrative or military positions only to trusted kin. With all this entwined and the Empire’s duration guaranteed, Khan’s DNA would endure.   Where Genghis Khan’s Genetic Legacy Is More Common Mongol Genes Found in Tajikistan Source: Molecular Biology and Evolution   Genetic pockets inevitably formed during the Mongol Empire, as Mongols and locals settled along trade routes such as the Silk Road. And this legacy trickled down to the modern era. Given Genghis Khan’s reproductive success, he or his descendants spread his genes to far-flung locations, including the Russian Caucasus, Tajikistan, and China. These descendants increased over time, growing into thousands and later millions, as discovered in several genetic studies over the last thirty years.    An example of tracking the Y chromosome is in Tajikistan. An essential part of the Silk Road, the Mongol armies devastated Tajikistan, especially to the north. The following image illustrates where Mongol DNA traces are found.    Ethnic Groups with Khan’s DNA Hazaras Men,1840 by Atkinson. Source: Wikimedia   As with Khan’s genetic hotspots, the Y chromosome is more prevalent in certain ethnic groups than in others. While Khan’s DNA is found in several areas, certain groups contain a higher percentage. With this, the average reader will get an inkling of the population bearing Khan’s male-only descended DNA. At 0.5% worldwide, that’s a lot. Scientists believe this DNA primarily originates from Khan’s Mongol sons or other family members.   Mongolia tops the list, with an estimated 35% of males bearing Khan’s DNA. Apart from this obvious Mongol stronghold, other groups with particularly high percentages are in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Others, like the Hazaras of Afghanistan and Pakistan, have significant numbers of men bearing Genghis Khan’s unchangeable Y chromosome, perhaps as much as 30%. Afghanistan had become a crossroads due to the Silk Road, which attracted Khan’s armies. The Y chromosome percentage drops sharply, with Northern China showing that about 8% carry Khan’s lineage.   Genghis Khan’s Y Chromosome Lineage A manuscript showing Genghis rewarding the Four Dogs and other followers at the Kurultai of 1206 CE. Source: BnF   The quest to track Khan’s descendants began with a 2003 study by Tatiana Zerja et al. (other researchers), titled “The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols,” which examined sixteen groups across Central Asia, from the Pacific to the Caspian Sea. This study investigated the distinctive Y chromosome linked to Genghis Khan. The researchers determined that 8% of men in the region carried it. Later, the research methods and results would be disputed. But Genghis Khan’s Y chromosome is no doubt present.    Later studies confirmed and refined the 2003 study. With the Y chromosome’s paternal descent serving as a unique data tracker, newer technology yielded improved genetic results. Specific populations were identified with precise results, and Khan’s DNA was shown. This led to a higher yield, suggesting that Khan’s ancestors may have numbered 17 million! What began as a genetic study transcended the fact that one of history’s significant figures had millions of ancestors.

  One of the main causes of the end of the Viking era was the Vikings’ conversion to Christianity. This changed their political relationship with their neighbors, making raids more difficult, and made them less distinct from the rest of Europe. While there are stories of Christian missionaries and Viking conversions as early as the 8th century, widespread conversion started in the late 10th and early 11th centuries. But what was the process and timeline for conversion, and what was the attraction of adopting a new religion?   Conversion of Denmark: Harald Bluetooth Colorized projection on the Jelling Stone showing Christ on the Cross, Denmark, c. 10th century CE. Source: National Museum of Denmark   The key figure in the Christianization of Denmark was King Harald Bluetooth. He was the son of King Gorm the Old, a Norse pagan, and Queen Thyra, a Christian.   Harald is said to have been baptized while his father was still alive, in around 930 CE, to make alliances with his German neighbors. At the time, Christians were only supposed to enter into agreements with other Christians, so pagans would undergo baptism to make agreements legitimate.   He is then said to have converted in earnest shortly after succeeding his father in 958 CE, when a missionary named Poppo proved the power of God by performing a miracle: holding a hot iron in his hands without injuring himself. This event is depicted on a gold decoration from the front of a church altar from Tamdrup in Jelling, possibly dating to around 1200 CE. The images also show the baptism of Harald Bluetooth.   Witnessing this miracle prompted Harald not only to convert but also to establish a new Christian capital for himself at Roskilde on the island of Zealand. Nevertheless, he also erected the famous Jelling stones to both honor his parents and the conversion of Denmark, newly established as a unified kingdom, to Christianity. One of the stones displays an image of a crucified Christ, which has been likened to images of the Norse god Odin hung from Yggdrasil, the Tree of Life.   Gold decoration showing Poppo holding a hot iron, Tamdrup, Jelling, Denmark, c. 1200. Source: National Museum of Denmark   According to the German chronicler Adam of Bremen, Harald’s son, Sweyn Forkbeard, rebelled against his father and Christianity and set himself up as an opposing pagan ruler in Jelling. He eventually drove his father out of Denmark, along with the German bishops. Adam of Bremen describes Forkbeard as doing this because he was a staunch pagan, intolerant of Christianity. He also claims that Forkbeard was exiled to Scotland for 14 years and only found success as a king when he returned as a Christian.   This story is not consistent with what we know of Sweyn Forkbeard. We don’t know how he succeeded his father, but there is no evidence that he underwent an extended period of exile. He did go on to make himself the king of England, and when he died there, his body was sent back to Denmark to be buried in a church he had built. However, we also know that he recruited priests and bishops from England to travel to Denmark, preferring them to German bishops from Bremen, perhaps explaining Adam of Bremen’s antagonism towards him.   Christianization continued in Denmark over the next century. King Canute IV, who ruled from 1080 to 1086, was expelled from office, firstly because he was passing laws in his own authority rather than using the traditional Thing assembly, which was intimately linked with pagan religion. Secondly, wealthy nobles were unhappy with the tithes they had to pay for new churches and monasteries. So, while the issues were linked with Christianity, the real issues were autocracy and taxes. A century later, in 1188, Canute was canonized, by which time Denmark was thoroughly Christianized.   Conversion of Sweden: The Battle for Uppsala A woodcut depicting the Temple at Uppsala as described by Adam of Bremen, from Olaus Magnus’ Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus, 1555. Source: Wikimedia Commons   There is evidence for early attempts at Christianization in Sweden. For example, the German bishop Ansgar constructed churches at Birka and Hedeby in the first half of the 9th century but attracted few to his cause. A century later, there were further attempts by a German bishop called Unni and English missionaries, but they didn’t have the support of the Swedish leadership.   It was only at the end of the 10th century, in the 990s, that the first Christian king of Sweden, Olof Skotkonung, ascended to power. But unlike Harald Bluetooth, he was not powerful enough to convert his nation. Instead, an agreement of religious tolerance was struck between the king and pagan leaders at the important pagan cult center at Uppsala. Nevertheless, this would open the door for the establishment of more churches and Christian centers, and Christianity began to trickle in.   According to the Orkneyinga saga and the Hervarar saga, in the 1080s, King Inge the Elder tried to end pagan sacrifices at Uppsala. This caused public outcry, and he was forced into exile. His brother-in-law, Blot-Sweyn, was made king in his place, on the condition that he allow sacrifices to continue. After three years, Inge returned and killed his brother-in-law, retaking power and, according to the Hervarar saga, forcing widespread conversion of the Swedes. However, the Heimskringla suggests that Inge had challenges to his power from other pagan nobles and leaders.   Nevertheless, progress continued, and between 1134 and 1140, a Christian center, an episcopal see, was established at Uppsala. When the Pope established its archdiocese in Sweden in 1164, it was also at Uppsala.   Olaf Tryggvason: The Christianization of Norway, Iceland, and Greenland Drawing of Heddal Stave Church, a typical Norwegian style stave church, from the book Norge fremstillet i Tegninger, 1848. Source: National Library of Norway   The conversion of Norway to Christianity started with King Hakon the Good in the 10th century. The son of King Harald Fairhair, the king sent this younger son to the court of King Aethelstan of England, probably as a hostage. There, he was taught to be a Christian. With King Aethelstan’s support, he took power in Norway from his half-brother Eric Bloodaxe and became the first Christian king of Norway in 934. However, the Historiae Norwegiae says that he allowed both paganism and Christianity to flourish during his rule.   His death in 961 CE was followed by decades of inconsistency, with his successor Harald Greyhide destroying pagan temples, and his successor Hakon Jarl leading a pagan revival, despite pressure to convert from the neighboring Danish king Harald Bluetooth. But it was with the rise of Olaf Tryggvason that Norway truly converted.   Main entrance to Heddal Stave Church decorated in a typical Norse style. Source: Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage   Olaf Tryggvason was a grandson of Harald Fairhair, who ousted Hakon Jarl and made himself king of Norway in 995 CE. While he was raised pagan and then spent the early years of his life raiding and as a mercenary, he reportedly converted to Christianity after receiving an accurate prophecy from a Christian See on the Isles of Scilly. He also relied on an important alliance with the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II to maintain his power, so Tryggvason zealously sought the conversion of Norway.   King Olaf sent missionaries to other lands, successfully converting the Orkney Islands, which were part of Norway. At home, he is said to have destroyed pagan temples and forced people to convert using threats of exile, hostages, mutilation, and torture. These actions made Tryggvason unpopular, and he died at the Battle of Svolder in 1000. Nevertheless, the process of Christianization continued under his successor, Sweyn Forkbeard, whom we have already met. When Pope Adrian IV visited Norway in the 1150s, he established the Norwegian archdiocese and canonized Olaf Tryggvason as a Christian saint.   Coin of Olav Tryggvason, Norway, c. 995-1000. Source: Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo   Olaf’s zealousness also saw the conversion of Iceland and Greenland. According to the sagas, many of the original Icelandic settlers in the late 9th century were already Christians. This suggests that the pursuit of religious freedom may have been one of the motivations for migration. A century later, Olaf sent missionaries to Iceland to force conversion. The Icelandic leaders decided that Iceland needed to unite if it wanted to remain independent of Norwegian power, and this required religious unity. They decided that everyone should be baptized as a Christian, though private pagan practices would be tolerated. Over time, Christianity became dominant, and laws were passed to outlaw certain pagan activities.   The conversion of Greenland was less dramatic, beginning with Tryggvason baptizing Leif Erikson, the son of the colony’s leader, Erik the Red, when he spent time in Norway. Erikson’s mother was already a Christian, but his father was a staunch pagan. It was relatively straightforward for Erikson to lead the conversion of the small community when he took over as leader following the death of his father.   Why Did the Vikings Convert to Christianity? Thor’s hammer with cross etched pattern. Source: Swedish History Museum   While this explains the history of the Vikings converting to Christianity, it does not fully explain why the Vikings chose to abandon their sophisticated native religion for Christianity.   On many levels, it was political. As we have seen, the first baptisms were probably done purely for show to secure trading agreements and treaties. But then we see rulers like Hakon the Good and Olaf Tryggvason taking power with the support of powerful Christian kings such as Aethelstan of England and the Holy Roman Emperor Otto II. Encouraging widespread conversion was often a condition of these alliances.   In addition, Viking society was changing. In the early Viking Age, Vikings were divided into small communities of independent landowners who gave their loyalty to a local chief. But in the 10th and 11th centuries, those smaller entities were being consolidated into larger kingdoms under powerful kings like Harald Bluetooth. This mandated a change in approach.   With bigger communities and more diverse interests, it was harder to rule via the Viking Thing, which required gathering powerful nobles and ruling by common consent. We saw King Canute IV fall foul of the Thing. More attractive was the autocratic rule of Christian kings, supported by the vast administrative infrastructure of the Church, needed to administer growing territories.   It is noteworthy that the Vikings left behind very few written texts in their native runic language, and certainly nothing that looks like a ledger or law code. These only emerged with the rise of Christianity and the adoption of Latin text, even when it was adapted to express the Norse language. We hear of Christian priests and bishops in Scandinavia, where they would have assisted the administration. This made their presence political, as we see with Sweyn Forkbeard expelling German bishops in favor of priests from England.   Folio 10:23a from Thet Nyia Testamentit på Swensko, a Swedish language Bible, 1526. Source: Uppsala University Library   Viking leaders also knew that the Church represented a potential source of wealth; they had raided enough of them over the years. Raiding became more difficult with conversion as Christians were discouraged from attacking other Christians, and certainly from attacking the Church. But raiding had already become harder as their typical targets became better at defense, fortifying their communities, and moving important religious sites inland beyond Viking reach. For many leaders, it was time to start using the Church to accumulate wealth in other ways, like we see with Canute’s tithes.   When it came to converting nobles, being baptized represented a way of demonstrating acceptance of the new political structure and allegiance to the king. Nobles would have had their own dependents convert in turn, leading to a top-down conversion process.   The king may have cared little about the religious beliefs and practices of individuals, and many who “converted” probably continued pagan practices. Interestingly, we find traditional Thor’s Hammer amulets decorated with crosses, indicating people with a foot in both camps. However, the Church put pressure on leaders to encourage true conversion, leading to the destruction of pagan temples and laws outlawing certain pagan practices.   Section of the Gosforth cross showing the imprisonment of Loki and Odin on his steed from Norse mythology, England, c. 10th century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Greater intermixing with Christians from other parts of Europe would also have been a factor. We know that Vikings who settled in new territories, such as England and France, converted quite rapidly. They took local Christian wives and participated in the local community that often centered on the Church. The Vikings also brought Christian slaves back to Scandinavia with them, where they lived side-by-side. We hear of many examples of pagans and Christians marrying in the Viking world, such as the pagan Erik the Red and his wife Thjodhild.   All of these factors played a part, and conversion was a gradual process that took around 200 years. But conversion does not mean that traditional religion was completely forgotten. The 10th-century Gosforth Cross from a Viking community in England is a Christian monument, but shows imagery from Norse mythology, including Ragnarök.