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by 3AD Scout, Survival Blog: I do not belong to an organized and/or trained Mutual Assistance Group (MAG), but I might have a structure that may be just as good. That is, I have neighbors who are skilled and resilient. These neighbors might not be ready to survive a nuclear apocalypse but their lifestyle gives […]

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  By 1940, Europe was embroiled in war. France’s defeat was imminent, and soon Britain would be left alone to fight against the terror of Nazi Germany. Britain’s hopeless situation worsened when, on June 10, 1940, Italy declared war. Italian and British territories in Africa would ignite into conflict, shifting the war from the European continent for the first time. The ensuing North African Campaign would have a decisive impact on the future of the Second World War.   Early Engagements  A British lookout over a valley in Egypt, 1942. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Following Italy’s declaration of war, Britain did not stand idly, instead acting quickly to counter a potential Italian offensive. On June 14, 1940, British forces stationed in Egypt crossed into Libya and captured Fort Capuzzo. British air and naval forces also acted decisively, gaining early successes, which resulted in Britain gaining both air and sea superiority.   The North African Campaign soon became an important front of the war. The Axis powers knew that achieving victory in North Africa and gaining control of the Suez Canal would isolate Britain, its territories in Asia, and its vital resources. Gaining control of North Africa would also allow the Axis to penetrate further into the Middle East, affording them control of precious oil and blocking Allied supplies to the Soviet Union.   For Britain, the control of North Africa was of paramount importance to ensure its continued supply of resources. Following the defeat of France, Africa presented an opportunity to open a new front against the Axis. This would later prove significant in alleviating pressure on the Soviet Union.   Despite the clear importance of the North African Campaign, Germany was hesitant to support Italy in their endeavors, as Hitler was more concerned with the conquest of Europe.   On September 13, 1940, Italy launched a successful offensive into Egypt, capturing the western region of the country. However, Britain responded with Operation Compass, a devastating offensive that resulted in the capture of 130,000 Italian troops and the capitulation of the Italian 10th Army.   Britain continued its pursuit of the remaining Italian forces and reached the Libyan city of El Agheila. Italy’s defeat seemed increasingly likely.   Germany Intervenes Erwin Rommel (left) with his forces in North Africa, 1942. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Benito Mussolini urgently requested support from his German Allies. Hitler responded by deploying the Afrika Korps, a motorized force under the command of Erwin Rommel. While only a small force, it consisted of a Panzer division.   Rommel arrived in Tripoli, Libya on February 12, 1941 and quickly launched a reconnaissance mission of North Africa. German High Command had informed Rommel that they did not intend to launch a decisive military operation in North Africa. However, following successive victories at Agedabia and El Agheila, Rommel launched an offensive to capture the entire region of Cyrenaica, thereby ignoring instructions from the German High Command.   Australian troops in North Africa, 1941. Source: Rare Historical Photos   During the offensive, German forces surrounded the port city of Tobruk, which was held by Australian forces. The 9th Australian Division was heavily reinforced and repelled the German attack. Tobruk would be assaulted by German troops on numerous occasions over the next several months.   Rommel’s offensive into Cyrenaica was, however, a success, much to the alarm of the retreating Allied forces.   Britain responded in June 1941 with Operation Battleaxe in an attempt to relieve the Siege of Tobruk and recapture areas of Cyrenaica from the Germans. The operation was a failure; half of Britain’s tanks were destroyed on the first day of the operation, and their forces narrowly avoided being encircled by the Germans. In total, Britain lost over 100 tanks to Germany’s 12. Defeated, the Allies retreated back to Egypt.   Rommel’s Second Offensive Italian tanks at the Battle of Gazala, 1942. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The failure of Operation Battleaxe resulted in a lull in fighting as both sides attempted to reorganize their forces. Britain notably reorganized their forces into the formation of the British 8th Army, which incorporated troops from Britain, Australia, India, Canada, Czechoslovakia, France, Greece, New Zealand, Poland, Rhodesia, South Africa, and Mauritius. A diverse, multi-national force, the 8th Army symbolizes the united struggle against Nazism.   In November 1941, Britain attempted another offensive, Operation Crusader. Its objective was again to relieve the ongoing Siege of Tobruk, which this time was successful. However, both sides suffered heavy losses, with the Allies losing 18,000 men and 440 tanks, and the Axis suffered 38,000 casualties and lost 360 tanks.   Despite the defeat, Rommel regathered his strength and launched a second offensive. British commanders underestimated Rommel’s capabilities, and at the Battle of Gazala, Axis forces broke through the Allied lines and advanced towards Tobruk. On June 20, 1942, Rommel attacked Tobruk. The defending troops surrendered the next day, and 33,000 men were taken prisoner. Losing Tobruk was a devastating blow for the Allies.   Following the fall of Tobruk, Allied forces retreated to Egypt, with Rommel in pursuit. However, at the First Battle of El Alamein, Allied forces repelled the Axis advance. Rommel realized that his supply lines could not facilitate further offensive operations, and Axis forces would never advance further than El Alamein.   Rommel’s second offensive was a numerical victory for the Axis, who lost 40,000 men to the Allies 75,000. However, the Allies’ staunch defense at El Alamein significantly weakened Rommel’s forces, thus creating an opportunity for an Allied victory in North Africa.   The El Alamein Campaign Bernard Montgomery overseeing battle from the turret of a tank, 1942. Source: Rare Historical Photos   Rommel’s second offensive and the fall of Tobruk had a devastating impact on Allied morale. Winston Churchill was facing a vote of no confidence by his government, and Allied soldiers were becoming disillusioned with British command. Churchill knew that victory in North Africa was paramount. He met with a US delegation in London who agreed to an Allied invasion of Northwest Africa, known as Operation Torch. However, for Operation Torch to be successful, the Axis had to first be defeated in the Western desert.   Bernard Montgomery was given command of the British 8th Army and declared that Egypt would be defended at El Alamein and that there would be no further retreats. Montgomery reorganized the Allied forces and worked tirelessly to improve morale by personally visiting and speaking to as many units as possible. The British lines of defense at El Alamein were also reinforced with US Sherman tanks as well as troops from India and South Africa. By October 1942, the British 8th Army consisted of 195,000 men, 1,030 tanks, 900 artillery guns, and 530 combat aircraft, a much greater force than the Axis.   The Second Battle of El Alamein began on October 23, 1942. After days of brutal fighting, the Axis forces had suffered devastating attrition. The Afrika Korps had just 35 tanks remaining and were running dangerously short on supplies. On November 2, Rommel ordered a withdrawal. However, the following day, he received a message from Hitler, directly ordering him to continue fighting to victory or death.   Fighting would continue for two more days until Rommel finally ordered a retreat of his remaining men. The Allied forces would pursue the remnants of the Axis all the way to Tunisia.   Operation Torch & The Tunisian Campaign Allied fleet being escorted to Casablanca during Operation Torch, 1942. Source: Rare Historical Photos   The defeat of the Axis forces at the Second Battle of El Alamein allowed the Allied invasion of North Africa by American and British forces. Operation Torch was overseen by future US President General Dwight D. Eisenhower.   At the time, Operation Torch was the most complex amphibious landing in history. Three independent fleets had to traverse the contested Atlantic Ocean and disembark their troops at three landing sites at Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers. Around 670 vessels transported 107,000 troops to their destination.   The landing at Casablanca was met with fierce resistance, but after three days of fighting, General George S. Patton and his 39,000 men forced the defenders to surrender.   Axis forces in Algeria were surrounded by the landing forces of Operation Torch to their west and the advancing British 8th Army to their east. The Axis did achieve a significant victory against the Allies at the Battle of Kasserine Pass, inflicting 10,000 casualties upon the superior Allied force. However, the Axis troops were vastly outnumbered and outgunned. Britain captured Tunis on May 7, 1943. The remaining Axis forces surrendered on May 13.   The Allies had successfully secured the entirety of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, thus securing North Africa under Allied control. The North African Campaign was over, an exceptional victory for the Allies.   A Logistical War Italian naval convoy heading for North Africa, 1941. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The fighting of the North African Campaign occurred upon the region’s coastal desert plains, thus presenting unique logistical challenges for both sides. Due to the terrain, warfare was mobile and mechanized, with tanks and armored vehicles being used extensively.   The nature of the fighting required a constant supply of fuel, ammunition, and water. Furthermore, the abundant use of tanks needed sufficient maintenance support. The inhospitable nature of the environment meant that engines and guns needed constant repairs or replacements.   As a result, the North African campaign became increasingly a war of logistics than a war of the battlefield. Both sides required extensive, complex supply lines to keep their fronts well-supported.   The Axis forces enjoyed a relatively short supply route across the Mediterranean from Italy. Most of the supplies came in from the port of Tripoli. However, Tripoli’s port was only equipped to handle 45,000 tons of cargo per month. During the campaign, the Axis required 70,000 tons of supplies per month. As a result, supply issues continually hindered Axis operations. Furthermore, once supplies arrived in North Africa, they had to be transported across vast distances. For example, supplies from Tripoli had to be transported 1,200 miles by truck to reach the front at El Alamein.   On the other hand, the Allies had well-established supply lines thanks to Britain’s extensive network of bases across the region. Britain had supplies coming in from Egypt, Somaliland, Iraq, and Palestine. They also received significant aid from the United States.   The logistical constraints of the war ultimately contributed to the Axis defeat. Rommel lacked the logistical support necessary to continue his operations and attempt further offensives into Egypt.   Treatment of Local Populations A German Jewish prisoner at the Im Fout labor camp, Morocco, 1941-42. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, courtesy of Sami Dorra   Like the rest of the world, the people of North Africa were not spared from the discrimination and hatred dealt by the Second World War, though it is often forgotten by many.   During the war, the North African states of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia were controlled by Vichy France, the authoritarian government installed by Nazi Germany. Before the fall of France, the region had become home to a significant Jewish population who had arrived as refugees from Europe. Vichy France imposed numerous anti-Semitic and racist policies upon its people. Jews were stripped of their citizenship, and their property was seized.   Over 70 internment camps were constructed in the Sahara Desert that kept thousands of Jews prisoner. In Algeria alone, approximately 3,000 Jews were interned at camps alongside other political prisoners and prisoners of war. Memoirs from former prisoners recall the brutal treatment they endured. Prisoners were beaten and incarcerated in appalling conditions and frequently died from disease and malnutrition.   Similarly, Mussolini implemented racist policies in Italian Libya. The local Black populations were segregated. Local Jews were also deported to labor camps. It is estimated that hundreds died from starvation and disease. Some Libyan Jews were also deported to concentration camps in Europe.   During the German occupation of Tunisia, it is estimated that 5,000 Jewish men were imprisoned in over 20 labor camps established by Nazi Germany.   Despite North Africa’s liberation by the Allies during Operation Torch, a number of former Vichy administration members continued to effectively run the countries. As a result, anti-Semitic laws were not repealed until March 1943.   Importance of the North African Campaign Allied forces boarding ships in Tunisia in preparation for the Invasion of Sicily, 1943. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   The defeat of the Axis powers in North Africa opened the door to the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. This contributed to the downfall of Benito Mussolini and later the invasion of mainland Italy in 1943, which resulted in Italy’s formal surrender, thus defeating Germany’s primary ally on the European continent.   Arguably, the North African Campaign and, notably, the amphibious landings during Operation Torch provided important tactical and logistical insights that informed the Normandy landings of D-Day in June 1944.   The victory in North Africa was a significant morale boost for the Allies as, for the first time, they successfully defeated Germany on the ground. Furthermore, Operation Torch was also the first time US forces engaged directly against Germany. US engagement in the Western theater against Nazi Germany would prove paramount to the outcome of the war. The invasion also succeeded in uniting the Allied forces with the remaining French forces still stationed in French West Africa, a considerable boost for the Allies.   Historians estimate that approximately 900,000 German and Italian men lost their lives in North Africa. Not only was this a substantial loss of life, but it was also a significant blow to the Axis war effort. Up until this point, Axis morale had been consistently high following their victory over France in 1940.   Defeat in North Africa by 1943, alongside the Battle of Stalingrad (also in 1943), cast significant doubts over the effectiveness of the Nazi war machine. The contribution of the North African Campaign to the overall result of the Second World War is highly debated due to the much larger, consequential theatres of war on Europe’s Western and Eastern fronts. However, if the Axis had been victorious in North Africa, the course of the war would likely have been very different.

  Juan Pujol Garcia, alias Agent Garbo, was a prominent figure within World War II. When the British wouldn’t take the Spanish-born chicken farmer’s help, he went to the German Embassy and was recruited as a spy. Independently, he built up a fake spy network and sent false intel, until Britain finally recruited him as a double agent. He continued to feed the Germans misleading or late information and took part in various maneuvers, including Operation FORTITUDE and helping make D-Day successful.   On February 14, 1912, Barcelona, Spain Juan Pujol Garcia was born. While he had been in the army, he avoided the Spanish Civil War. His experience with both the Republican and Nationalist sides during this time made him detest communism and fascism. This knowledge was important in defining how he would react when the Nazi regime rose to power in Germany.   Just before the start of World War II, while the Nazis were rising into power and invading countries, Pujol decided that he would like to contribute “to the good of humanity.” He decided the best way to serve would be to become a spy. There are many examples of ordinary citizens becoming spies, including French woman Rose Valland, who engaged in espionage.     Becoming a Spy Juan Pujol Garcia in the infantry, 1931. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   With his wife he went to the British Embassy located in Madrid in January 1941, and offered to become a spy for them. They declined his offer, which in some ways makes sense. He wasn’t trained or a British civilian. In fact, he was a former chicken farmer, although he did serve in the Spanish Army. While Spain never officially joined the Axis side they did cooperate with the Nazis. Still, Pujol did not let this set-back stop him and he approached them two more times. When the British rejected him, he decided to go to the Germans and offer almost the exact same deal.   He convinced the Germans that he worked for the Spanish embassy with a fake diplomatic passport and established his views as pro-Nazi. Then he got in contact with an Abwehr agent named Friedrich Knappe-Ratey who, after checking out Pujol, gave him basic training on how to be a spy. He was given a codebook, invisible ink to write messages, and six hundred pounds, before being sent on his way to England to recruit more members for the cause to learn war secrets.   Life in Lisbon Juan Pujol Garcia, Garbo from Venezuela. Source: War Stories   Instead of going to England, Pujol settled in Lisbon, Portugal. There, he was armed with the items given to him by his spy handler – an English tourist map, information from the public library, and a shipping schedule to create the allusion that he was building a spy network in England. He began building a spy network of fictional people and became successful enough that Abwehr sent him a missive stating that they appreciated this useful information and to be cautious not to risk his spy ring. They continued to trust him despite mistakes he made with conversions of currency between countries and the metric system – because he wasn’t in England he didn’t realize the differences. If they did question something he would blame one of his “informants” for the mistake or inconsistency.   The British (Finally) Get Involved Lisbon, Portugal in the 1940s. Source: Vintage Everyday   It wasn’t until a year later that Juan, or his wife Araceli, ended up approaching the United States about his independent spy activities. He was then connected with MI6 and brought on as a double agent. The British became aware of a spy working for Germany through their code breaking. They were not sure exactly what was going on, because the information sent out did not match actual locations or information, as Pujol only used maps.   For safety, they moved Pujol and his wife to England. His handler Tomas (Tommy) Harris helped him to expand his fake network of people to 27 different personas and write over three hundred letters back to Germany about his spy ring. The idea was to give them as much information from Pujol to make it difficult to ferret out information or detect deceit.   Now that he had help, he didn’t just send false information back, but gave specific facts that would arrive too late for the Germans to effectively use it, which made it seem like he was an asset. This included letting the Germans know details about Operation TORCH. It was through his work with Britain that he got the codename “Garbo,” after the actress Greta Garbo, considered one of the best actresses of the time.   D-Day Greta Garbo in a publicity image for Anna Christie in 1930, 1930, Source: Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer   D day took place on June 6, 1944, and was the culmination of many different groups hard work. Pujol, as Agent Garbo, played a role in its success. Germany knew that the Allied forces planned to invade as early as January 1944, but they did not believe it would take place at Normandy – instead they were diverted 150 miles away at Pas de Calais. This led them to send both armored and infantry divisions to the wrong location.   Similarly to other information that the British had him send, he did give the Germans some details about the Normandy invasion, timed to arrive after D-day. By this time Garbo was also using radio transitions with one of his other “informants” and tried to arrange a time with the Germans to transmit information about D-day. There was no response from the German radio operatives until five hours after the time they scheduled, allowing him to give extra information out of date, because the time that had passed while he waited. He also sold his annoyance at the Germans not being on air to receive his message stating to them, “I cannot accept excuses or negligence. Were it not for my ideals I would abandon the work.”   Later Years US Marines landing at Normandy in amphibious landing craft on D-Day, June 6, 1944. Source: A. E. French/Archive Photos/Getty Images   Agent Garbo continued to work for the British through most of World War II. Fearing repercussion from the Nazis, with the help of the British government he faked his death from malaria. However, they never realized until decades later his role in WWII. He received an Iron Cross Second Class for his “services to Germany” and an MBE from King George VI for his role as Agent Garbo for the Allies, making him one of only two people to receive honors and medals from both sides of the war. His role in D-day and spying against the Germans went largely unknown until Rupert Allason wrote a book with Pujol titled Operation Garbo. He died in 1988, as one of the best double agents within World War II, with almost no official training.

  In 1830, France’s Foreign Minister Charles Maurice de Talleyrand claimed, “There are no Belgians, there never have been, and there never will be: there are Frenchmen, Flemings or Dutchmen (which is the same thing) and Germans.”   Indeed, for centuries, the area of present-day Belgium, formerly known as the Southern Netherlands or southern Low Countries, was a battlefield between rival European powers. Talleyrand thus thought that 1830 would be business as usual in Belgium. In other words, European states like France and Austria would settle any issue regarding the area. But that same year, uprisings in Brussels and elsewhere showed that many people disagreed with Talleyrand’s view of Belgium.   Origins  William the Silent, Prince of Orange, by Hendrik Hondius I, 19th century. Source: National Library of Wales   The name “Belgium” derives from Julius Caesar’s description of an area of Gaul inhabited by the Belgae, a confederation in existence since at least the 3rd century BCE. However, for much of history, a map of Europe would not include Belgium.   In fact, it is necessary to understand Dutch history in order to appreciate how Belgium became a country in the 19th century. Our Dutch history lesson begins with the country’s struggle for independence from Spain during much of the 16th and early 17th centuries. The northern part of the Netherlands became independent as the United Provinces or Dutch Republic in 1648.   The new Dutch state’s leader was the Stadtholder William the Silent. On top of his position in the United Provinces, William was also Prince of Orange and founder of the Orange-Nassau branch. Samuel Humes explains that a seventh-generation descendant of William the Silent, William I, would play a central role in the story of Belgian independence.   The southern part of the Netherlands, which would one day become Belgium, remained under Spanish rule. However, in 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht transferred the Spanish Netherlands to the Austrian Habsburgs. Samuel Humes explains that the Austrian Netherlands soon became the wealthiest part of the Habsburg Empire.   The French Revolutionary Wars & The Belgian Revolution Habsburg Emperor Joseph II, by Anton von Maron, 1775. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   As is the case across much of Europe, modern Belgium’s history begins in the French Revolutionary era. At the time, the Austrian Netherlands consisted of ten provinces. However, there was also the prince-bishopric of Liège, independent of Habsburg rule but still part of the Holy Roman Empire.   Each province maintained traditional privileges and autonomy in the early decades of Habsburg rule. In fact, before 1789, there was no common government or institutions in Belgium save those created by the Habsburgs.   But by the 1780s, Habsburg Emperor Joseph II started to roll back Belgian autonomy. Joseph’s unpopular policies met resistance from two separate groups. On the one hand, conservatives known as Statists opposed Habsburg reforms. They wanted to restore each province’s traditional privileges.   A group of revolutionaries known as Vonckists opposed Joseph’s reforms on the other end of the political spectrum. Led by Jan-Frans Vonck or Jean-François Vonck, they envisioned a republic along the lines of that recently created next door in revolutionary France.   Increasing opposition to Austrian rule briefly united these two Belgian groups. When Joseph II challenged traditional governance in the province of Brabant, the Statists and Vonckists took joint action. Vonck and Statist leader Hendrik van der Noot led rebels to victory over the Austrians at Turnhout.   Belgian leaders declared a United Belgian States, including Liège, in January 1790. But independence was short-lived. Statists and Vonckists clashed, which brought the Austrians back that November.   Austrian rule proved equally short-lived. French revolutionary forces took control of Belgium by late 1792.   Napoleonic Belgium  Battle of Fleurus, by Jean-Baptiste Mauzaisse, 1794. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   The Austrians did briefly strike back against the French, but ultimately, Belgium fell under French control.   Belgium increasingly became connected to France following the Austrian defeat at Fleurus in 1794. By 1796, all laws passed in France automatically applied to Belgium. As historian Alexander Grab explains, French rule got off to a rocky start because of the unpopularity of anti-religious policies. In fact, the French had to suppress a major revolt in 1798 after the anti-religious measures combined with mandatory military service sparked outrage.   Napoleon further centralized the Belgian state to suit the French Empire’s needs. Building on a policy begun in 1795, French became the official language of government across Belgium. Moreover, Belgian elites increasingly embraced French as their preferred language regardless of their background.   Despite opposition to many French policies, Belgium’s economy prospered under Napoleon. Several industries, including textiles and coal mining, flourished during much of the period. The port of Antwerp also experienced a commercial revival.   Napoleon’s defeats at the 1813 Battle of Leipzig and campaign in France in 1814 resulted in his exile to the island of Elba. His enemies met to map Europe’s future at the 1814-1815 Congress of Vienna.   In Vienna, British Foreign Secretary Lord Castlereagh envisioned an enlarged Dutch state as a strong buffer against any future French expansion in Europe. As a result, Castlereagh encouraged William, Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands, to occupy present-day Belgium. Historian Adam Zamoyski points out that Castlereagh believed there would be no opposition to a Dutch occupation.   The United Kingdom of the Netherlands  Portrait of King William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, Joseph Paelinck, 1819. Via Wikimedia Commons.   Most Belgians did not wish to become a part of an enlarged Dutch state. However, William became King William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands on March 16, 1815. Roughly three months later, Napoleon was defeated for the final time at the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. William also became the head of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, exchanging his ancestral lands of Orange-Nassau with the King of Prussia.   For many Belgians, William’s policies confirmed their worst suspicions about joining the kingdom. William, for instance, mandated the Protestant Dutch Reformed faith as the kingdom’s official religion. He also set out to make Dutch the official administrative language across the country.   Although Belgians were primarily Flemings or Walloons and spoke French or Dutch dialects, they were overwhelmingly Roman Catholics. Moreover, the upper classes of even Flemish areas preferred to speak French, a legacy of Napoleonic rule. Finally, although Brussels joined The Hague as a co-capital, Dutch officials massively outnumbered Belgians. Thus, to many Belgians, this seemed to be a Dutch kingdom in all but name.   1830 was a challenging year for the United Kingdom of the Netherlands and European leaders who feared revolutionary outbreaks inspired by the French Revolution of 1789. Belgium’s independence involved both issues.   Barricades in Brussels: The Movement for Belgian Independence, 1830 Battle for the Town Hall, Paris, 28 July 1830, by Jean-Victor Schnetz, 1833. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For starters, William’s kingdom experienced a poor harvest. Poor economic conditions only emboldened Belgian nationalists. However, the movement for Belgian independence was also inspired by the revolutionary events of July 1830 in France. In Paris, Bourbon King Charles X abdicated amid unrest in favor of Louis-Philippe, the Duc d’Orléans, who became a sort of “Citizen King.”   Revolutionary activity in Brussels spilled over in late August 1830. In fact, several public events celebrating King William’s birthday were canceled in anticipation of riots. But the opera at the Theater de la Monnaie in central Brussels continued as scheduled on the evening of August 25, 1830. After the performance of the opera La Muette de Portici, theatergoers joined swelling crowds outside, singing patriotic arias from the show. Riots followed across Brussels.   Concerned citizens in Brussels formed a militia to protect the city from the riotous crowds. Representatives from the militia approached King William’s son, Prince William, to mediate a separation of the northern and southern Netherlands. But the prince refused.   Instead, King William sent another son, Prince Frederick, and inexperienced Dutch troops to quell the growing rebellion in Brussels. But Prince Frederick learned that Belgian rebels had set up barricades across the city’s strategic points. Furthermore, volunteers from across the country joined the revolutionary movement.   Fearful of directly storming the barricades, Frederick launched an ill-advised bombardment of Brussels. In response, angry militia leaders joined the rebel volunteers and formed a provisional committee to defend the city.   Dutch troops withdrew, leaving the rebel black, yellow, and red colors hoisted in Brussels. This would soon be the Belgian national flag.   Belgium Gets a King  Portrait of King Leopold I of Belgium, unknown artist, 1850. Source: Wikimedia Commons.   After the Dutch withdrawal, Belgian rebels established a provisional government under Charles Latour Rogier. On October 4, 1830, this government issued a Declaration of Independence, much like the famous American example from 1776.   A furious King William sought international intervention to defend his territory. But he would be disappointed with the reaction. Instead of protecting the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, the diplomats at the Congress of Vienna had created European leaders who recognized an independent Belgium under certain conditions. This included finding a suitable king to govern a constitutional monarchy.   European powers settled on Prince Leopold of the German state of Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha. Leopold took the oath to assume the Belgian throne on July 21, 1831. This date is now celebrated as Belgium’s national day.   Historian Richard J. Evans points out that Leopold had spent much of his young life to date in the Imperial Russian military. He served with distinction as a cavalry officer in the 1813 Battle of Kulm against French troops and ended the Napoleonic Wars as a general.   Besides his German princely title and Russian military commission, Leopold was also a member of the British royal family because of his marriage to Princess Charlotte. Charlotte had died in childbirth, and Leopold agreed to marry a French princess as part of the negotiations to take the throne.   The Ten Days’ Campaign  Dutch Military Encampment, 1831, unknown artist, 1831-5. Via Rijksmuseum and Wikimedia Commons.   A Belgian state had clearly taken shape by 1831. However, King William refused to recognize Belgian independence or Leopold’s kingdom. The Belgians then presented William with a chance to retake his former territory.   In the summer of 1831, Belgian troops invaded William’s territory in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. European leaders, though, did not oppose Belgium’s annexation of Luxembourg. An enraged Dutch population prompted William to invade Belgium in the so-called Ten Days’ Campaign.   Dutch troops invaded Belgium on August 2, 1831. Leopold called on a French army to help drive the Dutch out. French troops quickly forced the Dutch to retreat. Only one Dutch garrison remained in the Belgian city of Antwerp. Alarm soon turned to the French army, which was suspiciously slow to leave Belgium. Following international pressure, the French left on September 30.   With the war’s end, Luxembourg’s territory was split between Belgium and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. King William’s family retained control of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg until 1890.   However, the Dutch remained in the fortress of Antwerp. In response, French troops once again fought the Dutch in November 1832. The British Royal Navy supported the French this time and helped force the Dutch surrender of Antwerp in December 1832.   Aftermath  Photo of the Royal Palace in Brussels. Source: Wikimedia Commons   King William I finally recognized Belgian independence through the 1839 Treaty of London. This document is relevant for more than its role in the story of Belgian independence. For instance, the Treaty of London provided international recognition of Belgian neutrality. In 1914, Germany’s violation of this agreement by invading Belgium led to Britain’s entry into World War I.