Discussions of warfare in ancient Greece and Rome usually revolve around open field battles with dense formations of infantry clashing, supported by cavalry and missile troops. But many ancient conflicts were resolved through sieges, with enemy armies attempting to breach a city’s wall while starving those barricaded inside. Sieges required special tactics and weapons, and generals needed both patience and ingenuity to successfully break a siege.   City Walls and Defenses The Procession of the Trojan Horse into Troy, by Giovanni Tiepolo, 1760. Source: National Gallery, London   Siege warfare was baked into the very culture of ancient Greece. The most famous story of the ancient Greek world, the Trojan War, tells the tale of a protracted siege between the Achaeans and the Trojans. Siege warfare in this era, presumably the late Bronze Age, seems to have revolved around skirmishes outside of the city walls, with little in the way of siegecraft. The fact that the war lasted for 10 years, with the Trojans continually receiving reinforcements, implies that completely blockading the city was probably not even considered.   After the Bronze Age Collapse, the Greeks still relied heavily on stone walls for protection. Greece at the time was not a united political entity, but rather a collection of city-states that were almost constantly at war with one another. These defenses were simple constructions of stone that ringed a settlement. In later centuries, towers were added, increasing the vantage point of the defenders. Standalone towers and forts were also used to act as early warning systems. Walls were also used to mark territorial boundaries. The Phocians built a wall at Thermopylae to ward off Thessalonian raids, which were rebuilt by the Spartan King Leonidas in response to the Persian invasion. Walls were also built to protect lanes of travel, such as the famous Long Walls, which connected Athens to the port of Piraeus, a distance of about four miles.   Remains of the stone wall of the fortress of Fyli, Greece. Source: National Herald   The most common tactic to capture a city was to blockade the target, cutting it off from supply and starving the defenders out. This is a double-edged sword, however, as the besiegers would be forced to live off the land, and with limited logistics networks, they were just as likely to run out of supplies. Another strategy would be to lay waste to the surrounding area, provoking the defenders into leaving the safety of their fortifications and fight an open field battle, negating the need for a siege to begin with.   Rams, Ramps, and Flamethrowers Bronze Siege Ram, c. 5th Century BCE. Source: Archaeological Museum, Olympia   When the enemy was too stubborn to fight in the open field, and waiting to starve them out was not an option, there were other methods to capture a city. The battering ram was a long tree log, often with a bronze ram’s head at the end, which was designed to batter down the enemy’s walls or gateway. The first rams were simply held by a group of men and slammed into the fortification. Later versions were suspended from a wooden frame by chains, which allowed it to gain more momentum with each swing. A surviving ram head from the 5th century BCE has two rows of serrated teeth, which would imply that it was used to grip into the walls and tear out the stones rather than simply knock them over. This was made possible by the relatively thin walls of Greek cities.   If going through a wall wasn’t possible, another option was to go over it. Ladders could be used for this purpose, but there was another, more substantial method. A ramp could be constructed, made from stone and earth. It took a long time to construct an earthen ramp, but when it was completed, a besieger could simply walk over the walls. Another way to go over the top was the use of siege towers. These were wheeled, wooden structures that could be pushed against the wall, delivering the troops directly to their destination. The first known use of a siege tower by the Greeks was in 397 BCE by Dionysus I of Syracuse against Motya.   Dionysius I of Syracuse, by Guillaume Rouille, 1553. Source: Wikimedia Commons   If going over the walls wasn’t an option, going under was another possibility. Undermining a wall meant digging a tunnel under the enemy’s wall, propping the earth above with wooden timbers. The space would be packed with straw or combustibles and set alight. The timbers would burn away, and the tunnel would collapse, bringing that section of the wall with it. In 424 BCE, the Boeotians besieged the Athenian-held city of Delium and utilized the world’s first flamethrower. It was a hollowed out iron bound pipe with a bellows at one end. At the other end, hanging from chains, was a cauldron filled with pitch, sulfur, and tar that was set alight. When pumped, the bellows would force air over the burning cauldron, spraying flame over the target. Though it was awkward to use, it did manage to frighten the Athenian defenders and set the wooden towers on fire. Shortly after, the Boeotians stormed into the city, winning a decisive victory. In spite of this successful use, there are no further accounts of flamethrowers being used during the rest of the Peloponnesian War.   Siege Artillery Head of a statue of Alexander the Great, c. 338 BCE. Source: Acropolis Museum, Athens   The first piece of Greek siege artillery was invented in the early 4th century BCE in Syracuse, Sicily, during the reign of Dionysus I. The weapon was a precursor of the crossbow, where a powerful bow was mounted on a wooden shaft. Called the gastrophetes, or “belly shooter,” it allowed the user to press the end of the weapon against his stomach, drawing the string and holding it in place with a series of ratcheted notches. It would then be shot by activating a trigger mechanism. It had the power to reach defenders on city walls.   The next big leap in siege technology was the use of torsion powered engines. Instead of using a bent bow, rigid arms would be fitted to a mechanical frame. Elastic ropes, usually made from animal sinew, would be wrapped around the arms, propelling them forward. The limiting factor of these torsion engines was the strength of the sinews providing the tension.   Very broadly, these torsion engines came in two main types, bolt or arrow throwers and stone throwers. Bolt throwers were used as anti-personnel weapons, and could be considerably accurate and powerful, capable of hitting a soldier atop a wall from hundreds of yards away. Stone throwers could be used against thinner walls and buildings and were often used to lob stones over the top of the walls into the buildings behind, an early form of indirect artillery fire. These engines could also be used defensively, mounted on walls or towers to thwart an enemy’s attempt to storm the fortification.   The culmination of Greek siegecraft came during the meteoric career of Alexander the Great. In 332 BCE, Alexander and his Macedonian army laid siege to the island city of Tyre. Since he lacked a sufficient navy, Alexander ordered his men to construct a causeway that stretched from the mainland to the island. Once in range, the city was bombarded by artillery and siege towers, which had catapults on them to clear the walls, were moved up. After a few setbacks, the rams were able to breach the walls, and the Macedonian army poured in, capturing the city after a lengthy siege.   Roman Siege Warfare Reconstruction of a Roman Ballistae. Source: Vindolanda Charitable Trust   The siege techniques created by the Greeks were readily adopted by the Romans, who made siegecraft into an art form. The Roman army was well versed in fortifications by its very nature. While on the march, Roman soldiers would dig a fortified encampment, complete with defensive ditch and wooden palisade every night. With this level of experience in building defensive positions, dealing with strongholds was the Romans’ specialty.   The first way to capture a city or fortress would be to blockade the target and starve it out. Using their experience building a fortified camp every night, the Romans could build a wall around the city, completely cutting it off from supply or reinforcement. In some cases, such as at the siege of Alesia in 54 BCE, the Romans built a second wall around the first, protecting the besiegers from possible relief columns coming to the aid of the besieged. Like the Greeks, they ran the risk of running out of supplies before the enemy capitulated, but over time, the Romans had developed a sophisticated logistics system that kept the army running while dug in around an enemy’s stronghold.   While they waited for the enemy to starve into submission, they would employ a number of siege engines in order to demoralize the enemy and soften the target up before any potential assault. They made great use of ballistae, which used two rigid arms propelled by torsion to launch bolts or stones. The smallest ballistae, also called a scorpion, could be lifted by a small group of men, while others would be massive. Single arm torsion engines were also employed. These were named onagers, or wild donkeys, due to their tremendous kick. Both of these engines were used for anti-personnel purposes, and could be effective against thinner walls or wooden palisades, but had difficulty against thicker stone walls of more sophisticated settlements.   Reconstruction of the Roman earthworks at Alesia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   These siege engines were operated by a specialized class of soldiers. They received dedicated training to operate the ballistae and onagers and were considered part of the immunae, soldiers who had special skills and status that exempted them from digging ditches, latrine duty, and the other drudgery that was the lot of the common soldier.   How the Romans Broke Into Cities Roman Soldiers in Testudo Formation, depicted on Trajan’s Column, 113 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   If a city could not be starved into submission, and the defenders too stubborn to submit to the constant bombardment of bolts and stones, a more direct approach was in order. Like the Greeks before them, the Romans could use any number of methods to get into a stronghold. These included the use of ladders, siege towers, and battering rams. In order to reach the walls or gate, legionaries employed the famous testeudo formation, in which they would interlock their shields, forming a roof over their heads. This protected them from the arrows, stones, and other missiles dropped on them from above. Once at the wall, they would use the battering rams to smash open the gate, letting the army in. Rams would be covered in animal hides soaked in water to prevent it from being set on fire by the defenders. They would also undermine the walls by digging under, once again employing specialized engineers for the task. The Romans also made use of earthen ramps to climb over the walls, as was seen at the famous siege of Masada in 73 CE.   Assaulting a city was done as a last resort, since even the highly trained and disciplined Romans were at a disadvantage attacking a fortified position. If a breach in the walls was made, it would be a natural choke point that the defenders could rally around. There was a risk of high casualties and taking a stronghold by force was not done lightly. It was so dangerous that one of the highest awards for valor in the Roman army was the Mural Crown, a decoration given to the first man to scale an enemy’s walls.   Because of the risks associated with storming a fortification and the inevitable casualties that would result, the Romans could be brutal with a captured settlement. To avoid bloodshed, the Romans would generally allow a city the chance to peacefully surrender at any time during the buildup, but once a piece of siege equipment, such as a ram, touched the walls, no mercy would be shown. In vengeance for the bloodshed caused by their failure to surrender, the wrathful legionaries would slaughter anyone they found, civilian or military, and even animals. Anyone who survived would be sold into slavery. While done out of blood-lust and pent up frustration being unleashed, it also served as a warning to any who would challenge the might of Rome.

  Gilbert du Motier, better known as Marquis de Lafayette, had the world at his feet. He was wealthy and had a deep family history in French nobility and military. He could have done just about anything with his life. Instead of resting on his laurels and enjoying the privileges his life had to offer, he was driven to live on the edge. From battlefields in a foreign country to inciting revolution to imprisonment to celebration, the Marquis inspired many and left a legacy of service and dedication to his beliefs that remain unmatched centuries later.   Ambitious in His Youth Château Chavaniac, photographed in 2011, it is currently a museum. Source: Troye Owens / Wikimedia Commons   Born September 6, 1757, Lafayette was not born a Marquis, his paternal family title, but was baptized Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier. As a young man, he went by Gilbert.   Gilbert was born at a castle called Chateau Chavaniac, the home of his family for hundreds of years before his birth. In south-central France, Chavaniac was a remote, hilly area mostly populated by peasant farmers. Among their poor neighbors, the Motier or Lafayette family was very wealthy. Both sides of Gilbert’s family were descended from long lines of French nobility, with a strong military heritage that went all the way back to the time of the Crusades.   His father, who was Marquis de Lafayette at the time of Gilbert’s birth, was a colonel in an elite branch of the army, the French Grenadiers, who served the king of France. As a baby, Gilbert did not spend much time with his father, who was often traveling as a result of his military duties.   When Gilbert was just two, his father was killed in the Battle of Minden, which was part of the Seven Years’ War. With the death of his father, Gilbert inherited his new title and became the Marquis de Lafayette.   A print titled The Battle of Minden in Westphalia depicting the conflict in which the senior Lafayette perished. Source: Yale Center of British Art / Wikimedia Commons   Educated by a local priest, the young Marquis moved to Paris with his mother, referred to as Jolie or Julie, when he was ten. Their home was located at Luxembourg Palace, and Lafayette began his classical education. At first, he struggled, missing his friends. He’d never been exposed to nobility beyond his own family, and his rural accent made him stand out. However, his military ambitions, which he’d held since childhood, drove him to success in both his schooling and military training. Unfortunately, in his personal life, the young man suffered more tragedy when he was only twelve years old. His mother died suddenly, followed by his grandfather only two weeks later.   Lafayette found himself an orphan but also immensely wealthy, inheriting fortunes from both his maternal and paternal lineage at once. He joined the Royal Army just a year later, fulfilling his dream of serving his country. His commission was as a member of the King’s Musketeers, and he became skilled in drilling and horsemanship. In 1773, he wed Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (Adrienne), the result of an arranged marriage made when the two were younger. Lafayette was sixteen, and his new wife was fourteen. However, they did seem to enjoy one another’s company and were great friends. Their first child, Henriette, was born a year after their wedding, and eventually, the couple would have four children together.   A Man of Ideals Lafayette’s wife, Adrienne, painted sometime between 1785 and 1799. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As a young man, Lafayette became interested in principles such as liberty and equality and their relationship to human rights, values that he would espouse throughout his life. This resulted in an interest in the happenings in the British Colonies in North America. He thought Americans fighting for their rights was a noble cause, and followed the events of the early American Revolution closely. When American lawyer Silas Deane arrived in Paris, Lafayette approached him about a possible commission into the Continental Army. At age nineteen, Lafayette found himself commissioned as a major general in George Washington’s army on a boat crossing the Atlantic. He arrived in the future United States in direct defiance of the French king, who had decreed that French officers were not allowed to join the American cause to prevent potential problems with the British, regardless of his sympathies and secret financial support of the colonial cause.   An engraving of Lafayette’s wound at Brandywine by Charles Henry Jeans. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Lafayette offered to serve without pay, endearing him to the Continental Congress. He served under General George Washington, the commander of the entire army. The two would become incredibly close during the war, with Washington serving as a mentor and father figure to the young Marquis. He showed courage under fire during his first battle at Brandywine on September 11, 1777. He was shot in the leg and was treated by Washington’s personal physician. The wound healed and bolstered Lafayette’s reputation in America and back home in France.   After several more battles, Lafayette settled down for the winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, where he served as one of Washington’s aides-de-camp, along with Alexander Hamilton and John Laurens. Though his prestige and rank afforded him the opportunity for comfortable accommodations, Lafayette chose to suffer the harsh winter alongside his men, spending his own money to provide his men with much-needed weaponry, clothing, and provisions. His generosity during this winter earned him the nickname “The soldier’s friend.” He briefly left America to visit France in order to encourage the king to publicly support the American cause, returning with news that 6,000 French troops and six French Navy ships were on their way.   James Armistead Lafayette depicted on the Lafayette Monument. Source: Capt. Jay Ruffins / Wikimedia Commons   Lafayette also participated in espionage during the war. One of his enlisted troopers was a man named James Armistead, an enslaved man whose master supported the patriot cause and had granted him permission to serve in the army. Upon request from Lafayette, James posed as a runaway, becoming a servant for British General Cornwallis. James reported back to Lafayette and was responsible for obtaining a great deal of useful information that helped the American cause as the war reached its pinnacle. James would return to a life of slavery after the American Revolution. Upon learning of his former comrade’s status, Lafayette wrote a letter to Congress urging his friend’s manumission. James would finally be freed in 1787 and added “Lafayette” to his name as an homage to his supporter.   Hero of Two Worlds The Declaration of the Rights of Man depicted in oil paint. Source: Musee Carnavalet / Wikimedia Commons   After the American Revolution, Lafayette returned to France. In 1789, he wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a document that inspired the French Constitution. It would also assist in the launch of the French Revolution, but in the meantime, Lafayette worked on a number of human rights-related causes. He was aghast that America did not end slavery at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War and created proposals for gradual manumission. He even tested his theory by purchasing a Caribbean plantation on which he employed 70 former slaves. He paid them wages for their work, prohibited physical punishment, provided education, and allowed for time off. He was of the firm belief that measures such as this would prepare former slaves for life outside the plantation and allow them to integrate into society.   A painting depicting the storming of the Bastille in 1789. Source: Museum of the History of France / Wikimedia Commons   Appointed head of the National Guard, Lafayette tried to keep a moderate and neutral approach as France entered the revolution. He supported the ideas of the rebels but felt obligated to protect the king and other members of the nobility, people he was closely associated with throughout his life. In fact, his wife was close friends with Marie Antoinette.   Deaths by guillotine began as the French Revolution escalated in 1792. Some revolutionaries saw Lafayette as a traitor and called for his arrest. He decided to leave France for his own safety. He planned to escape to America but traveled through Austrian territory to do so. As France and Austria were at war at the time, he was captured on his journey and imprisoned. During his imprisonment, his money and holdings were confiscated, his wife jailed, and his children put into hiding. He suffered many days in solitary confinement until he was released in 1797. Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Austria and, as a condition of peace, freed the prisoners from Olmutz, where Lafayette was held. Eventually, Lafayette’s role in both revolutions led to his reputation as a “hero of two worlds.”   A Triumphant Return to America A bust of the Marquis by Pierre Joseph Chardigny. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art / Wikimedia Commons   In 1824, Lafayette made a return to America, touring every state over the course of the next year at the invitation of President James Monroe. America was delighted to see one of the last surviving important generals of the Revolutionary War, and his visit was celebrated with banquets, balls, and meetings with dignitaries. He spent time with many past and future presidents on the trip, including Thomas Jefferson. He became the first foreign dignitary to address a joint session of Congress before he returned home in 1825. After his tour, reported to be one of the happiest times of his life, Lafayette returned to his home in La Grange, France with his family.   Twilight Years The graves of Lafayette and Adrienne in Paris in 2013. Source: Delatude / Wikimedia Commons   France experienced another revolution, the July Revolution, in 1830, when Charles X was overthrown. Lafayette was offered a leadership role at this point but turned it down, remaining as head of the National Guard. Continuing to support causes that promoted democratic ideals, Lafayette lived the remainder of his life in relative peacefulness. He passed away at home on May 20, 1834, at the age of 76. His death came after several months of battling pneumonia. Soil from Bunker Hill in America was spread over his grave at the request of his son, who was named after George Washington. An American flag has flown over the grave since his death.

For those of you who like live legislative action to play from your TV or smartphone as background noise to whatever you're doing, I have bad news for you: The week of the long speeches is over. After the Senate's vote-a-rama on the One Big Beautiful Bill reconciliation spending plan...

Barack Obama’s Independence Day Message didn’t go down too well. The former president was blasted online following his ‘anti-American’ message on Friday In an attempt to threw shade at President Donald Trump, Obama said: “Independence [...] The post Obama Blasted Over ‘Anti American’ Independence Day Message appeared first on The People's Voice.

Watching this clip might make you feel like your workout routine needs some added oomph. No one knows what this squirrel is training for, but he is putting in the required effort. First, he does some general weightlifting. Squatting down, he performs an almost perfectly executed deadlift. Next, there are some jump maneuvers reminiscent of Bruce Lee. But then he switches it up and grabs the stick like a canoe paddle for some arm exercises. Maybe he is in a kayaking competition or preparing for a river rafting adventure. See if you can figure it out. @oh_momma14 Definitely fun to watch #kungfu #kungfusquirrel #training #funnymoments ♬ Eye of the Tiger – Survivor Squirrels are quite intelligent. Mechanical Engineer Mark Rober found this out when he tried to become a backyard bird watcher. Pesky squirrels kept outsmarting his “squirrel-proof” bird feeders. Thus was born the “Backyard Squirrel Maze 1.0- Ninja Warrior Course.” It did not take the animals long to master the obstacle course that was modeled after the human version of Ninja Warrior on TV. Although the videos are longer, they are fun to watch, so we highly recommend that you spend some time watching the Backyard Squirrels Series that Mark has compiled. Mark explains the science behind the construction of his squirrel obstacle courses. Although he does no actual squirrel training, the obstacle courses do a great job of on-the-job training. Since 2020, Mark has created three unique obstacle courses in his yard. The original Ninja Warrior course, The Walnut Heist, and The Summer Games. He has renamed the series The Backyard Squirrelympics. The Walnut Heist is loosely based on stunts from the movies Mission: Impossible and Ocean’s Eleven. Mark has named the four squirrels that call his yard home. Find more engineering projects with Mark on Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok. Please share. You can find the source of this story’s featured image here. The post We Don’t Know What This Squirrel Is Training For, But He’s Doing An Amazing Job! appeared first on InspireMore.

Sure, there are downsides that come with rural life — limited access to businesses and employment, for example. Still, for many people, a life out in the mountains is the dream. And Perry Vaile makes it easy to understand why that’s the case. On her social media account, she gives the world a glimpse at life in the Blue Ridge Mountains. One particularly popular video shows the time Perry sent her 7-year-old on a walk to grandma’s. The purpose of the trip? To get some much needed eggs and stamps. Well, that was part of the reason, anyway. This was also Mom’s way of giving her daughter a taste of responsibility and freedom. Check out this milestone moment in the delightful video below. @perryvaile If I gotta be my mom's landlord, at least we get free eggs and babysitting ♬ original sound – Headbangers Dan “If I gotta be my mom’s landlord,” Perry writes in the caption of her video, “at least we get free eggs and babysitting.” This 7-Year-Old’s Walk to Grandma’s for Eggs and Stamps is Like a Moment Straight Out of the 1920s Needless to say, folks are raving over Perry’s charming life. While she and her immediate family live far from most people, Grandma is just down the road. But that’s not all! Perry actually does have some faraway neighbors, and they’re willing to lend each other a hand whenever possible. The video below gives us a great (and adorable) example! @perryvaile Felt like the weirdest dog walking experience ever I'm so happy these babies finally made it to the the promised land ♬ My Little Pony Theme Song (Extended Version) – Twilight Sparkle & Pinkie Pie & Rainbow Dash & Fluttershy & Rarity & Applejack & My Little Pony “Felt like the weirdest dog walking experience ever,” Perry shares. “I’m so happy these babies finally made it to the the promised land.” Both videos highlight a reason people adore rural life. They may be far away from the general population, but oftentimes, they are far from alone. When people are willing to help their neighbors like this, life out in the mountains really can be a dream, it seems! You can find the source of this story’s featured image here! The post “Sending My 7-Yr-Old Out On Her Own To Walk To Her Grandma’s For Eggs And Stamps Like It’s 1925” appeared first on InspireMore.

This content is for members only. Visit the site and log in/register to read. The post The Mуsterу of the ‘Copper-Like Plate’ Found at the 1967 UFO Landing Site appeared first on Anomalien.com.

A capsule created by German aerospace startup The Exploration Company crash-landed in the ocean with a payload that included human remains and cannabis seeds.