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Gutfeld! (Full episode) - Wednesday, June 11
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Was Belisarius Byzantium’s Greatest General?
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Was Belisarius Byzantium’s Greatest General?

Belisarius arrived in Constantinople around 520, serving in the military and joining Emperor Justinian’s personal bodyguard. By 526, he had achieved a senior rank but had already commanded troops in battles for Emperor Justin. Upon Justin’s death, the new Emperor Justinian I gave him command just as another conflict flared with Byzantium’s rival, the Sassanids, in the Caucasus Mountains (modern Georgia). Belisarius met them at the Battle of Dara (530), routing them soundly despite odds of 2 to 1.    The Tactical Brilliance at Dara Battle plan of the Battle of Dara.   The battle of Dara would be Belisarius’s first significant battle to show his tactical sense. Using Dara’s fortifications and trenches to disrupt Sassanid’s attacks, his cavalry struck from the flanks. His campaigns against Byzantium’s foes would mark him as one of history’s most notable commanders.   Belisarius held his elite Byzantine cavalry in reserve. A sudden attack by this heavy cavalry split Sassanid, wiping out their best units. He kept pushing them back to ensure a Byzantine victory. Belisarius did not win all his fights. At several later battles, the Sassanids forced him to retreat, and Justinian recalled him back to the capitol. But not for long.   Belisarius and Justinian Vandal horseman mosaic Source: The British Museum   For Justinian, Belisarius would be that rare commander who served with unwavering loyalty, sometimes even to his detriment. Despite facing Justinian’s scorn, the Emperor in 532 let Belisarius help crush a rebellion within the city, killing thousands. Justinian chose the trusted Thracian to take on the Vandal Kingdom for the next expedition.   Belisarius’ Triumph Against the Vandals Belisarius Begging, by Francois-Andre Vincent, 1776. Source: Musee Fabre   The 533 to 534 Vandalic War started in North Africa after the Vandals deposed the pro-Roman king. Thus, he dispatched Belisarius with an army numbering 15,000. For Justinian, a victory meant one further step for Renovatio Imperii (Restoration of the Empire). Belisarius landed with his army close to the Vandal capital, Carthage, surprising and defeating the newly crowned Vandal King Gelimer in September 533 at the Battle of Ad Decimum. Carthage fell right after, with Belisarius triumphantly sitting on the Vandals’ throne. At the December 533 Battle of Tricamarum, repeated charges by the Byzantine elite cavalry, or bucellarii, broke the larger Vandal army.   The now-broken Vandals retreated and disappeared from history. Byzantium re-added North Africa to the Roman Empire. Belisarius’s army displayed its discipline and training, able to carry out critical moves amid battle. In this campaign, he used his heavy cavalry as the cornerstone for his success.    Belisarius and the Gothic Wars The Byzantine-style Basilica of San Vitale Source: Ravenna Turismo   Belisarius’s quick pummeling of the Vandals earned him Justinian’s promotion to consul, a rank rarely bestowed. This new rank would also haunt him. He also received a new job in 535: invade Italy as part of Justinian’s Renovatio Imperii and was tasked with retaking Rome. While previous battles showed Belisarius’s abilities, his true talents shined in this first of the Gothic Wars (535-540). The war broke out as Justinian saw another opportunity. The Ostrogothic Kingdom in Italy lay divided by their king’s passing. The Emperor gave his trusted general marching orders.    In June 535, Belisarius quickly took Sicily; Naples fell in the spring of 536. Naples fell after Belisarius’s troops sneaked in via an unknown aqueduct. He attacked from outside and within and sacked Naples, but Belisarius let the Goth soldiers go. Fighting in Italy continued until the Goths abandoned Rome in February 537. Belisarius knew the Goths would return, outnumbering him. He fortified the city, drafted citizens to help, and waited. The Goths returned, offering a chance for Belisarius to show his abilities on the defense.   Belisarius (c.505-565) in battle against the Goths. Woodcut engraving after a painting by Hermann Vogel, 1879.   The Goths besieged Rome from March 537 til March 538. Belisarius, though outnumbered, refused to be stagnant. Utilizing his superior cavalry, he used hit-and-run tactics to disrupt the Goth’s supply lines. Belisarius cleverly exploited the Byzantine naval advantage, moving troops around or getting reinforcements.    Justinian’s main commander’s reputation for integrity served him well during the Italian campaign. His civilized treatment of prisoners preceded him, plus his often refusal to let his troops loot. Belisarius broke the siege with Byzantine reinforcements. He then swept north, seizing Ravenna, the Ostrogoth capital, in 540. Belisarius’s successful campaign established Byzantine rule in Ravenna until the Lombard invasions in 741.    The desperate Goths offered to make Belisarius the Italian king. The wily Byzantine pretended to accept until he entered Ravenna and took the city. Again, Belisarius proved his loyalty to Bzyantium and refused the crown.   The Key to Belisarius’ Success Emperor Justinian and Members of His Court. Reproduction of 6th century CE mosaic. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Belisarius, luckily for Emperor Justinian, was not a politically ambitious general. Justinian imprisoned him twice but was freed. Four factors made Belisarius an outstanding general: military genius, diplomacy, and adaptability. Using these, he secured his reputation in military history.
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How Aeneas of Troy Set the Stage for Rome’s Rise
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How Aeneas of Troy Set the Stage for Rome’s Rise

  Aeneas of Troy is a figure from ancient Greek mythology. However, he found fame for his involvement in the foundation of Rome thanks to an epic written about him by the Roman poet Virgil in the 1st century BCE. There are many misconceptions about what the sources say about Aeneas, particularly about what belongs to the Greek tradition and what seems to have been invented by Virgil for his Roman epic. This article will examine what surviving sources reveal about the life of Aeneas of Troy.   Aeneas in Homer’s Iliad Venus Giving Arms to Aeneas, by Jean Cornu, 1704. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Aeneas appears in the Iliad, written by Homer in the middle of the 7th century BCE. He is a prince of Troy, although far from being directly in line to the throne. He was the son of Anchises, son of Capys, son of Assaracus, son of Tros, founder of the kingdom of Troy. To put this into perspective, the reigning king of Troy at the time of the Trojan War in the Iliad was Priam, son of Laomedon, son of Ilus, son of Tros. Therefore, we can see that Aeneas was only distantly related to the reigning king of Troy, being his second cousin once removed.   Understandably, Aeneas is not one of the main characters in the Iliad. In fact, despite his later popularity, he is a fairly minor character. Nevertheless, despite not having a major role, the Iliad makes it very clear that there was something very important about him. Twice, the gods save him from death, indicating that he was destined to achieve something great and important in the future.   The Burning of Troy, by Johann Georg Trautmann, c. 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   His destiny is specifically revealed when he is fighting with Achilles. At one point, it seemed as if Achilles would succeed in defeating and actually killing Aeneas. However, the god Poseidon intervened and saved Aeneas. The Iliad then portrays Poseidon as speaking among the gods and declaring the following:   “Now verily shall the mighty Aeneas be king among the Trojans, and his sons’ sons that shall be born in days to come.” This shows that Aeneas was destined to become the king of the Trojans at some point after the Trojan War. Not only that, but he would actually establish a new dynasty to rule over his people. Notably, Homer does not include any information about where Aeneas would rule his people—whether at Troy or a new location.   Even during the Trojan War, Aeneas is shown to be a leader of sorts. He leads the Dardanians, allies and relatives of the Trojans. He is also shown to be particularly favored by Apollo, the god who generally supported the Trojans throughout the war.   How Aeneas Became the Founder of Rome Aeneas Arrives in Sight of Italy, by Master of the Aeneid, 1530-35. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In the Iliad, no specific information is given about what ultimately became of Aeneas. We only know that he was apparently destined to become the king of the Trojans and be succeeded by his descendants. However, later sources provide us with specific claims about what ended up happening.   The earliest surviving sources that explicitly provide the answer to this question are the writings of Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Siguem. Both of them lived in the 5th century BCE. According to both of these writers, Aeneas and Odysseus jointly founded the city of Rome. This is in stark contrast to the most famous version of the legend about Aeneas’ connection to Rome, found in Virgil’s Aeneid of the 1st century BCE. According to that late source, Aeneas was the founder of the city of Alba Longa. From that dynasty, the twins Romulus and Remus were eventually produced, and they went on to found Rome.   A view of Palatine Hill from across the Circus Maximus, Rome. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As we can see, the earliest version of the legend of Aeneas’ connection to Rome is very different from the most famous version. He was viewed, at least in the earliest surviving tradition, to have been directly responsible for founding Rome. Another common tradition seen between the 5th century and the 1st century BCE is that Rome was founded by the son, grandson, or great-grandson of Aeneas.   Alcimus, a Greek writer of the 4th or 3rd century BCE, claimed that Rome was founded by Rhomus, the grandson of Romulus, son of Aeneas. Cephalon of Gergis, in the 3rd century BCE, stated that Rome was founded by Romus son of Aeneas. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, numerous other writers agreed with that version. Plutarch, later than Virgil but recording pre-existing traditions, mentioned the tradition that Rome had been founded by Romulus son of Aemilia, daughter of Aeneas. Unmistakeably, the common viewpoint was originally that Rome had been founded by Aeneas himself or by one of his near descendants, such as a son.   An Early Trace of This Tradition A Greek terracotta neck-amphora depicting Aeneas carrying his father Anchises, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Based on the written evidence, we can trace this tradition back to at least as early as the 5th century BCE. However, there is some evidence that it existed before then. Some historians believe that it can be traced back to at least as early as the 6th century BCE when we take into account evidence from archaeology.   From an early period in the history of Rome, there were close connections between the Romans and the Etruscans, their northern neighbors. For example, many features of Roman society came directly from the Etruscans. Many of the earliest noble families of Rome were ethnically Etruscan. With this in mind, it is significant that numerous figurines of Aeneas have been found in Etruria dating to the 6th century BCE. In fact, one of the most popular scenes depicted by the Etruscans in the form of figurines was Aeneas carrying his father from Troy. Many scholars view this as convincing evidence that the Etruscans held Aeneas to be their founding figure, which belief was then passed to the Romans.   Aeneas in Virgil’s Aeneid Folio from Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid, by Cristoforo Majorana, c. 1470. Source: Walters Art Museum, Maryland   Aeneas’ most famous appearance in ancient legend actually comes from Roman mythology rather than Greek mythology. In the 1st century BCE, the Roman writer Virgil wrote the Aeneid, commonly viewed as his answer to Homer’s Odyssey. It tells the story of Aeneas leaving Troy and eventually making his way to Italy and becoming the leader of the Latins.   Because it was commissioned by the emperor Augustus, there is a common belief that Virgil invented the story of Rome’s Trojan origins to give the Romans an impressive past. As we have seen, this idea is definitely not true. The idea of Rome having Trojan origins goes back many centuries before Virgil. In fact, Virgil’s Aeneid actually makes the Trojan connection to Rome less direct by making Aeneas the founder of Rome’s parent city and placing centuries of kings between Aeneas and Rome’s founding. Scholars recognize that the list of kings of Alba Longa is obviously fictional. The intent was evidently to try to harmonize the traditional date of Rome’s founding, 753 BCE, with the traditional date of the Trojan War, c. 1184 BCE.   Aeneas Departs from Carthage, by Master of the Aeneid, c. 1530-35. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   According to Virgil’s Aeneid, Aeneas led his people (the survivors of the Trojan War) through the Mediterranean Sea in search of a new home. They eventually arrived at the newly-founded Carthage in modern-day Tunisia, on the north coast of Africa. Aeneas met Princess Dido of Tyre, the founder of Carthage, and the two fell in love. Despite initially intending to rule over both nations together at Carthage, Aeneas eventually left in secret with his Trojans. This caused Dido to curse Aeneas and declare that her people would always be enemies of his people, foreshadowing the Punic Wars.   After this, Aeneas and his people eventually arrived in Italy and settled in the land of the Latin tribes. The king of the Latins was Latinus, and his daughter was Lavinia. She was betrothed to King Turnus of the Rutuli, but she married Aeneas instead. This led to war between Aeneas and Turnus, with Aeneas victorious. With this, Aeneas became heir to the kingdom of the Latins.   Aeneas, Prince of Troy, Who Founded Rome Aeneas and his Family Fleeing Burning Troy, by Henry Gibbs, 1654. Source: Art UK   In conclusion, what do we know about Aeneas of Troy? He was a prince of Troy and was the leader of the Dardanians during the Trojan War. Although a fairly minor character in Homer’s Iliad, he is shown to be important and to be destined to rule over the Trojans at some point in the future. According to the 5th-century BCE writers Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Siguem, Aeneas founded Rome. Numerous later writers in the following centuries claimed that Rome was founded by a son, grandson, or great-grandson of Aeneas. This close descendant was variably known as Romus, Rhomus, and Romulus. It is entirely possible that Aeneas was originally held to be the founding figure of the Etruscans, and that the Romans got this tradition from these northern neighbors.   This group of traditions eventually fell out of favor and was replaced by the version popularized by Virgil and Livy in the 1st century BCE. According to this late tradition, Aeneas founded Alba Longa, with Rome being founded by his distant descendants centuries later.
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Athena, Greek Goddess of Wisdom, War, and Weaving
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Athena, Greek Goddess of Wisdom, War, and Weaving

  Athena was one of the most beloved and complex gods in the Greek pantheon. She was an arbiter of justice and the goddess of war, a patron of peaceful crafts and protector of the state. To modern audiences, she is best known as the goddess of wisdom, yet this association was not part of her earliest identification and instead developed over time. By looking at her mythology and symbolism we can better understand what the goddess meant to her worshipers and how she evolved to embody the ideal of wisdom and intellect. Read on as we explore the question: who was the goddess Athena?   Quick Facts About Athena Domains Wisdom, strategic warfare, crafts (mainly weaving and pottery) Parents Zeus and Metis Birth Emerged from Zeus’s head Symbols Aegis, gorgoneion, distaff, spear, armor Sacred Plant Olive Sacred Animals Owl, serpent Key Cult Site Acropolis of Athens Most Important Festival Panathenaea Festival (Athens) Other Names Pallas, Tritogeneia Roman Equivalent Minerva   Athena’s Centers of Worship The Parthenon by Frederic Edwin Church, 1871. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Athena was worshiped all over the Greek world, from Athens to Sparta, and even in Troy across the Aegean Sea. But by far her most important cult site was the Acropolis at Athens. On the Acropolis there were several temples dedicated to her worship. The eldest was the temple to Athena Polias, simply called the Old Temple, archaios neos, in ancient records. This temple housed a wooden cult image of the goddess, which was the most sacred image of her on the entire plateau. The wooden statue was one of the only things saved by the Athenians when the Persians sacked the Acropolis in 480 BCE. Everything else was burned to the ground.   The statue of Athena Polias was ancient even to the Greeks. The local legend was that it fell from the sky or had been constructed by the founding kings of Athens. The statue, which was draped in a newly woven peplos every four years, was the focal point of the Panathenaea festival. This festival was a celebration of Athena that consisted of sporting competitions and religious ceremonies, culminating in a grand procession through the city to the top of the Acropolis and the gifting of a new peplos, the traditional dress of the archaic woman, to Athena. The ritual significance of the peplos demonstrated Athena’s mastery over weaving and was a symbol of her sovereignty.   Erechtheion atop the Acropolis of Athens. Source: Daniel Soulard   After the Persian sack, the Athenians undertook an extensive building program, headed by Pericles, that saw the Acropolis rebuilt and renewed. The Old Temple of Athena Polias was rebuilt as the Erechtheion, where several cult sites were consolidated under one roof. These were the sanctuaries of Erechtheus and Pandrosos, the tomb of Cecrops, the sacred olive tree of Athena, the saltwater pool of Poseidon, and the temple of Athena Polias.    The Parthenon was rebuilt on the site of a previous Parthenon, but updated with impressive friezes above the peristyle columns that depicted the Panathenaic procession. Inside the temple was a 30 foot gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos holding a small idol of the goddess Nike. This statue, made by the famed artist Phidias, was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world.   How Was Athena Born? Black-Figure painting of Athena being born out of Zeus’s head, attributed to the Antimenes Painter, c. 510 BCE. Source: British Museum   According to the oldest version of her birth, recounted in 7th century BCE poet Hesiod in his Theogony, Athena was born from the head of Zeus. The king of the gods received a prophecy that he would have two children by the goddess Metis. The first a daughter, and she would be equal in power and wisdom to her father. The second would be a son who would have an “overbearing heart” and would be king of gods and men. In order to prevent being overthrown in the same manner as his grandfather, Ouranos, and his Titan father, Cronus, Zeus swallowed Metis while she was pregnant with their daughter.    Zeus later gave birth to Athena from his own head on the banks of the river Triton, which is why Athena is sometimes called Tritogeneia. Other version elaborated on the birth, having either Prometheus or Hephaestus striking Zeus on the head with an ax, releasing Athena from his skull, fully armed and armored.   Stamnos showing Athena between Zeus and Hera, attributed to the Berlin Painter, c. 490 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Metis was the goddess of knowledge and morality, representing both the knowledge of kings and the state, as well as the technical knowledge of craftsmen. Zeus possessed the former, and gods like Prometheus, Hephaestus, and Hermes possessed the latter. The latter knowledge has also been defined as “creative ingenuity” and was a force of cultural renewal. This is the type of knowledge that Hesiod believed to be a threat to Zeus’ rule. This can be seen by the Prometheus myth earlier in the poem. Prometheus’ actions in the myth are tantamount to rebellion against Zeus. He goes against Zeus’ will and his knowledge as king of the gods, using his own knowledge and craftiness to counter it. This is the type of threat that Athena and her unnamed brother represented to Zeus’ rule.   The significance of Zeus swallowing Metis was that it removed the threat Athena posed to his rule and made her subservient to him. By being born from Zeus’ head rather than naturally by Metis, her connection to Metis as a mother was distanced and her sole parent became Zeus. It is also worth noting that when she emerged from his head, she didn’t emerge as a goddess of crafts or of wisdom, but fully armed and armored as Pallas Athena, goddess of war.   Athena’s Role in Mythology Krater showing the infant Heracles strangling snakes, attributed to the Nazzano Painter, c. 400 BCE. Source: British Museum   Athena was one of the most active deities in Greek mythology, owing both to her status as favored daughter of Zeus and to her importance in state and secular life. She most often acted as a patron of heroes, providing them with advice, instilling them with strength, or gifting them magical objects to aid in their quests. The most obvious examples are her roles in the Iliad and Odyssey, aiding the Greek war effort and helping Odysseus return home respectively. Outside of epic poetry, she was involved in the myths of Perseus, Heracles, Bellerophon, and was said to be the mother, or foster mother, of the legendary king of Athens, Erichthonios. She could also be as vengeful as the other gods, such as when she savagely beat Arachne and then transformed her into a spider after their weaving contest.   The opinion that Athena had always been a goddess of wisdom comes from the fact that she was born from the head of Zeus. To a modern audience this would seem to obviously imply intelligence, yet this takes for granted a modern understanding of anatomy. To Homer and his audience,the head was not understood to be the seat of cognition. It was instead thought to contain material for procreation, so there was no connection between her birth and her association with intellect. Athena was also described as sophos, which now has a more general meaning of wisdom, yet originally the word connoted “skillfulness,” such as in crafts. It only later became linked to general intelligence.   Achilles about to kill Hector as Athena stands between them, by Giovanni Maria Benzoni, c. 19th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In the Iliad, Athena was presented mainly as a war goddess. Though more prudent than Ares, she hardly showed the characteristic wisdom with which she was eventually attributed. Many of her actions were at the direction of Zeus or Hera. The only actions that belonged solely to herself were those involving military affairs. In the Iliad, Athena is not associated with cleverness and has no epithets that indicate that facet of her personality, yet Odysseus did. Her reputation for wisdom developed out of her patronage of Odysseus in the Odyssey, and it is only there that we see Athena’s cleverness take center stage.    In the epic she often tests and deceives the other characters, acting as a foil to Odysseus, who uses his own cleverness to overcome the challenges faced on his journey home. It is through the characterization of Odysseus as the most clever of the Greeks and Athena’s presentation as being greater than him in knowledge and cleverness that she acquired her image as a goddess of wisdom.   Athena’s Symbols Tetradrachm with the image of an owl, Athens, c. 449-404 BCE. Source: British Museum   Athena’s complex identity can be seen through the many symbols associated with her. She was not just a war goddess or goddess of wisdom, but also a goddess of fertility, life, death, fate, and had some prophetic aspects. All these symbols naturally complement each other and paint the picture of a goddess inextricably entwined with all aspects of civic life.   Athena was likely initially conceived of as a fertility goddess. Her epithets potnia, despoina, and medousa, meaning “Queen,” “Lady,” and “Mistress” respectively, are all epithets commonly used for fertility goddesses like Demeter and Ge, or Gaia. In Elis they worshiped Athena Meter, or “Mother,” and claimed that she was responsible for the fertility of the women in the city. In Athens, when a girl was about to be married she was led up to the Acropolis and a sacrifice was made to Athena for the fruitfulness of the marriage. After the marriage the priestess of Athena Polias would carry the aegis of the goddess to the new couple’s home, a custom that was supposed to promote fertility. Furthermore the cult statue of Athena Polias in Athens, the earliest know and most sacred image of the goddess, was thought to be holding a phiale, a type of saucer meant for libations. This symbol was also common with images of Ge.   Bronze Phiale, Cypriot, c. 5th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   The phiale was also associated with death. In Homeric times it was used as a funerary urn, and there are depictions of Athena with a phiale in Attic tombs. To further emphasize her association with death, the statue of Athena Nike represented her holding a pomegranate, which was also a common symbol of the underworld. This association is best exemplified by the myth of the abduction of Persephone. The pomegranate grew in the garden of Hades and was the fruit which Persephone ate that bound her to live in the underworld for a third of every year. The pomegranate was also associated with rebirth. This symbol of death and regeneration naturally complements Athena’s role as a fertility goddess, and also implies her power over both life and death.   Another common symbol of Athena was the olive. The association comes from the myth of a contest between Athena and Poseidon for patronage of Athens. Each god offered the citizens a gift. Poseidon slammed his trident into the earth and from it sprouted a salt water spring. Athena gave them an olive tree. Seeing Athena’s gift as more beneficial, the people chose Athena to be their patron. An olive tree, thought to be the same one planted by Athena, grew beside the Erechtheion on the Acropolis. This olive tree was known as the “Citizen Olive,” and was in essence a citizen of Athens.   Sacred olive tree beside the Erechtheion atop the Acropolis. Source: Daniel Soulard   In the garden of Academos, the olive trees planted there were said to come from this tree and they were inspected monthly to ensure they were in good health. These trees were owned by the state and named moriai, derived from the word moros or moira, meaning “fate.” They were also under the protection of Zeus Morios and Athena Moria, “The Fateful.” Athena has other connections as a goddess of fate, which will be explored below, but it is clear that the olive tree was the life blood of the city of Athens. It was said that the “Citizen Olive” was burned when the Persians razed the Acropolis in 480 BCE, but when the Athenians returned to assess the damage a new shoot was sprouting from the burned remains, signifying the survival, and rebirth, of the city.   In connection with fate, Athena was known to be a master seamstress and was often depicted holding a spindle. The obvious association is with weaving and crafts, but there were other deities that were also defined by their relationship to weaving, and these were the Fates. The Fates were said to spin a person’s destiny from the moment they were born and bestow both good and evil. This brings some deeper significance to the weaving and presentation of a new peplos during the Panathenaea, as Athena could be said to literally weave the fate of the city. The concept of weaving and fate are so intertwined that the gods were said to “spin” people’s destiny. Even today weaving is a common metaphor used when describing fate.     Lekythos showing Athena holding her helmet and wearing her Aegis, attributed to the Tithonos Painter, c. 480 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Athena was also associated with specific animals like the snake and owl, both animals that signified wisdom and prophetic knowledge. The snake symbolism is present in the story of the legendary king of Athens, Cecrops, who was said to have a serpent’s tail. His daughters were also the nurses for another snake-man who was the foster son of Athena, Erichthonios. Like Cecrops and Erichthonios, snakes were regarded as children of Earth, and also had associations with the underworld. There was known to be a sacred snake that was kept on the Acropolis at Athens, and if it ate the food that was fed to it each year that would indicate a fruitful year. Elsewhere in myth we see the snake symbolism used in connection with prophecy, such as in the myth of Apollo slaying the serpent Python who guarded the sanctuary at Delphi.   Owls are the most common animal associated with Athena and she was often depicted with one on her shoulder. The owl was known for its wisdom in ancient times, as it is today, yet it too was often used to symbolize death. Its imagery was used on gravestones and vases to signify death, and in literature its cry was a portent of doom.   Marble Bust of Athena, Roman copy of Greek original, c. 1-160 CE. Source: British Museum   From all this we can see that Athena was far more than a goddess of wisdom. Her patronage of heroes as well as her mastery of human crafts depicted her as a civilizing force. Her symbols and mythology reflect a goddess who evolved alongside the society that worshiped her. From a goddess of fertility and war, Athena’s technical skill and strategic intelligence eventually transformed her into the ideal of wisdom and prudence. A legacy that has lasted throughout millennia.   Select Bibliography Brown, N. O. (1952) “The Birth of Athena,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 83, 130–143. Doherty, L. E. (1991) “Athena and Penelope as Foils for Odysseus in the “Odyssey”,” Quaderni Urbinati Di Cultura Classica, 39(3), 31–44. Ferrari, G. (2002) “The Ancient Temple on the Acropolis at Athens,” American Journal of Archaeology, 106(1), 11–35. Gerding, H., & Gerding, H. (2006) “The Erechtheion and the Panathenaic Procession,” American Journal of Archaeology, 110(3), 389–401. Kousser, R. (2009) “Destruction and Memory on the Athenian Acropolis,” The Art Bulletin, 91(3), 263–282. Luyster, R. (1965) “Symbolic Elements in the Cult of Athena,” History of Religions, 5(1), 133–163. Pope, M. W. M. (1960) “Athena’s Development in Homeric Epic,” The American Journal of Philology, 81(2), 113–135.
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How Aeneas of Troy Set the Stage for Rome’s Rise
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How Aeneas of Troy Set the Stage for Rome’s Rise

  Aeneas of Troy is a figure from ancient Greek mythology. However, he found fame for his involvement in the foundation of Rome thanks to an epic written about him by the Roman poet Virgil in the 1st century BCE. There are many misconceptions about what the sources say about Aeneas, particularly about what belongs to the Greek tradition and what seems to have been invented by Virgil for his Roman epic. This article will examine what surviving sources reveal about the life of Aeneas of Troy.   Aeneas in Homer’s Iliad Venus Giving Arms to Aeneas, by Jean Cornu, 1704. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Aeneas appears in the Iliad, written by Homer in the middle of the 7th century BCE. He is a prince of Troy, although far from being directly in line to the throne. He was the son of Anchises, son of Capys, son of Assaracus, son of Tros, founder of the kingdom of Troy. To put this into perspective, the reigning king of Troy at the time of the Trojan War in the Iliad was Priam, son of Laomedon, son of Ilus, son of Tros. Therefore, we can see that Aeneas was only distantly related to the reigning king of Troy, being his second cousin once removed.   Understandably, Aeneas is not one of the main characters in the Iliad. In fact, despite his later popularity, he is a fairly minor character. Nevertheless, despite not having a major role, the Iliad makes it very clear that there was something very important about him. Twice, the gods save him from death, indicating that he was destined to achieve something great and important in the future.   The Burning of Troy, by Johann Georg Trautmann, c. 18th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   His destiny is specifically revealed when he is fighting with Achilles. At one point, it seemed as if Achilles would succeed in defeating and actually killing Aeneas. However, the god Poseidon intervened and saved Aeneas. The Iliad then portrays Poseidon as speaking among the gods and declaring the following:   “Now verily shall the mighty Aeneas be king among the Trojans, and his sons’ sons that shall be born in days to come.” This shows that Aeneas was destined to become the king of the Trojans at some point after the Trojan War. Not only that, but he would actually establish a new dynasty to rule over his people. Notably, Homer does not include any information about where Aeneas would rule his people—whether at Troy or a new location.   Even during the Trojan War, Aeneas is shown to be a leader of sorts. He leads the Dardanians, allies and relatives of the Trojans. He is also shown to be particularly favored by Apollo, the god who generally supported the Trojans throughout the war.   How Aeneas Became the Founder of Rome Aeneas Arrives in Sight of Italy, by Master of the Aeneid, 1530-35. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   In the Iliad, no specific information is given about what ultimately became of Aeneas. We only know that he was apparently destined to become the king of the Trojans and be succeeded by his descendants. However, later sources provide us with specific claims about what ended up happening.   The earliest surviving sources that explicitly provide the answer to this question are the writings of Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Siguem. Both of them lived in the 5th century BCE. According to both of these writers, Aeneas and Odysseus jointly founded the city of Rome. This is in stark contrast to the most famous version of the legend about Aeneas’ connection to Rome, found in Virgil’s Aeneid of the 1st century BCE. According to that late source, Aeneas was the founder of the city of Alba Longa. From that dynasty, the twins Romulus and Remus were eventually produced, and they went on to found Rome.   A view of Palatine Hill from across the Circus Maximus, Rome. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As we can see, the earliest version of the legend of Aeneas’ connection to Rome is very different from the most famous version. He was viewed, at least in the earliest surviving tradition, to have been directly responsible for founding Rome. Another common tradition seen between the 5th century and the 1st century BCE is that Rome was founded by the son, grandson, or great-grandson of Aeneas.   Alcimus, a Greek writer of the 4th or 3rd century BCE, claimed that Rome was founded by Rhomus, the grandson of Romulus, son of Aeneas. Cephalon of Gergis, in the 3rd century BCE, stated that Rome was founded by Romus son of Aeneas. According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, numerous other writers agreed with that version. Plutarch, later than Virgil but recording pre-existing traditions, mentioned the tradition that Rome had been founded by Romulus son of Aemilia, daughter of Aeneas. Unmistakeably, the common viewpoint was originally that Rome had been founded by Aeneas himself or by one of his near descendants, such as a son.   An Early Trace of This Tradition A Greek terracotta neck-amphora depicting Aeneas carrying his father Anchises, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Based on the written evidence, we can trace this tradition back to at least as early as the 5th century BCE. However, there is some evidence that it existed before then. Some historians believe that it can be traced back to at least as early as the 6th century BCE when we take into account evidence from archaeology.   From an early period in the history of Rome, there were close connections between the Romans and the Etruscans, their northern neighbors. For example, many features of Roman society came directly from the Etruscans. Many of the earliest noble families of Rome were ethnically Etruscan. With this in mind, it is significant that numerous figurines of Aeneas have been found in Etruria dating to the 6th century BCE. In fact, one of the most popular scenes depicted by the Etruscans in the form of figurines was Aeneas carrying his father from Troy. Many scholars view this as convincing evidence that the Etruscans held Aeneas to be their founding figure, which belief was then passed to the Romans.   Aeneas in Virgil’s Aeneid Folio from Eclogues, Georgics, and Aeneid, by Cristoforo Majorana, c. 1470. Source: Walters Art Museum, Maryland   Aeneas’ most famous appearance in ancient legend actually comes from Roman mythology rather than Greek mythology. In the 1st century BCE, the Roman writer Virgil wrote the Aeneid, commonly viewed as his answer to Homer’s Odyssey. It tells the story of Aeneas leaving Troy and eventually making his way to Italy and becoming the leader of the Latins.   Because it was commissioned by the emperor Augustus, there is a common belief that Virgil invented the story of Rome’s Trojan origins to give the Romans an impressive past. As we have seen, this idea is definitely not true. The idea of Rome having Trojan origins goes back many centuries before Virgil. In fact, Virgil’s Aeneid actually makes the Trojan connection to Rome less direct by making Aeneas the founder of Rome’s parent city and placing centuries of kings between Aeneas and Rome’s founding. Scholars recognize that the list of kings of Alba Longa is obviously fictional. The intent was evidently to try to harmonize the traditional date of Rome’s founding, 753 BCE, with the traditional date of the Trojan War, c. 1184 BCE.   Aeneas Departs from Carthage, by Master of the Aeneid, c. 1530-35. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   According to Virgil’s Aeneid, Aeneas led his people (the survivors of the Trojan War) through the Mediterranean Sea in search of a new home. They eventually arrived at the newly-founded Carthage in modern-day Tunisia, on the north coast of Africa. Aeneas met Princess Dido of Tyre, the founder of Carthage, and the two fell in love. Despite initially intending to rule over both nations together at Carthage, Aeneas eventually left in secret with his Trojans. This caused Dido to curse Aeneas and declare that her people would always be enemies of his people, foreshadowing the Punic Wars.   After this, Aeneas and his people eventually arrived in Italy and settled in the land of the Latin tribes. The king of the Latins was Latinus, and his daughter was Lavinia. She was betrothed to King Turnus of the Rutuli, but she married Aeneas instead. This led to war between Aeneas and Turnus, with Aeneas victorious. With this, Aeneas became heir to the kingdom of the Latins.   Aeneas, Prince of Troy, Who Founded Rome Aeneas and his Family Fleeing Burning Troy, by Henry Gibbs, 1654. Source: Art UK   In conclusion, what do we know about Aeneas of Troy? He was a prince of Troy and was the leader of the Dardanians during the Trojan War. Although a fairly minor character in Homer’s Iliad, he is shown to be important and to be destined to rule over the Trojans at some point in the future. According to the 5th-century BCE writers Hellanicus of Lesbos and Damastes of Siguem, Aeneas founded Rome. Numerous later writers in the following centuries claimed that Rome was founded by a son, grandson, or great-grandson of Aeneas. This close descendant was variably known as Romus, Rhomus, and Romulus. It is entirely possible that Aeneas was originally held to be the founding figure of the Etruscans, and that the Romans got this tradition from these northern neighbors.   This group of traditions eventually fell out of favor and was replaced by the version popularized by Virgil and Livy in the 1st century BCE. According to this late tradition, Aeneas founded Alba Longa, with Rome being founded by his distant descendants centuries later.
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8 Inventions to Thank the Aztec, Maya, & Inca For
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8 Inventions to Thank the Aztec, Maya, & Inca For

  Columbus may have sailed in pursuit of gold, but what he and his successors found was a new world full of never-before-seen plants, animals, and even technology. From unique foods to mind-boggling tools and skills, civilizations in Meso- and South America wowed newcomers with everything from chocolate to brain surgery, pioneering or perfecting inventions we still use today.   1. First in Freeze Drying Inca food storehouse, or qullqa, at Ollantaytambo, Peru. Source: Kristen Jancuc   Before every home had a refrigerator, food preservation was considerably more difficult. Yet, without the advantages of rapid modern transportation and agricultural practices used to counteract drought and pestilence, preservation was essential to survival. Long before kids could snack on the wonder that is astronaut ice cream, the Inca were the first to preserve food using a technique known as freeze-drying.   Freeze-drying is a preservation method that allows food to retain much of its original flavor and nutrients. Modern freeze-drying techniques use equipment to freeze the water in the food in question and then remove it by converting the ice to vapor and vacuuming it out. Removing the water content eliminates the moisture bacteria that need to grow, creating spoil-resistant food.   For the Inca, freeze-drying was a practical way to preserve an essential food, potatoes, utilizing the unique climate of the Andes. Not only did freeze-drying allow potatoes to be stored for long periods in case of drought, but it also made them lighter and easier to transport, ideal for soldiers on the road.   Two different types of chuño, freeze-dried potatoes, still made in the Andes today using a practice invented by the Inca. Source: ZME Science   Freeze-dried potatoes, or chuño, from the Quechua ch’uñu, meaning “frozen potato,” predate the arrival of the Spanish, but the first recorded evidence of their existence comes from Spanish chroniclers in the late 16th century. To create chuño, farmers in the Andes would lay potatoes out to freeze at night, then dehydrate them in the strong sunlight during the day. After repeating this process several times, the potatoes would then be smashed, literally trampled underfoot, and go through several more rounds of freezing and dehydrating. The result is a preserved potato product that lasts for years. It’s often rehydrated in soups or other dishes, or they are ground and used as a type of flour.   The Inca didn’t use freeze-drying solely for potatoes. It was also notably used for meat to create a product far more widely known than chuño: jerky. While more traditional smoking and salting were likely used in the lower altitudes, up in the Andes, thin slices of llama or alpaca meat were treated much like potatoes, alternately frozen and sunbaked to create a dried meat that could be easily preserved and transported. The conquistadors apparently took more of a liking to ch’arki than chuño, adopting the snack and spreading it and its name around the world.   2. Masters of Skull Surgery An unhealed trepanned skull, indicating the patient did not survive surgery, c. 1000-1400 CE, Peru. Source: World Neurosurgery, Volume 114, June 2018   Something as delicate as brain surgery seems like it would be impossible without modern medicine, not to mention hygiene. However, primitive forms of brain surgery were performed as early as 5,000 years ago.   One of the civilizations to not only perform brain surgery, or trepanation, thousands of years ago but to do it regularly and well was the Inca. More trepanned skulls have been found in modern-day Peru than anywhere else in the world, and the success rates for those surgeries are among the highest for any pre-modern civilization that performed the procedure.   Trepanation is a broad term that encompasses boring, scraping, or cutting into the skull for any number of reasons, though often to address head trauma. Without antibiotics or anesthesia, it sounds like a nightmare at best and a death sentence at worst. But the Inca not only used the practice regularly, they became highly skilled.   The arid climate of the Andes lends itself to archeological preservation, which means scientists have been able to study hundreds of Inca and pre-Inca brain surgery patients. The earliest skulls studied in the region, dating back to 400-200 BCE, show survival rates around 40%. For comparison sake, researchers highlighted that the survival rate for battlefield trepanation during the American Civil War, over 2,000 years later, averaged about 50%.   Tools found buried with a pre-Inca Sican surgeon, c. 900-1050 CE, Lambayeque, Peru. Source: Andina   But at the peak of the empire’s skill, the survival rate, as evidenced by healing around the incision site, was as high as 80%. Scientists even observed two skulls with seven healed incisions a piece, indicating that the procedure was not only used to treat the type of head injuries sustained in battle but also to try to address internal maladies, perhaps headaches or epilepsy.   So, how did they do it?   A skull from the Inca Empire showing five healed trepanation holes. Source: World Neurosurgery, Volume 114, June 2018   The archaeological evidence suggests that the practice was refined over time. Skulls have been discovered with post-mortem trepanation, indicating that Inca surgeons were studying anatomy to improve the procedure. As their knowledge expanded, the size of the holes being made shrank, and the technique shifted from boring holes in the skull to a less risky, gradual scraping away or “grooving” of bone that reduced the chances of puncturing the protective membrane around the brain. The site of the incisions also moved away from areas of the skull most likely to cause heavy bleeding.   The Inca also had a wide knowledge of medicinal herbs that may have been used to anesthetize patients and possibly prevent infection. Though there is no evidence linking these herbs directly to the trepanation procedure, Inca use of coca leaf as a topical pain killer, cinchona bark to lower fevers, and chicha, a fermented corn beer, as a pseudo-anesthesia to induce unconsciousness are all documented.   3. Chewing Gum Gurus Illustration of a woman chewing chicle, gum, The Florentine Codex, 1577. Source: Library of Congress   Anyone who’s ever stepped on a wad of chewing gum carelessly discarded on the sidewalk has probably cursed the person who invented it. But despite the rage induced by having to remove the sticky substance from shoes, clothes, and hair, the habit of chewing gum has persisted for an impressively long time.   Various cultures developed a practice of chewing plant-derived substances, including the ancient Greeks. However, modern chewing gum has its roots, literally, in the Aztec Empire and the sapodilla tree, native to Mesoamerica and the Caribbean.   When injured, the sapodilla tree secretes a sticky resin to cover and protect the damaged area. The Aztec, as well as the Maya, developed a practice of harvesting and chewing this latex. It has a slightly sweet flavor, and they sometimes mix it with additional ingredients to improve the texture. The word for this substance, tzictli in Nahuatl, became chicle in Spanish, and is also where the name Chiclets, one of the most well-known chewing gum brands, came from.   Gum chewing in the Aztec Empire was not a free-for-all. While it was done to freshen breath and clean teeth, much like today, social norms determined who could chew tzictli and where. According to Spanish chroniclers in the 16th century, only unmarried women and children could chew gum in public without judgment. Married women could chew gum in private, and gum chewing by men was frowned upon altogether.   American Chicle Company chewing gum advertisement, c. 1919. Source: CTG Publishing   Though a variety of chewing gums were produced from tree resins and saps in the early Americas, modern chewing gum was first developed from tzictli in the late 19th century. Former Mexican leader Antonio López de Santa Anna, living in exile in the US, imported chicle from his home country and gave some to collaborator and inventor Thomas Andrews to develop as a rubber substitute.   Failing to make chicle a success in that regard, Andrews instead developed it into a commercial chewing gum. In 1899, he incorporated the American Chicle Company in New Jersey, and various chewing gum companies continued to import and use chicle to produce commercial chewing gum. Ultimately, chicle was replaced by synthetics in the 1960s.   4. Popcorn Purveyors Illustrations of Indigenous people growing corn, The Florentine Codex, 1577. Source: Library of Congress   Maize, of the standard and popping varieties, spread throughout the pre-conquest Americas as early as 4000 BCE, and into the present-day southwestern US by approximately 2,500 years ago. However, the process of domesticating this staple food was a long one that began in present-day Mexico.   Teosinte, the wild grass that was eventually domesticated into maize, bears little resemblance to today’s corn. The plant had a single “ear” that was teeny by comparison, with just 5-12 hard seeds, not the multiple large cobs full of soft kernels seen today. Fortunately for modern moviegoers, the ancient peoples of Mesoamerica didn’t let the inedibility of corn’s ancestors discourage them. Instead, they invented a tasty snack to tide them over while they worked to cultivate a more edible crop.   Bowl featuring the god of maize as a cacao tree, highlighting the sources of two important New World inventions, Maya, c. 5th century CE. Source: Dumbarton Oaks Museum, Washington, DC   Through selective breeding, the Indigenous peoples of present-day Mexico were able to gradually produce a plant with a larger number of softer edible kernels. But before they succeeded in that endeavor, they still had the hard-kernelled predecessors to deal with. Though it was not edible raw, and it was too hard even to grind, they discovered that when heated, pressure would build up in the kernel, leading it to burst. These “popped” kernels were edible and became an important food source that continued to be popular long after a softer, easier-to-use corn was bred.   Aztec maize (corn) deity Chicomecoatl, c. 15th/16th century CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   While it was not the Mexica themselves who “invented” popcorn, but their Indigenous ancestors, Spanish colonizers first encountered popcorn when they invaded the Aztec Empire, where popcorn, or momochitl, was not only eaten but also used in decoration and for ceremonial purposes. In particular, it seems to have been associated with the god of rain, Tlaloc, with popcorn garlands and necklaces worn during festivities to honor him. According to the Spanish chronicle by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, The Festival of Toxcatl, held prior to the rainy season, included women doing a “popcorn dance” to honor the gods and request their blessing in providing essential rains.   5. Fashion-Forward Red Dye Red carrying cloth from Peru, c. 600-100 CE. Source: Cooper Hewitt Museum   We might not have the bright red color favored by women’s fashion football team uniforms without the Aztec. Before the 16th century, Europeans used a red dye known as madder red, a plant-based dye that made a shade much paler than is common today. The Spanish must have been very impressed when they saw the vibrant scarlet sported by the Aztecs.   The Aztec made their dye from cochineal beetles, which are tiny insects that produce a red pigment called carminic acid as a natural repellent against certain predators. Probably discovering the art around the 2nd century BCE, the Aztec ground up the insects to use them as a natural source of red dye, though it takes 70,000 cochineal insects to produce just one pound of the dye. The Aztec called the pigment “nocheztli,” which means “cactus blood,” reflecting the diet of the insects. They ate the native prickly pear plant, brushing the beetles off the cactus with a deer’s tail.   Mexican Indian Collecting Cochineal with a Deer Tail, by José Antonio de Alzate y Ramírez, 1777. Source: Newberry Library   The Aztec used the dye to color textiles, paint manuscripts, as cosmetics, and even as medicine for issues such as digestive problems and fever. It bonds best with fabrics made from animal fibers, such as alpaca wool, rather than plant fibers like cotton.   The Spanish immediately saw the value of the dye and started to export it to Europe, while protecting the secret of its source to maintain a monopoly. Cochineal dye became central to their economy for three centuries as it was used in the robes of Catholic cardinals and the uniforms of British army officers.   Synthetic dyes capable of producing the same vibrant red were developed in the 19th century, but cochineal is still used as a food dye, thanks to its organic nature.   6. Revolutionizing Rubber Vessel with ballgame scene, Guatemala, c. 600-900 CE. Source: Denver Art Museum   From tires to designer sneakers, rubber is ubiquitous today, and its invention is usually credited to Charles Goodyear. However, the Maya civilization would beg to differ. Ancient Mayans and their predecessors were making and using rubber thousands of years before Mr. Goodyear’s name was first plastered on blimps.   The Maya are famous for their ball courts, and a bouncy rubber ball is key to any ball game. The oldest known rubber ball discovered in Mesoamerica dates to 1600 BCE, meaning the Olmec, a smaller civilization that overlapped with the Maya and is considered one of its predecessors, was likely the first to create rubber. In fact, “Olmec” derives from the Nahuatl word used for this culture that literally translates as “rubber people.”   The Maya continued the practice of ceremonial ball games, making improvements to natural rubber that allowed it to be used in other applications as well, including shoes. By the time the Spanish arrived, a large rubber industry was thriving in the Americas, producing thousands of rubber balls each year, as well as other goods.   The natural rubber first used by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica came from the Castilla elastica, or Panama rubber tree. In its original state, the sap, or latex, from the tree is sticky and becomes brittle as it hardens; not an ideal substance for bouncy balls. This sap was mixed with juice from the morning glory vine, which created a more usable and bouncy rubber.   Depiction of the so-called Mesoamerican ballgame, as illustrated on a Mayan vase. Source: Mayavase Database, University of Oregon   Modern researchers have recreated this original Maya recipe, as noted by Spanish chroniclers, and found that adjusting the ratio of latex to juice creates rubber of varying properties, including a less bouncy, more durable rubber that may have been used for shoes. Spanish records from the 16th century indicate that natives were wearing sandals with rubber soles, though no archaeological evidence of ancient flip-flops has been found.   Charles Goodyear, the so-called inventor of vulcanized rubber, created it by heating latex from Brazilian rubber trees with sulfur, which makes the latex more durable and elastic. Interestingly, the morning glory juice used by the Maya to create rubber has sulfur-containing amino acids. The Maya and their predecessors may not have understood the chemistry of polymer chains, but they were still the masters of vulcanizing rubber.   7. Spearheads of Spectator Stadiums Largest ball court in Mesoamerica, Chichen Itza, Yucatán, Mexico. Source: Wikimedia Commons The rubber ball games played by the Maya were just as popular with the public as soccer is in that region of the world today. It was also not just played by the Maya, but throughout Mesoamerica, again, just like soccer.   Naturally, people needed a place to play and watch, and so every city in the Maya civilization had a ball court consisting of a playing field enclosed by viewing platforms where spectators could watch the game. While the Maya ball courts may not have rivaled the Roman Colosseum for size and capacity, it is their ubiquity that is impressive. At the site of Chichen Itza alone, archaeology reveals seven ball courts for a population of 35-50,000 people. Today, London has 21 stadiums for a population of nine million.   Model of a Ballgame with Spectators, from Nayarit, Mexico, c. 100 BCE-250 CE. Source: Yale University Art Gallery   The stadiums were open-ended and marked by two long, parallel, range-type mounds that have an approximate north-south long axis, forming an I shape. Two vertical stone hoops on the walls of the court stood opposite each other in the center of the long alley. There were sloping benches on either side of the alley, which formed part of the gameplay with the bouncy rubber ball bouncing off the sides. The largest known court was 300 feet long, but courts were not uniform in size.   While ball games were known to have had religious and ceremonial meaning, they were also played for entertainment purposes, and there is evidence of amateur games and even pickup games serving as regular entertainment. In the game Pok-ta-pok, the two opposing sides had to try and hit the ball into one of the two stone hoops, but they could only pass and shoot the ball using their thighs and hips. While it sounds a lot like modern soccer, there is evidence that the losers, at least during ritual games. were sometimes given to the gods as blood sacrifices.   8. The World’s First Chocolatiers Maya clay chocolate pot, c. 750 CE. Source: Minneapolis Institute of Art   The sweet treat that now marks nearly every holiday celebration has been adapted and, arguably, improved by numerous inventors and companies over the last 500 or so years. But every Hershey’s Kiss and M&M owes its existence to the Maya.   While the English word for chocolate most likely comes from the Nahuatl xocolatl, and it was the Aztec ruler Montezuma whom the Spanish discovered consuming the bitter beverage, it was the Maya and their predecessors who first invented the way to make cacao beans edible.   Researchers believe cacao beans may have been consumed as early as 1500 BCE, and cooking artifacts from the pre-Maya Olmec civilization have shown traces of theobromine, a chemical unique to cacao, and the one that makes it poisonous to dogs!   Spouted jar, a unique Maya design that allowed them to blow air into the body and create a froth on the chocolate beverage, c. 1st century BCE/CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   How they discovered the joys of chocolate is largely a mystery, as in their raw form, the beans are inedible. The process of making them into something people actually enjoy consuming is laborious. Once extracted from the cacao pods, the seeds must first be fermented, then allowed to dry, then roasted, and then finally ground.   The Olmec civilization died out around 350 BCE, but the Maya picked up where they left off, and much more is known about their love affair with chocolate. Maya written records, as well as paintings, carvings, and other artifacts, indicate that chocolate held an important role in society. It was used in celebrations and ceremonies, and the beans served as a form of currency. The word cacao itself comes from the Maya word kakaw, and evidence suggests the Maya were actively cultivating cacao trees, not simply harvesting wild beans.   The Princeton Vase, a Maya chocolate cup with an illustration showing a woman pouring chocolate, 670-750 CE. Source: Princeton University Art Museum   Chocolate during the time of the Maya civilization was not usually sweetened, but was popular and widely consumed. Despite its bitter flavor it was enjoyed as a hot frothy beverage, chocolhaa, and sometimes spiced with ground chilis, cinnamon, vanilla, or other herbs.   What chocolate wasn’t to the Maya was food. It was always a beverage. Treats like truffles and candy bars came long after the conquest by the Spanish, who shared the treat with Europe, and hundreds of sweet goodies were developed, all from the humble Maya kakaw bean.
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Fun Facts And Interesting Bits
Fun Facts And Interesting Bits
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How Fungi Stopped the Dinosaurs’ Comeback
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Fun Facts And Interesting Bits
Fun Facts And Interesting Bits
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Submarine Made Disturbing Discovery in Antarctica, Then Vanished
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Conservative Voices
Conservative Voices
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David Hogg Becomes Victim of DEI in Most Delightful Firing Since Trump Booted Joe Biden
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David Hogg Becomes Victim of DEI in Most Delightful Firing Since Trump Booted Joe Biden

It's hard out there for a white, male, hardline left-wing activist pipsqueak with a PAC prepared to spend millions undermining his own party for political gain. On Wednesday, as many had predicted, Democratic National Committee vice chair and serial self-promoter David Hogg became an ex-Democratic National Committee vice chair. The...
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Living In Faith
Living In Faith
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20 Short Motivational Prayers for Everyday Life Situations
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20 Short Motivational Prayers for Everyday Life Situations

There is power in short, direct prayers, so don’t underestimate them. Sometimes that’s all you need and sometimes that’s all you can offer. The beautiful part is, God hears and answers those, too.
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