Sennacherib was an Assyrian king who reigned from 705 to 681 BCE. He was known for consolidating and expanding the Neo-Assyrian Empire. In the biblical narrative, he invaded Judah during the reign of King Hezekiah in 701 BCE, capturing many fortified cities and eventually laying siege to Jerusalem. The siege ends with one of the most fascinating divine interventions in the Old Testament. According to the Bible, the angel of the Lord struck down 185,000 soldiers of the Assyrian army in one night. Sennacherib had to return to Nineveh to recover from the devastating loss.   Life and Reign of Sennacherib Cast of a rock relief of Sennacherib from the foot of Cudi Dağı, near Cizre. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sennacherib was born to the King of Assyria, Sargon II. Sargon expanded the Assyrian Empire of his day, and Sennacherib continued that legacy when he became king upon Sargon II’s death in battle in 705 BCE. He immediately faced a rebellion from nations his father had subdued, such as Babylon and several nations from the Levant.   Babylon was a strategically important city to control due to its cultural and economic significance. The Esagila, a temple in honor of Marduk, the primary god of the Babylonians, was located in the city, and Babylon was an important trade hub located on vital trade routes.   Merodach-Baladan (Marduk-apla-iddina II) led the rebellion in Babylon. Initially a local chieftain, he took the Babylonian throne. He allied with Elam and stirred the revolt against Assyrian control. At the Battle of Cutha and Kish in 703 BCE, Sennacherib defeated a Babylonian-Elamite coalition that saw Merodach-Baladan flee into hiding. Sennacherib installed Bel-ibni in his place and plundered the city of Babylon’s wealth.   About a decade later, Merodach-Baladan reappeared and took the city, again with the help of Elam. Sennacherib replied with a two-pronged response. On the one hand, he launched naval attacks against Elam’s coastal strongholds to interrupt their support, and on the other, he engaged with Chaldean rebels in the marchlands. This was a grueling and slow process that lasted for years. Sennacherib grew frustrated at the protracted campaign and decided to attack Babylon itself.   After a long siege, Sennacherib’s forces breached the defenses of Babylon and desecrated the sacred sites in the city, such as Esagila, the temple of Marduk. He also diverted the water of the Euphrates to flood the city. The survivors were enslaved or relocated to depopulate Babylon further and break down its social structure.   Sennacherib’s actions were frowned upon even by the Assyrians, who shared the Mesopotamian heritage reflected in Babylon and revered the city as a cultural and religious capital. The desecration of sacred sites in Babylon alienated many Assyrians who feared divine disfavor and fueled anti-Assyrian sentiments among many other nations. Many sources portray Sennacherib as a tyrant.   Sennacherib’s Invasion of the Levant Kudurru of the Babylonian king Marduk-apla-idinna II/Merodach-baladan. Vorderasiatisches Museum (Near East Museum), Berlin. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Like in Babylon, a rebellion broke out in the Levant when Sargon II died, and the Levantine nations sought to shed the Assyrian yoke. In 701 BCE, Sennacherib launched a campaign into the Levant to subdue several uprisings and revolts. Among these nations were Tyre, Sidon, and Judah, who formed a coalition to ward off the Assyrians.   Sennacherib quickly subdued many Phoenician cities, like Sidon, and towns on the north-western coast of the Levant. As they conquered, the Assyrians installed rulers loyal to them. The campaign moved south to confront armies of Philistine cities like Ekron. Since the Levant served as a buffer zone between Egypt and Assyria, it is unsurprising that Egypt entered the conflict. Sennacherib won the Battle of Eltekeh by defeating a combined rebel and Egyptian force. The Assyrians restored King Padi to the throne, who was deposed when rebel factions took the city. Other cities in Philistia, like Ashkelon and Gaza, also fell to Sennacherib and secured that region for the Assyrians.   Map of Israel and Judah, 9th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Judah seems to have been the heart of the rebellion. Here, many fortified cities fell to the Assyrians, with Lachish being the most notable. It was the second largest city in Judah, which is why it features prominently in reliefs in Nineveh. These reliefs show siege ramps, battering rams, and the mass deportations that followed. Excavations at Tel Lachish confirmed the onslaught when archaeologists uncovered ramparts, arrowheads, and a destruction layer consistent with a date of 701 BCE.   Sennacherib advanced his armies to Jerusalem and laid siege to the city, demanding that King Hezekiah surrender. The Taylor Prism describes Hezekiah as “shut up like a bird in a cage” as Assyrian forces encircled the city and cut off supplies. To prevent death and destruction, Hezekiah paid a large tribute of 30 talents of gold and 300 talents of silver (2 Kings 18:14). Assyrian records claim the tribute was 800 talents of silver. Threats against the city continued despite the tribute.   This relief depicts a man, 2 women, and 2 (male and female) children being deported with their household belongings after the sack of Lachish, 700-692 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   According to the biblical narrative, the angel of the Lord killed 185,000 Assyrian soldiers gathered around Jerusalem. The Assyrian record is silent, not confirming or denying the capture of Jerusalem. If the Assyrians conquered Jerusalem, it would have been recorded in the Assyrian records as an achievement of Sennacherib. Like many kingdoms in antiquity, records often omit embarrassing events or losses. It suggests that the Assyrian forces withdrew from Jerusalem and returned to Nineveh.   The Assyrian campaign into the Levant was successful. It brought many cities in the Levant back under Assyrian control and took many riches and people to Assyria as loot. Assyrian forces did not take Jerusalem, but Judah became a vassal state.   The Bible portrays the survival of Jerusalem as a humbling experience for the aggressor, Sennacherib. The narrative attributes the event to divine intervention, and it shaped Judeo-Christian theology many years later.   Egyptian involvement in some of the clashes foreshadowed the Egyptian-Assyrian conflict at a later date. The Bible mentions that Josiah, one of the greatest reformer-kings of Judah, died at the hands of Pharaoh Necho when he traversed through Judea to do battle with Assyrian forces.   Archaeological Evidence for Sennacherib Cast of a rock relief of Sennacherib from the foot of Cudi Dağı, near Cizre. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Bavian Inscription, a record by Sennacherib, recorded the destruction of Babylon and presented it as divine retribution for their defiance. In addition, Assyrian sources, including the Taylor Prism and palace reliefs at Nineveh, which depict his southern conquests, testify to Sennacherib’s campaigns. Layers of destruction in Babylon dated to around 689 BCE align with events described in some records.   The Taylor Prism is a six-sided clay record of Sennacherib’s first eight military campaigns. The artifact includes accounts of Sennacherib’s invasion of Judah. It details the conquest of several cities and the siege of Jerusalem. Like some Egyptian records, it omits embarrassing events and losses that would cast the Assyrians in a bad light.   Many tablet inscriptions and cylinders record the Assyrian invasions of Elam, Chaldea, and the Levant consistent with Sennacherib’s reign. These records often reflect imperial propaganda. Many other palace reliefs and artworks from the time show sieges, battles, and royal imagery that boast of the extent and success of Sennacherib’s rule.   Excavations in Nineveh show the grandeur of the “palace without rival,” city walls and gates, irrigation systems, and other features that reflect the upgrades and transformation Sennacherib’s construction efforts contributed to the city infrastructure.   Archaeological evidence attests to the military campaigns Sennacherib launched on Lachish, Jerusalem, Babylon, and other cities in southern Mesopotamia. The Esarhaddon’s Records confirm that Sennacherib was assassinated in 681 BCE by one or more of his sons. Some records from Nineveh contain evidence of succession disputes among the sons of Sennacherib, supporting Esarhaddon’s version of events.   Sennacherib’s Legacy The Monuments of Nineveh, from a sketch by James Fergusson, 1853. Source: Royal Academy of Arts   Sennacherib’s legacy is one of military power and imperial expansion. Under his rule, military advancements in equipment and new tactics were implemented. Though he had great successes, he had losses as well, as is evidenced by the failed siege of Jerusalem.   Under Sennacherib, Nineveh’s infrastructure was upgraded and increased. Nineveh became an imperial hub with examples of contemporary innovation in engineering and urban planning, with art being used as state propaganda.   One consequence of Sennacherib’s campaigns was the development of a robust administrative system. The system saw money extracted from subdued nations in the form of taxes to bolster the Assyrian economy. It also managed relations with vassals, and deported people to reshape demographics and prevent rebellion by changing societal structures and controlling labor. The coercive nature of these actions left a negative impression of his rule that spurred unrest among many subservient nations.   The desecration of the temple of Marduk was offensive in the minds of most Mesopotamians. Fear of divine retribution spread among the Assyrians. This act of removing the statue of Marduk from Esagila had a negative influence on how Mesopotamians viewed Sennacherib’s reign.   Though Assyrian records present him as a divinely ordained heroic conqueror, builder, and ruler, later Babylonian records reflect on Sennacherib as a villain and blasphemous oppressor. Sennacherib’s legacy depends on the perspective of the critic who considers his life and rule. What is not subject to perspective is that he had a significant impact on shaping the Mesopotamian world and the Levant during the late 8th and early 7th century BCE.

  Emerging in the context of Henry VIII’s English Reformation, the Puritans, a loosely knit community of English protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries, believed that the Church of England preserved too many remnants of Roman Catholicism. They sought more radical reform – a ‘purified’ biblically governed community that reflected the scriptural principles of ‘true’ religion. Faced with persecution in England, many Puritans sought religious freedom in the ‘New World’, where they founded colonies that deeply influenced the political and cultural foundations of the future United States.   Puritan Beginnings The Puritans in Conference with King James I of England, Source: Wikimedia Commons   In 17th-century England, church and state were inseparable: membership of the Church of England was compulsory. Attendance at Sunday services was legally enforced. Church courts exercised authority over moral and religious conduct, punishing offenses such as adultery, blasphemy, or failure to pay church tithes with public penance or excommunication (Hill, 1982).   The roots of Puritanism trace back to the 1520s, in the context of growing radicalism following Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church. Unhappy with the Church of England, most Puritans sought to reform from within, rather than break from it. In this regard, they first emerged as a movement attempting to “purify” the church of residual Catholic “idolatry” – rejecting the continuation of ecclesiastical hierarchy, clerical vestments, and sacred images (Hall, 2019).    Puritans pushed for a simpler, scripture-based mode of worship. They aimed to ‘complete’ the reformation by abolishing hierarchical church structures and promoting lay control (Hill, 1982). Their vision was of a church and society ruled not by monarchs or clerics but by the direct biblical authority of God’s word.   What Is Puritanism? Puritans, in John Cassell’s Illustrated History of England, Volume 3, 1865, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite its profound historical impact, Puritanism is a ‘problem’ insofar as it defies precise definition. Scholars have variously described it as a religious, cultural, and political movement (Van Engen, 2013).   Lacking a unified doctrine, Puritanism was unified instead by shared values and core convictions: strict personal discipline, deep engagement with scripture, and the idea of life as a divine calling. They shared a commitment to reading and studying the Bible, attending sermons, and observing the Sabbath. The bible was treated as divine “law” (Hall, 2019).    The Puritans emphasised a “double calling” – one to divide service to God and the other to their worldly vocation, in the service of God. Faith was not limited to Sunday worship but lived out daily – through strict religious observance, disciplined moral conduct, and the banding together of the godly.    Thus, Puritanism functioned less as a denominational creed and more as an all-pervasive religious sensibility rooted in Reformed-style Protestantism.    Everyday Puritan Beliefs Depiction of a Puritan family, 16th century. Source: Britannica   Puritanism, then, was very much a ‘living faith’ anchored in a covenantal, personal relationship with God. This covenant demanded intense personal piety, strict moral discipline, and total obedience to God.    Central to Puritan theology was the practice of a version of Calvinist predestinarianism – the idea that God had eternally predetermined who would be saved or damned, irrespective of human efforts or merit. The concept of predestination fueled intense inward scrutiny among Puritan believers, as strict moral behavior and religious zeal became outward signs of divine election.    Portrait of John Calvin reading, 16th century, Source: University of Toronto Library   In this regard, the Puritan family became the nucleus of Godly society. Marriage was considered sacred, albeit with husbands as the spiritual head of the household. Wives, by contrast, were expected to show religious faith through obedience, managing the home, and piously raising children.   Beyond the family, Puritans sought to organize society according to biblical principles. They believed the government should propagate and uphold ‘true’ religion, and that scripture should influence law, politics, and public life. Their ultimate aspiration, in this regard, was the formation of a divinely ordered society – set apart from the corruption and sin of the world Cust & Hughes, 1989).   Puritans in America Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by William Halsall, 1882. Source: Wikipedia   In the early 17th century, facing religious persecution in England, many Puritans sought refuge abroad and a place where they could practice their faith freely. In 1608, a small group of separatist Congregationalists from northern England fled to the Netherlands. Then, in 1620, 102 separatists, later known as the Pilgrims, crossed the Atlantic on the Mayflower and founded the Plymouth Colony in present-day Massachusetts.   In 1630, a fleet led by John Winthrop brought around 700 Puritans to North America, laying the foundations of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next decade, approximately 20,000 more followed. Almost all those who migrated to America from England shared a common Calvinist theology and the vision of building a godly society without compromise.   Thanksgiving at Plymouth, Jennie Augusta Brownscombe, 1925. Source: National Museum of Women in the Arts, New York   Puritan life in America emphasized religious discipline, education, and communal responsibility. Schools were established to promote biblical literacy, and in 1636, Harvard College was founded to train ministers and religious scholars. The family was central to moral instruction and social order. Over time, the Puritans of New England collectively laid the foundations of American cultural identity itself –  from the vision of a divinely ordered society, to individual responsibility and the enduring belief in the redemptive power of hard work.    The Decline of Puritanism? The First Baptist Church, Providence, Rhode Island. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By the mid-18th century, traditional Puritanism had largely fragmented, giving rise to a wide range of Protestant denominations. Some of the movement’s more radical theological elements – such as strict predestinarianism – faded from prominence. Yet many core Puritan persisted and lived on within new religious and cultural contexts.    Today, modern Evangelical denominations – from Baptists to Quakers – continue to emphasize many Puritan ideals, from Biblical literalism and the supreme authority of scripture, to the importance of inner piety and belief in divine calling. Similarly, modern Congregationalist churches continue the early Puritan emphasis on local church autonomy and pursuit of lay leadership – free from the outside influence of higher authorities.   Beyond theology, the broader cultural influence of Puritanism has been profound. In particular, the Puritan emphasis on hard work, discipline, and self-reliance – sometimes referred to as the “Protestant ethic” – remains deeply embedded in the modern ‘West.’  In this regard, though the Puritan movement itself waned, its imprint continues to shape religious and civic life across the modern world.    Bibliography   Cust, R. and Hughes, A. (eds.) (1989) Conflict in early Stuart England: Studies in religion and politics 1603–1642. London: Longman.   Hall, D.D. (2019) Puritans: A transnational history. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.   Hill, C. (1982) Religion and democracy in the Puritan Revolution, Available at: https://democracyjournalarchive.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/hill_religion-and-democracy-in-the-puritan-revolution-democracy-2-2_-apr-1982.pdf    Van Engen, A. (2013) ‘Puritanism’, Oxford Bibliographies Online. Available at: https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0198.xml 

  Under Emperor Constantine’s rule and within a half-century afterward, Christianity experienced significant changes. It went from a persecuted religion to becoming the state religion of the Roman Empire. This change was largely attributable to Constantine, a fierce defender of the Christian faith and a patron contributing to its expansion and preservation. Many scholars, however, point out that his influence also allowed some pagan practices to enter the Christian faith. Some even doubt the authenticity of his conversion.   Constantine the Great Statue of Constantine the Great in York, United Kingdom. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Flavius Valerius Constantinus was born around 272 CE in Naissus (modern-day Niš, Serbia). His father was a military officer who later became one of the four tetrarchs of Rome and served Caesar as ruler of the western part of the empire. His mother, Helena, became a prominent Christian figure.   Constantine learned much about politics and governance from his father. When his father passed away in 306 CE, his troops in York proclaimed Constantine Emperor. After a civil war against his brother-in-law, Maxentius, Constantine became the undisputed emperor of the West.   The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, which saw Constantine defeat Maxentius, marked a significant change in the political career of Constantine and the transformation of religion in the Roman Empire. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, a renowned historian, Constantine saw a vision before the battle. During the vision, he saw a sign and the words “In this sign, you shall conquer.” Many claim this event marked Constantine’s conversion. He had his soldiers paint the Chi-Rho sign on their shields before the battle. Once they were victorious, they considered their success a sign of God’s favor.   Equestrian statue of Constantine the Great, by Francesco Faraone Aquila, after Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1690-1740. Source: The Met, New York   Constantine was a shrewd politician, and some scholars doubt the sincerity and timing of his conversion. Some historians believe his conversion was much more gradual, partly due to his late baptism, which happened shortly before he died in 337 CE. Other scholars are convinced Constantine used Christianity as a unifying force for political gain, and never truly embraced the faith. Whichever it was, the effects on Christianity were undeniable.   Constantine’s support for Christianity was a radical departure from the attitudes of prior emperors, especially Diocletian, who ferociously persecuted Christians. Constantine saw the atrocities that Diocletian committed against Christians as a young man. As the new emperor, Constantine had a fresh approach, and it showed in his policies.   Edict of Milan and Council of Nicaea Battle of Constantine and Maxentius, by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano, 1650. Source: University of Edinburgh   Constantine, ruler of the Western Roman Empire, met with Licinius, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, in Milan in 313 CE. Together, they issued the Edict of Milan, which granted legal status to the Christian religion, allowing them to practice their faith openly without fear of persecution.   The edict did not just legalize Christianity and end state-sponsored persecution, it also gave the faith protected status throughout both empires. Christianity, which was often practiced in secret, could now come out of the shadows and promote its tenets far and wide. Sacred manuscripts, ideas, and convictions were freely shared and debated, making it easier to determine a canon for the Bible and resolve theological disputes.   Christians reclaimed confiscated property, built churches, and organized openly. The edict provided the legal framework for Christianity to flourish and expand rapidly, and it had a profound impact on Christianity.   Licinius, however, started persecuting Christians again in 320 CE, and a civil war followed. Constantine emerged victorious and now ruled a unified Roman Empire. The reunification happened under the banner of Christianity, and Constantine ascribed his success to being an instrument in the hands of God.   The newfound freedom to practice the Christian faith came with challenges, with the Arian Controversy being one of the most significant at the time. Arius of Alexandria taught that Jesus was a created being, subordinate to God the Father. Most of Christianity held the orthodox view, which promoted three co-equal persons in the Godhead.   To resolve the problem, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. It was the first of many ecumenical councils that would follow. Approximately 300 bishops attended. Constantine was not a theologian but facilitated discussions, urging the attendees to reach a consensus.   Constantine the Great, between 272 and 337 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The council produced the Nicene Creed, a statement of faith that affirmed the divinity of Christ and rejected Arianism. This creed became a cornerstone of the Christian faith, and Constantine played a significant role in the process. Though he likely had spiritual and political motives, his commitment to Christian unity was clear. Christianity served as a stabilizing force in an empire that was plagued by division.   Unfortunately, the emperor’s involvement in ecclesiastical matters set the stage for future state-church relations that would cause much strife in later centuries. The abuses of intertwined church-state relationships in Europe would result in a commitment to the separation of church and state in America that is codified in the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States.   Constantine’s Policies, Patronage, and Paganism The Baptism of Constantine, by the School of Raphael, 1524. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Constantine renamed the city of Byzantium, “New Rome,” although it was soon known as Constantinople. He envisioned this New Rome as a Christian city free from the pagan history and traditions of Rome. He had the Hagia Sophia built, along with many other Christian churches, establishing the Roman capital as a Christian city that would become a bastion of Christian scholarship and ecclesiastical authority.   The shift eastward eventually resulted in the establishment of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It also ensured that Christianity would be a strong force in political and cultural life in the empire. His influence stretched far beyond Constantinople as he involved himself with construction projects significant to Christianity, like the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where Jesus was supposedly buried, and the Old St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.   In other politically expedient acts, he promoted Christians to powerful government positions and exempted the clergy from taxes. Faith became an integral part of the power structure in his empire.   The Edict of Milan ensured the free exercise of religion to more than just Christianity. Pagan worship could continue for the most part, but Constantine limited certain pagan practices, such as animal sacrifices. He showed preference by channeling resources toward Christian institutions.   Constantine’s policies struck a strategic compromise between alienating the majority pagan populace and promoting Christianity. His gradual approach to religious change showed that he was a pragmatist and knew how to change in a politically sensitive environment. The switch from pagan religion to Christian prominence during his reign is undeniable. His policies laid the foundation for the recognition of Christianity as the official state religion of the Roman Empire.   Was Constantine a Christian? Rebuilt Hagia Sophia, Constantine had the original constructed, Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The debate on whether Constantine truly converted to Christianity or whether the Christian faith merely served as a tool in the hands of a crafty politician continues. The importance of baptism in the forgiveness of sins was already a widely held view in Constantine’s day, yet he waited until shortly before his death in 337 CE to receive the sacrament. Though many believe Constantine converted in 312 CE, he retained and used the title Pontifex Maximus, which identified him as the high priest of the pagan state religion.   On the other hand, his actions to legalize Christianity, convene and facilitate councils to hash out doctrinal issues, and construction projects to build churches to expand and preserve the Christian faith show a commitment. His reign transformed Christianity from a persecuted sect to a state-supported religion and set the stage for it to become the state religion less than half a century after his death.   Constantine had a peculiar relationship with religion. Eusebius recorded that Constantine, on occasion, refused to take part in pagan festivities, not wanting “to be polluted by the rites of demon-worship” (Vita Constantini, IV.20). This enraged the pagan population in Rome. Around the same time, Constantine also had his wife and son executed for treason.   The chi-rho adopted by Constantine. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Christians enjoyed freedom, Constantine persecuted Jews. These persecutions were not violent like those of previous emperors. Rather, they were discriminatory laws that prohibited Jews from certain practices.   Evaluating the sources that recorded Constantine’s reign, it is prudent to note that much of it may have been state propaganda, while other parts are likely the perspectives of his political enemies. Such sources tend to render history slanted and do not necessarily reflect the true nature of events.   Be that as it may, Constantine’s influence on Christianity reverberates throughout history. His influence in elevating the faith from sectarian roots to the preferred religion of the empire cannot be refuted. He elevated Christianity to a level that would see it influence world events for centuries afterward.   Eusebius, Constantine’s biographer, was convinced of the emperor’s conversion and authentic acceptance of the precepts of Christianity. Today, historians and Christian scholars remain divided on the matter. One thing no one denies is the indelible mark Constantine left on Christianity.

  In ancient Greek mythology, Helios was the embodiment of the sun and drove across the sky every day in his golden chariot, creating the day-night cycle. As the god of the sun, Helios was also associated with light, life, and truth. From his place high in the sky, he was said to see and hear everything his light touched. While he was a major cosmic force, Helios had very few temples across the Greek world compared with other gods. Over the centuries, he came to be increasingly identified with Apollo, who eventually overshadowed him completely in the Greek world.   Centers of Worship for Helios Colossus of Rhodes, print by Crispijn de Passe the Elder, after Maarten de Vos, c. 1614 CE. Source: British Museum, London   Helios was worshiped throughout the Greek world, but his cult was less prominent than other Greek gods. In Athens, his priests were part of the harvest festival dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, owing to his role in the growth of crops. Yet, the ancient Greeks seem almost to have been neglectful of the god.   In Aristophanes’ play Peace, Helios and his sister Selene are represented as outsiders among the pantheon. This attitude was, in part, a repudiation of the Persians, who practiced a more naturalistic form of religion. Their main deities were those of the sun and moon, as opposed to the Greek pantheon, which was anthropomorphic in nature.   “Know then, that the Moon and that infamous Sun are plotting against you, and want to deliver Greece into the hands of the barbarians. […] Because it is to you that we sacrifice, whereas the barbarians worship them; hence they would like to see you destroyed, that they alone might receive the offerings.” (406-413)   Helios Rising in his Chariot, attributed to the Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   However, there was a prominent center of worship for the sun god on the island of Rhodes. Helios was the patron deity of the island and was said to be the progenitor god of the Rhodians. Their coins were minted with his likeness. They also built a massive statue in the god’s image, the Colossus of Rhodes, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Unfortunately, it was toppled by an earthquake 66 years after its construction. An oracle told the Rhodians not to reconstruct it, but even in ruins, it was considered a wonder. In Rhodes, they also celebrated a festival to Helios called the Halieia. The festival was celebrated around the temple to the god, where horse and chariot races were held.   Appearance & Iconography Helios Riding in his Quadriga, attributed to the Stuttgart Group, c. 320 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   The Homeric Hymn to Helios provides the main literary description of the god. In it, he wore a golden helmet, and bright rays of light shone from him. He had golden hair that framed his face, and his clothes glowed and fluttered in the wind. His chariot was also golden and pulled by a team of four stallions.   There were rarely any sculptures of Helios, except for the Colossus of Rhodes, so most images of him come from vase paintings. Helios was typically depicted with a radiant halo or disc above or behind his head. He was also commonly shown riding his four-horse chariot out of the sea, from where he was said to rise every morning.   One of the few examples of a sculpture of Helios was on the east pediment of the Parthenon. There, Helios was located on the left side of the pediment, in the corner, coming out of the sea with four horses carved almost in the round. Although not much of the actual sculpture survives, the iconography of a chariot emerging from the sea is unmistakable, identifying it as Helios.   Helios’ Family Helios Rising from the Waves, attributed to the Gela Painter, c. 510-490 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   According to the 7th century BCE poet Hesiod, Helios was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. He was one of three siblings, the others being Selene, goddess of the moon, and Eos, goddess of the dawn. Together, the three were said to shine their light upon all those on earth and the gods in heaven.   Helios had several children, the most notable of which were his son Phaethon and his daughters Circe and Pasiphae. Circe was featured in the Odyssey as the lone inhabitant of the island of Aiaia. She aided Odysseus by offering him guidance to get past the monstrous Scylla and Charybdis. She also warned him about his inevitable landing on the island of Thranicia, telling him not to eat the cattle he found there.   Pasiphae was the wife of King Minos and the mother of the Minotaur. Helios also had some children who were kings of various cities, although they were of lesser importance in the greater mythological tradition. All of Helios’ children were easily identifiable because they were said to have golden, flashing eyes just like their father.   Helios in Greek Mythology Helios and Demeter, attributed to the Tarentum Group, c. 310 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   Helios’ track across the sky, creating the day-night cycle, was his main purpose in mythology. He had a palace in the east, where he started his journey, as well as one in the west, where he finished. He then traveled the ocean in a golden cup to reach his palace in the east and begin the cycle again.   Helios plays only a minor role in various Greek myths. His light was said to shine upon everything, which led to the idea that he was witness to everything. In the story of Ares and Aphrodite’s affair, Helios was the one who saw the infidelity and told Hephaestus about it. He was also witness to Hades’ abduction of Persephone. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, when Demeter came asking after her daughter, Helios told her what happened and tried, poorly, to console her.   “Yet, goddess, cease your loud lament and keep not vain anger unrelentingly: Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells.” (82-87)   Les Travaux d’Ulysse, print by Theodoor van Thulden, after Francesco Primaticcio and Niccolò dell’Abbate, c. 1633 CE. Source: British Museum, London   A common theme associated with Helios’ role in mythology revolves around his cattle. The Gigantomachy, a war between the Olympians and the Giants that took place after the Titans had been defeated, began when the giant Alcyoneus stole Helios’ cattle. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus and his crew land on Thranicia, the island where the god kept his cattle. Odysseus was warned not to eat the cattle, but when poor weather waylaid their journey home and his men started starving, they slaughtered the cattle and ate them. Helios reported the incident to Zeus, and when Odysseus and his men were finally able to sail off the island, Zeus struck their ship with a thunderbolt, killing everyone except for Odysseus.   The most prominent myth associated with Helios pertained to his son, Phaethon. He convinced his father to let him drive the chariot he used to cross the sky for a day, but he wasn’t able to keep control of the horses, who left their usual path. They first passed through the heavens, setting it ablaze, and created the Milky Way. After, they galloped down towards the earth, setting the lands on fire. Zeus stopped the chariot by killing Phaethon with a thunderbolt. Phaethon fell to the earth, landing in the Eridanus river, which is today the Po river.   Helios Versus Apollo Apollo, by Hendrick Goltzius, c. 1588 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   By the Hellenistic period, Apollo had taken over many of the roles traditionally ascribed to Helios, to the point where Apollo completely overtook Helios in the role of sun god. Apollo was much more prominent after Alexander the Great’s conquests in the 4th century BCE. However, there is evidence that this was already happening in the 5th century and possibly even as early as the 6th century BCE. By the Roman era, Apollo had fully subsumed Helios’ place as sun god, as proven by Ovid’s version of the myth of Phaethon, where he was Apollo’s son instead of Helios’.   An early connection between Apollo and the sun comes from the 5th-century BCE tragedian Aeschylus. In The Seven Against Thebes, the playwright described the underworld as a sunless place “where Apollo does not walk.” Similarly, in the Odyssey, when Helios complained to Zeus that Odysseus and his crew had slaughtered his cattle, he threatened Zeus that he would descend into the underworld and shine upon the dead, implying that the underworld is a place he does not frequent. Clearly, in Aeschylus’ mind, and likely in the mind of the audience, there was a connection between the two deities to the point where they were interchangeable.   In one of Aeschylus’ lost plays titled The Bassarai, the general plot of which was recounted in Eratosthenes’ Catasterisms, the Thracian hero Orpheus stopped worshiping Dionysus for Helios, “whom he also called Apollo,” calling him the greatest of the gods. Here, there is an outright identification of Apollo as Helios.   Metope of Helios Riding his Quadriga, from the Temple of Athena in Ilion, c. 300-280 BCE. Source: State Museums of Berlin, Berlin   The story of Hermes’ birth also borrows certain tropes from the myths of Helios. Recounted in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the newborn Hermes raided the cattle of Apollo and hid them away in a cave in Pylos. There are parallel stories concerning cattle being driven to Pylos. During Heracles’ labor to drive off the Geryon cattle, he traveled to Erytheia, a land in the west where Helios was said to keep his cattle, using the cup that Helios used to travel the ocean at the end of his path through the sky. These cattle were then stolen from him by Neleus and driven to Pylos, where they were kept in a nearby cave. Neleus’ son Nestor also stole cattle from a descendant of Helios who ruled in Elis, driving them to the same cave in Pylos.   With this connection between Pylos and the cattle of the sun, we can infer Hermes’ theft of Apollo’s cattle belongs to this same tradition of theft of the cattle of the sun. Given that the Hymn expressly differentiates Apollo and Helios, it is likely that Apollo already possessed some identification with the sun, and thus, artists and poets could freely interchange the two to suit their needs.   Influence on Later Culture Silver Disc with the Head of Helios, Hellenistic, c. 5th-2nd century BCE. Source: British Museum, London   Helios’ direct parallel in Roman culture was the god Sol, also known as Sol Invictus, the invincible sun. Sol shared the same iconography as Helios, with a solar disc around his head and riding in a four-horse chariot. However, even among the Romans, there was a tendency to equate Sol with Apollo. By the late Empire, the cult of Sol Invictus was the preeminent cult of Rome. It was only when the emperor Constantine had a vision of the Christian god and converted to Christianity that the imperial religion began to shift.   Christianity adopted many features of the cult of Sol Invictus, such as the halo, which is still used in many Christian images to depict divinity. The date of Christmas, December 25, can also be linked with Sol. This date was originally a celebration feast for Sol Invictus, placed on the winter solstice as the turning point in the year when the days begin to lengthen. Christ gradually subsumed the role of Sol Invictus in the state religion.   References   Bilić, T. (2021) “Early Identifications of Apollo with the Physical Sun in Ancient Greece: Tradition and Interpretation,” Mnemosyne, 74(5), 709–736.   Arnold, I. R. (1936) “Festivals of Rhodes,” American Journal of Archaeology, 40(4), 432–436.   Jeffrey M. Hurwit. (2017) “Helios Rising: The Sun, the Moon, and the Sea in the Sculptures of the Parthenon,” American Journal of Archaeology, 121(4), 527–558.   Segal, C. (1992) “Divine Justice in the Odyssey: Poseidon, Cyclops, and Helios,” The American Journal of Philology, 113(4), 489–518.

  To say that religion shaped everyday life in the Middle Ages would be an understatement. In fact, it was so important that not going to church once a week was simply not an option. There were multiple church services throughout the day, let alone the week, and Medieval religion provided answers where science and facts could not. Was it a bad harvest due to the climate or God’s wrath at the sinners, who needed to repent? Was England going to war to do God’s work for Him? Read on to discover just how important religion was to shaping everyday life in the Middle Ages.   The Impact of Religion on Medieval Social Structures Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, from Livre des Passeges d’Outre-mer, c. 1474. Source: Galicia Digital Library   In medieval Europe, the most powerful organization was by far and away the Church.   In Western Europe, the Church in question, up until the Reformation movement, was the Catholic Church, and the Pope was God’s representative on Earth. What the Pope said, the Church followed through with, as he was God’s representative.   The Middle Ages saw some of the most powerful Popes in history emerge, from Urban II, who called for the First Crusade, to Innocent III, who expelled monarchs left, right, and center, and became one of the most famous and powerful men of the Middle Ages.   However, it was not just the election of the Pope that handed power to the Papal States and beyond—it was the word of the Church which decided how people were to act lawfully. Even bad harvests could be blamed on God’s wrath at a lazy populace, for instance, or, in the case of the English famine of 1315-17, the Church claimed that God was angry at King Edward II’s alleged homosexuality, and the fact that England had lost key battles against the Scots.   The Church dictated life and medieval social structures at a very precise level during the Middle Ages. There were certain times of day to pray, to eat, and more, and this applied even to those outside of religious organizations such as monasteries.   The social structure side of things was also hugely important in the medieval world: kings, powerful lords, knights, clergymen, landowners, peasants. The members of the clergy stood fairly high in medieval standards, so aspiring to become a clergyman—or a man of the Church—was seen as a very positive career choice.   Religion and Charity in the Middle Ages St Lucy giving alms, by Giovanni di Bartolommeo Cristiani, 14th century. Source: The Met, New York   The Church, and religion in general, has always gone hand-in-hand with charity and welfare, and in the Middle Ages, this was no different.   The Church was to give alms (or charity) to those less fortunate, and because it was the most powerful organization on the continent in medieval Europe, it was also the richest.   Charity started at home, or in most cases, in the Church itself. As such, despite the majority of the population being classed as peasants, many did not receive the adequate welfare that they could have received.   However, this is not to dismiss the huge efforts that the Church did partake in when it came to charity in the Middle Ages. While “poorhouses” were more of a Victorian institution, the answer to poverty in the Middle Ages was based around hospitals.   One of the best examples of this was the Knights Hospitaller, founded in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century, before moving to Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta later in the Middle Ages.   The Knights Hospitaller was founded as part of the Cluniac Movement, a series of moves by the Church to go back to their roots of looking after the poor and providing charity to those who needed it. This was a hugely popular organization, and it is still looked back upon fondly to this day.   Religious Education in Medieval Europe Riveaulx Abbey, North Yorkshire, the first Cistercian monastery in the North of England. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For those who were fortunate enough to receive an education in the Middle Ages, the primary theme was not geography, mathematics, or foreign languages as we might expect in modern-day schools, but rather, religion.   The same applied even to members of European royal families, such as would-be princes and kings, who received a strong Biblical education so that they could learn their morals and religious teachings from the Bible.   Other lessons were taught alongside religion, but religion was the main focus. In organizations such as monasteries, reading and writing were taught. Monks often made copies of religious texts or the Bible, as they were educated enough to do so.   Even for those who could not afford to receive a formal education, such as peasants or serfs, they would still learn about religion through the everyday activities of their trades or through the Church.   Carpentry was Jesus’s profession, and stories about Jesus would be told to carpenters, for example. Knowing about Jesus’s stories and miracles was a key part of everyday life and a form of education.   Spiritual Guidance Through Organized Religion in the Middle Ages Medieval depiction of Creation in Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the primary jobs of the Church since its inception has been spiritual guidance. And due to Christianity being the primary religion in medieval Europe, there was little room for other faiths in general.   Perhaps the biggest form of spiritual guidance that the medieval Church offered was an understanding of being—how people lived where they did, and why they had been put on this Earth to serve God.   Teachings about the afterlife, about Creation, and about salvation through accepting Jesus Christ as the Savior of mankind were key themes in the medieval Church.   People understood that God created the Earth in seven days, that he saved mankind from sin through the Great Flood, and that Noah’s Ark preserved animal and plant species, and represented a new start for mankind.   Religion in the Middle Ages helped to guide people morally and provided a sanctuary where their questions could be answered before science took over. The Church provided answers to these key questions where science could not, and people would turn to the Church in their time of need.   Major Life Events and Religion in the Medieval World Romanian Icon of the Nativity. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While most births, marriages, and deaths today in Europe are secular, in the medieval world, the Church was in charge of these notable life events.   Traditional religious values were enforced through rituals and ceremonies held at these key life events, such as the birth of a child or the baptism of a newborn. These life events held major religious significance, harking back to the birth of Jesus himself or to John the Baptist in the Bible.   Marriages, while for the most part strategic, particularly when European royalty was involved, were still another religious celebration. The union of man and wife is a key aspect of the Bible, while any children who were born out of wedlock were ostracized and looked down upon.   This was the same even for royalty, where in medieval England, kings who fathered bastard children would often name them “Fitz” as a prefix to their name. As such, the illegitimate children would not be in line for the throne.   Deaths were another major event that the Church presided over; even monarchs were read the “Last Rites” on their deathbeds. Being reunited with God and Jesus in Heaven was the key message from the Church.   As such, the Church took control of a medieval person’s life from the moment they were born until the moment they died.   Religious Tolerance and Persecution in the Middle Ages The Alhambra Palace. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Generalizing Europe as predominantly Christian in the Middle Ages is fine, but it is also important to remember that other faiths existed, so how were they treated in medieval Europe?   A notable example is Judaism. Jews had lived throughout Europe for centuries, with strong concentrations in France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and England throughout the Middle Ages.   In times of peace, Jews were generally treated fairly well, although in times of turmoil, things were completely different. In 1290, Edward I expelled the Jews from England, and the Crown took their possessions into its own hands. Jews were also blamed for the Black Death throughout Europe in the mid-14th century, and the Church did very little to protect them.   Similarly, Islam also existed in medieval Europe in the Iberian Peninsula. Some of the most unique Spanish buildings hark back to the country’s Islamic age, like the Alhambra Palace in Granada.   Seville was a unique city where Muslims, Jews, and Christians co-existed for many centuries together, but again, during times of turmoil, Muslims were expelled from Spain along with the Jews, bringing an end to over 700 years of Islamic rule in the country.   To say that religious tolerance existed is right to an extent, because in times of peace, it did. But in times of turmoil, it was completely different, and the Church often looked for a scapegoat.   Medieval Religion: In Conclusion Stained Glass Panel with the Nativity, German, 15th century. Source: The Met, New York   In conclusion, religion shaped everyday life in the Middle Ages to the most precise degree. From the moment a person was born until the moment they died, they were essentially the property of the Church.   While this may sound daunting, people then knew no better. Science could not provide them with the answers that they needed, but the Church could.   It is unfair to assume that people were oppressed by religion in the Middle Ages, because it was all that they knew.

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