The history of humanity is checkered with the enslavement of people. The practice, which has existed for millennia, has taken many forms, such as the enslavement of people as prisoners of war following conflicts and in some cases due to their beliefs. Before the 15th century, subjugation based on factors such as race was rare. This is because there were limited interracial interactions.    What Factors Gave Rise to the Atlantic Slave Trade? Artistic interpretation of Christopher Columbus’ Santa Maria, alongside the smaller Nina and Pinta shipping vessels. Source: Wikimedia   Many of the modern elements of slavery cropped up when European settlers, intent on colonizing the Americas, started to use violence to subdue indigenous populations. This was in a bid to implement forced labor. Attempts to enslave the indigenous people, however, backfired as a significant number of them started to die after enslavement. This was due to a combination of factors that included diseases and harsh labor conditions. To overcome the problem, the invading powers turned to the African continent for slaves to cater to their labor needs. Hence the Atlantic slave trade began.   How Were Slaves Taken from Africa?  The Portuguese slave ship Diligenté before being captured by US Navy Ship HM Sloop by Henry Samuel Hawker, 1838. Source: Smithsonian Institution   The massive task of bringing slaves from Africa relied on abductions and human trafficking at an enormous scale. Between the years 1500 and 1900, European powers relied on an enslavement model that took into captivity millions of people from regions such as West Africa and Central Africa and transported them across the Atlantic Ocean in immensely cruel conditions.    While slavery existed in Africa even before the Europeans arrived, demand for slaves was not high. However, the huge demand brought on by Western powers caused traders and slave agents to procure slaves far inland.   Europeans operated the slave ships while the task of kidnapping was largely left to African slave merchants. Groups of slavers roamed the country, preying on unsuspecting people. At other times, African leaders sold outcasts and people imprisoned for committing crimes to slave traders. In return, they received goods from Western countries such as iron bars, cotton, glass, and guns.   What Were the Main Slave Trading Nations? Slavers capturing people on the coast of Africa by George Morland, 1788. Source: National Museum of African American History & Culture, Washington DC   In terms of volume, Portugal traded the most slaves, and was followed closely by Britain. Others that followed were Spain, France, the Netherlands, the United States, and Denmark. Portuguese dominated the trade in the first 130 years but were surpassed by the British after 1651. Britain became the leading slave-trading nation at the peak of the trade in the 1780s. It is estimated that between 1600 and 1800, British ships transported over 3 million Africans across the Atlantic.   That said, many Western nations that needed slaves used companies involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Countries such as Spain set up agreements (asiento) with numerous entities to supply its Caribbean and Spanish American colonies with African slaves. Nations such as the Netherlands, France, and England used a different method. They contracted their own companies to distribute slaves to their colonies. Britain’s Royal African Company and the Dutch West India Company are examples of such companies.   The slave-shipping enterprises set up operations in major ports to organize, finance and insure slave ships. The profits generated from the trade economically transformed cities such as Bristol and Liverpool in England and Lisbon in Portugal into bustling economic centers. Each port, operated by the western merchants, had links to slave traders in the African hinterland to ensure a constant stream of captives.    What Were the Effects of the Slave Trade on the World? The United States Slave Trade, 1830. Source: The New York Times   The Transatlantic slave trade had some serious effects on the affected African regions. It greatly impaired their potential to progress economically as well as their ability to maintain a stable socio-political environment due to the continuous exploitation of human resources. This also corrupted political and social structures by encouraging the ruling class to profit from the oppression of their own people.    Additionally, the abduction of African people who came from all walks of life broke down the family unit in the regions where the slave trade occurred. This is because some of them were breadwinners with dependents and parents.    Map of the Slave Trade from Africa to the Americas 1650-1860. Source: Wikimedia   For slaves that were taken from Africa and their descendants, the devastation affected them for centuries to come. This is because many of them were displaced and dispersed across the Americas and Western Europe. The situation led to more Africans being spread across the diaspora.   Today, direct descendants of Africans taken as slaves continue to face many enduring socio-economic problems that include inequality, prejudice, and racism as many of them reside in territories where they are considered a minority and non-natives. Conversely, slave-trading nations greatly benefited from the trade as it allowed them to increase the production of crops and raw materials needed to fuel the Industrial Revolution.

  The majority of the world is right-handed; left-handers find themselves buying special scissors, can openers, and even pens and pencils. But even a global rate of 10% is a drastic increase from 100 years ago. Historically, those with left-handed laterality have been considered inferior and unclean—the word “sinister” comes from “sinistrality,” the scientific term for left-handedness. So, when did these ideas start, and how did they express themselves? Moreover, where are we still seeing them today?   Rates of Left-Handedness in History Handedness in America since 1800 by Christopher Ingraham, 2015. Source: “The Surprising Geography of Left-Handedness.”   Although it is unclear exactly where or when the sentiments of handedness-related bias began, it can be seen throughout several thousand years. In Mayan art from the Classic Period (ca. 400-900 BCE), the left hand represents weakness, even malice. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle believed left-handedness was the result of poor mothers or physical inferiority. In a study of almost 1,200 artworks dating back 5,000 years, Stanley Coren and Clare Porac discovered that 93% of subjects depicted using tools were operating them with their right hand. It appears, as Coren puts it, that “man has always been right-handed.”   Relief with Enthroned Ruler, Unknown, 770s CE. Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   However, tragically little information exists on rates of left-handedness before the 19th century, when it began to be studied in depth. But given Coren and Porac’s findings and the extensive history of texts citing left-handedness as a physical and moral failing, we can assume that the rate has been consistently low.   As of 2019, the global rate of left-handedness remains at a steady 10%, perhaps due to a world more accepting of the sinistral. However, bias against left-handers is old and well-ingrained, and even now, we can see the consequences of such ideas in our daily lives, from the classroom to the kitchen drawer.   How Can We Learn More About Historical Handedness? Ben Cunningham-Summerfield demonstrates flint-knapping at an art festival, 2012. Source: National Park Service   It is generally accepted that the majority of the world has been right-handed since the first early humans emerged 3 to 4 million years ago. However, there is very little information on the rate of left-handedness before the 19th century—so little that archeologist Nigel Sadler described left-handers as “a people without a history.”   This changed when revolutionary physicians, including Ernest Auburtin, Paul Broca, and Marc Dax, began theorizing that different parts of the brain are responsible for different behaviors and functions. Shortly afterward, physician William Ogle asked 2,000 patients at St. George’s Hospital in London what hand they favored. Approximately 4.25% of patients responded that they favored the left, and Ogle’s study is considered the first of its kind.   Unfortunately, historians and anthropologists have very few ways to study rates of handedness prior to this era. As a result, experts in multiple fields have turned to working on indirect evidence in order to bridge the gap of knowledge. For some archeologists, this means turning to ancient biology, specifically osteology, the study of bones. Investigators in these studies have argued that bone asymmetries are a factor by which we can determine the laterality of an individual; however, many of these studies have been refuted, as this has been proved to be an unreliable indicator of handedness.   However, studies of tools such as hammers, knives, and writing instruments have shown great promise.  An experiment with a group of stone-knappers showed that handedness greatly affected factors such as the shape, ridges, and impact point of stone tools. More studies, including those actually using stone tools rather than just making them, continue to give archeologists hope for uncovering sinistrality’s hidden past.   Religious Views of Handedness The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo, c. 1508-1512. Source: rawpixel   Negative views of sinistrality date thousands of years in the past, and many of these ideas trace back to religion. In the Bible, the image of God’s “right hand” as a good and righteous place is referenced numerous times throughout the text—but nowhere does the Bible mention God’s left hand. The left hand appears to be associated with sin and wickedness, something that contributed to the development of the term “sinistrality” as a term for left-handedness. In Matthew 6:3, it is written: “But when you give to the poor, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing” (NIV). Priests were required to do rituals with their right hand, and some even believed left-handers to be possessed by the devil.   Likewise, such discrimination is also seen in Judaism. The Jewish scholar Maimonides considered left-handedness to be a “blemish,” and he went so far as to list it as a quality that would disqualify an individual from serving in the Jerusalem Temple. Left and right symbolism is seen throughout Judaism: the yetzer hara, or “evil urge,” is traditionally associated with the left side. Likewise, the mezuzah, a scroll with important Torah verses that remind Jews of their obligations to God, is attached to the right side of the doorway.   Christianity and Judaism are not alone in this bias. Similar symbols and ideas are seen in religions throughout the world, including Hinduism and Islam, and have contributed to the negative views of sinistrality throughout history.   Handedness in Medieval Europe Deesis Mosaic in the Haga Sophia photograph by Robyn Stewart, 2015. Source: Pixabay   Being born left-handed in medieval Europe did not earn you any favors; you were considered cursed or, in the worst cases, devil-possessed. An excellent example of how this bias manifested in medieval Europe is the Gesta Romanorum, a well-known collection of moral stories published in the 14th century. One tale of note is the story of Guido (or “Gwido”), a poor man who rescues a wealthy steward from an animal attack. Instead of being grateful, the steward ignores him and denies ever knowing Guido. After being beaten when trying to seek out the steward, Guido is found by his wife:   “When his wife heard this, she came with her donkey / and gave the steward her blessing with the left / hand; and carried home her husband, and spent / on him all that she might get, till he had his health” (trans. by author).   It has been argued that Guido’s wife using her left hand is meant to be facetious or sarcastic. After all, she is “blessing” the man who has just beaten her husband unconscious. The left (or “lift” in Middle English) was often meant to be sinister or unfortunate and, when paired with “honde” (hand), referred to a curse.   Interestingly, this line appears to be missing from later translations. It appears to have been added by Middle English translator Wynkyn de Worde, perhaps as a bit of “flavor.” This addition presents an interesting piece of evidence that the “blessing” given by Guido’s wife is actually a curse, especially since blessings, such as the one above, were done exclusively with the right hand.   Superstitions & Scientific Ideas About Left-Handers The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1495-1498. Source: rawpixel   “Throw salt over your left shoulder” is a popular superstition for those looking to rid themselves of bad luck. The superstition, sometimes attributed to Judas Iscariot spilling salt at the Last Supper, reflects the old belief of a devil that sits on or stalks behind the left shoulder (Dent & Brewer, 2013). Throwing the salt back is meant to blind him, thus ridding you of his influence. Other superstitions, such as wearing rings on the left hand for protection or babies who reject the left breast of their mothers, are to become saints, are now outdated (Dent & Brewer, 2013). However, all of these bygone myths offer more evidence of a long-standing bias toward the left-handed.   However, such bias can be seen even in the scientific community. Over the past 200 years, many theories have been proposed that left-handers are inclined to malevolence and disabilities and are even more accident-prone. Two opposing researchers, Cesare Lombroso and Robert Hertz, penned paramount works on the matter. Lombroso’s theory stated that the left-handed were inherently criminal, whereas Hertz defended left-handers and called for an end to handedness-based discrimination.   Left-handed golf champion Arnold Palmer by Chris Condon, 2007. Source: NBC News   Today, works such as Stanley Coren’s The Left-Hander Syndrome which theorize that left-handers are more prone to illness, among other things, have sparked discourse in the scientific community (Coren, 2012). Conversely, researchers such as Clare Porac, who has spent more than 40 years investigating handedness, believe that this is simply not the case. Porac argues that left-handers show no particular inclination towards any of these negative traits. In her book Laterality: Exploring the Enigma of Left-Handedness, Porac actually showcases many advantages, such as their skills in interactive sports and talent in science and mathematics (Porac, 2015).   According to Porac, left-handers are often simply victims of circumstance, living in a world that is not designed for them—one that is sometimes even outright hostile.   The Modern Consequences of Anti-Sinistral Bias A photo of a Maltron ergonomic keyboard by Michael Hicks. Source: Flickr   One of the reasons for the rising number of left-handers is almost certainly increased cultural acceptance. During the Industrial Revolution, it was not uncommon to see children discouraged or even punished for using their left hand. Such punishments were not exclusive to Europe or the Americas; in Australia, left-handed children sometimes had their left hands tied to chairs or were forced to sit on them while writing. Likewise, the bias toward left-handers is not a thing of the past, either. China has among the lowest rates of left-handedness, and many school children are similarly pressured to use their right hands for everyday activities such as writing.   It is estimated that up to two-thirds of the world still faces handedness-based discrimination. Being forced to change handedness can lead to myriad mental and physical problems—forcibly switching a child’s handedness has been linked to speech disorders, poor motor skills, and low self-esteem. All of these contribute to lower test scores in the classroom, bullying from peers, and can negatively affect an individual’s outlook on writing and learning for the rest of their life.   A less talked-about consequence of right-handed bias is simply the lack of availability of left-hand-oriented products. Can openers, musical instruments, notebooks, and writing utensils are usually designed for right-handed users. Entire stores specialize in creating products designed to suit left-handed users, as most stores do not carry suitable options. Even small things, like school desks with right-hand surfaces or the orientation of cup holders in cars, are daily annoyances for the left-handed.   So, Will Left-Hand Usage Increase? A photo of President Barack Obama delivering remarks during a memorial service, US Government, 2013. Source: rawpixel   As society becomes less conservative and old biases toward those who are different begin to fade, we will almost certainly begin to see an increase in left-handed individuals. Although these results will certainly be much more apparent 100 years from now, even in the short term, cultural acceptance has allowed more individuals to grow up more comfortable with using their left hand. Many famous left-handers include actor Tom Cruise, singer Paul McCartney, and former US President Barack Obama.   A study of 1,200 Japanese students in 1993 showed a significant increase in the rate of left-handedness compared with the first data set, which was taken in 1973. Among other factors, such as the nature of writing katakana, the authors attribute cultural change from World War II as part of the reason for such a change. The original study estimated that approximately 3.09% of the Japanese population was right-handed. Although Japan remains one of the countries with the fewest left-handed individuals at only 4.7%, the discrepancy between that and the original 1974 sample suggests that Japan’s left-handed population will likely continue to increase.   As numbers rise in countries with lower rates of left-handedness, such as Japan and China, there is a good chance we will see this reflected in the global percentage. Left-handers are gaining more traction in the world through little things like left-handed scissors or opportunities like the Frederick and Mary F. Buckley scholarship created specifically for left-handers.   So next time you find yourself bumping elbows with a left-handed friend at dinner or see them struggling with a right-handed can opener, give them a smile and some space. And when the holidays come around, maybe even surprise them with a gift card for their favorite left-handed store.   References:   Bargalló, A., & Mosquera, M. (2014). Can hand laterality be identified through lithic technology? Laterality, 19(1), 37–63. https://doi.org/10.1080/1357650X.2013.769559 Coren, S. (2012). The Left-Hander Syndrome. Simon and Schuster. Coren, S., Porac, C. (1977). Fifty Centuries of Right-Handedness: The Historical Record. Science 198, 631-632. DOI:10.1126/science.335510. Dent, S., & Ebenezer Cobham Brewer. (2013). Brewer’s dictionary of phrase & fable. Brewer’s, An Imprint Of Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd. Kushner, H. I. (2013). Deficit or creativity: Cesare Lombroso, Robert Hertz, and the meanings of left-handedness. Laterality, 18(4), 416–436. https://doi.org/10.1080/1357650X.2012.697171. McManus, I. C. (2009). The history and geography of human handedness. In I. E. C. Sommer & R. S. Kahn (Eds.), Language Lateralization and Psychosis (pp. 37–58). chapter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Mullen, P. B. (2000). Belief and the American Folk. The Journal of American Folklore, 113(448), 119–143. https://doi.org/10.2307/541285. Palka, J. W. (2002). Left/Right Symbolism and the Body in Ancient Maya Iconography and Culture. Latin  American Antiquity, 13(4), 419–443. https://doi.org/10.2307/972224. Plakins Thornton, T. (1998). 4. Deviance, Dominance, and the Construction of Handedness in Turn-of-the-Century Anglo-America. In K. Halttunen & L. Perry (Ed.), Moral Problems in American  Life: New Perspectives on Cultural History (pp. 81-100). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/9781501725494-006. Porac, C. (2015). Laterality (1st ed.). Academic Press. Snyder, S. (1965). The Left Hand of God: Despair in Medieval and Renaissance Tradition. Studies in the Renaissance, 12, 18–59. https://doi.org/10.2307/2857068.

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