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The Antiquarian Roots of Modern Social Welfare
One of the most groundbreaking events of the late nineteenth century was the establishment of the world’s first modern system of social security in Imperial Germany, with the state taking responsibility for safeguarding workers from everyday risks such as incapacity and old age.Here, Vittorio Trevitt considers the roots of such a social welfare system.
Distributing Alms to the Poor, Abbey of Port-Royal des Champs.
Although the emergence of modern social welfare was product of both altruism and political expediency, with the creation of public entitlements such as retirement pensions, invalidity benefits, and accident and sickness insurance seen partly as a way of drawing support away from the political Left, it nevertheless began a positive trend that continues to the present day. While highly industrialised nation-states for several decades now, including Andorra, Liechtensteinand Monaco, have built up and maintained comprehensive income maintenance systems, many developing nations such as Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan and the Maldives in Asia, Burundi, Côte d'Ivoire and Sierra Leone in sub-Saharan Africa, and Panama and Suriname in the Americas have relatively recently embarked upon measures to broaden the coverage of and/or introduce new social security benefits. But welfare services in some form or another have existed long before the German reforms of the Nineteenth Century, with both individuals and state organisations offering support to those less able to help themselves. This common act of compassion is one of the more positive aspects of humanity and is a long-established part of the human tradition; one that has existed since the days of antiquity. Byzantine EmpireA notable example of ancient welfare can be found in the Byzantine Empire. For much of its existence, a vast multitudeof social services were provided by the state, church and private citizens, amongst which included homes for the elderly,widows, and those unable to participate in the labour force, institutions for travellers and abandoned children, hostels for sick indigent individuals, orphanages, and (in the imperial capital) the granting of free bread. The emphasis placed on welfare was strongly influenced by the Christian teaching of agape (love) together with the philanthropic traditions of Greek society, with examples of social assistance in ancient Athens such as daily allowances for the handicapped and pensions for war orphans. Although the Byzantine Empire no longer exists, one can argue that its welfarist traditions live on today in the charitable works of Vatican City and Christian churches throughout the world. Religious leadersSimilar initiatives influenced by religious teaching were also carried out by early Islamic leaders, including the creation of social aid for the poor (such as payments to minors and those without work) regardless of their religion, together with the care of abandoned children and assistance during times of famine. A levy was also established known as the Zakat that has helped underprivileged people in many nations like Afghanistan since its inception. Religious doctrine shaped welfare provisions in Cambodia during the reign of King Javarman VII who (influenced by Buddhism) presided over the inauguration of a nationwide system of public health facilities while ensuring that those living in poverty were provided with sustenance. In the Ottoman Empire (which included several modern states such as North Macedonia, Palestine, Montenegro, Albania, and a section of Croatia), prosperous members of different religious groups used their wealth for benevolent purposes such as the building of eating establishments for the impoverished. Morocco under the Merenid dynasty was no exception, with those in need attended to by organised charity. In Judaism, assisting the underprivileged has long been viewed as a religious duty, as characterised by a welfare tradition known as Tzedakah. This not only involves providing direct cash assistance to a deprived individual, but also helping to lift them out of poverty. One scholar from the 12th century drew up a comprehensive code of what forms this aid should take, amongst which includes taking on a person experiencing hardship as a partner or helping them find an occupation. AsiaIn Mesopotamia, temples provided succour to the poor, while under the guidance of Khosrow I the Sasanian Empire developed numerous schemes aimed at helping senior and impoverished citizens. In Ancient China, there were many instances of state-sponsored aid being provided such as the granting of food and allowances. In India, the establishment of free health care became a hallmark of the Gupta era, while many welfare programmes were put into operation under the Mauryan state. In pre-colonial Vietnam, direct relief such as medications and tents was granted by government representatives, while in Ancient Mongolia direct food assistance in crisis situations became a duty of the state. In Bhutan, a system has long operated known as Kidu in which the monarch comes to people’s aid to ensure that their needs are met. In pre-industrial Japan, there were many examples of people in authority undertaking philanthropic works such as help for blind persons, lodgings for beggars and for artisans lacking employment, and repairs in dwellings inhabited by people living with leprosy. Americas & AfricaIn the Americas, the Aztecs and Incas embarked upon their own welfarist initiatives aimed at uplifting the poor, while in Africa the Mutapa became known for providing public relief to physically handicapped persons. In pre-colonial Zimbabwe, an intriguing system was set up in which chiefs put aside plots of land for community cultivation, with produce kept in granaries for emergencies. Prior to the arrival of colonialism, an altruistic practice was introduced in Rwandaknown as Umuganda in which help was given to less fortunate members of the community (such as the elderly and disabled) including travel to health providers and the construction of dwellings. During the age of the Mali Empire (which included contemporary countries like Gambia, Senegal and Chad), a progressive charter laying out numerous rights and rules was drawn up, one of which was an obligation to assist the impoverished. Additionally, in the Kongo Kingdom (which is believed to have included portions of what became Gabon and the Democratic Republic of the Congo), the provision of welfare is said to have been a responsibility of those in authority. Social conscienceAlthough deeply unequal societies, a social conscience nevertheless existed in the major world powers of Ancient Egypt and Ancient Rome. In the former, care for the poor was both enshrined in law and put into practice, with assistance given to the aged by way of housing, employment and medical attention. During the age of the latter, multiple social programmes were launched to support underprivileged people, amongst which included aid to widows, financial and educational support for children, free clothing for soldiers, loans to farmers of moderate means, and grants of land to poverty-stricken inhabitants of urban areas. One of the largest of these was the ‘grain dole;’ a dietary allowance that benefited hundreds of thousands during its existence. Recipients were allocated a fixed amount of wheat (believed to be sufficient for the needs of an individual), and in later years the allowance was expanded to include certain other foodstuffs. It was also an integral part of the unofficial platform of the Populares; political figures who presented themselves as representing the interests of ordinary citizens in contrast to their opposite numbers, the Optimates. In addition, workers’ guilds were set up which provided several categories of assistance to their members and relatives. Not all societies throughout history, however, have had the infrastructure to set up formal networks of welfare. In the African continent, there has long existed a tradition whereby extended families, chiefs and villages have acted as informal safety nets; supporting members of the community when the need arises. In West Africa, this type of welfare found its expression in nations like Togo, Benin, Niger, and Liberia, in East Africa in Ethiopia, Djibouti, and Somalia, to the north in Mauritania, Sudan and South Sudan, and further south in Malawi, Eswatini, Lesotho, and Botswana. In the Pacific, a system has long existed in countries like the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea known as Wantok in which members of a clan or tribe look out for one another’s wellbeing not only through helping members find work, but in granting monetary support as well. A similar system has long operated in Fiji called Kerekere, in which those who need help in different situations seek it from neighbours and extended family members, while the Bubuti system in Kiribati provides that households share what they have with those in straightened circumstances. This kind of indirect support is also seen in neighbouring Samoa as an integral part of that island’s identity, and is an established practice in other Pacific nations such as Palau, Nauru, Tonga, Tuvalu, Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands. In contextThis is not say that informal safety nets are an effective substitute for modern social insurance programmes. Their failure in effectively ameliorating conditions for AIDS orphans in Africa attests to this. Nevertheless, they have been credited for preventing severe hardship in the Pacific, and stand out as a laudable example of kindness and ingenuity. Also, whilst one should not view imperial rule as an ideal form of governance, the emphasis placed on welfare by the aforementioned empires of old was a positive attribute that is commendable.The provision of social welfare, therefore, is an aspect of human history that has long-established roots. At a time when our world has undergone a tremendous amount of technological progress, social security remains a privilege and not a right for much of humanity. We should learn from the examples of ancient empires, non-industrial societies and the social aspects of religious teaching not only in remembering where social welfare came from, but in shaping its future as well for the betterment of the entire human race. 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