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If you think people today enjoy a cheeky bottle (or two) of wine on a Friday night‚ then wait until you hear about the Romans. It’s well established that they loved a bit of vino‚ even to the point where watching it be made was seen as a form of entertainment. But what did Roman wine actually taste‚ smell‚ and look like? A new study analyzing the clay pots Romans used for winemaking may well have revealed the answer.With an intact sample of Roman wine remaining unopened (and who can blame them‚ have you seen it?)‚ researchers Dimitri Van Limbergen and Paulina Komar turned to the clay pots wine was commonly stored in‚ known as dolia‚ to find out what the popular drink might’ve been like.“No study has yet scrutinised the role of these earthenware vessels in Roman winemaking and their impact on the look‚ smell and taste of ancient wines‚” state the authors in their study.The duo compared the vessels to those used in traditional Georgian winemaking. These lemon-shaped clay pots are called qvevri and are used to ferment the wine; this is similar to how Roman wine is thought to have been produced‚ suggesting that modern Georgian wine would be comparable to the Roman drink.A series of wineries dating from 12th-century to modern-day Georgia.Image credit: D. Van LimbergenBy making this comparison‚ the researchers concluded that Roman wine was likely dark yellow or amber-colored‚ matching up with what has been translated from ancient Roman texts. This color is thought to be down to the shape of the vessel; the narrow base stopped the grape solids from touching the wine too much as it aged and affecting its color.As for the most important result – at least if you’re a sommelier – what did the wine taste and smell like? According to the researchers‚ it was probably slightly spicy and thanks to the porous clay allowing for oxidation‚ may have had “pleasant grassy‚ nutty and dried fruit-like flavours”.The scent is the result of the dolia having been buried‚ allowing winemakers to control the temperature and pH. As a result‚ this could allow surface yeasts to grow and release a compound called sotolon into the wine. This produces aromas of “toasted bread‚ apples‚ roasted walnuts and curry”. A perhaps unconventional‚ but fairly delicious sounding combination – no wonder the Romans loved it so much. It definitely sounds nicer than the 170-year-old shipwreck champagne.These are the remains of Roman wine cellars - they look similar to the Georgian ones seen above.Image credit: Francesco Pizzimenti‚ courtesy of Soprintendenza Archeologia‚ Belle Arti e Paesaggio per le province di L'Aquila e TeramoAs well as providing an insight into why Romans were necking wine on a regular basis‚ the authors conclude that the study’s findings “change much of our current understanding of Roman winemaking‚” by suggesting winemakers had much more control over the process than previously thought.In a statement sent to IFLScience‚ Dr Van Limbergen concluded: “The value of identifying‚ often unexpected‚ parallels between modern and ancient winemaking lies in both debunking the alleged amateurish nature of Roman winemaking and uncovering common traits in millennia-old vinification procedures.”The study is published in the journal Antiquity.

Sprawling underneath Mammoth Cave National Park in the US is‚ well‚ a pretty mammoth cave system. In fact‚ at 686 kilometers (426 miles) in length‚ it’s the longest cave system in the world – and within it‚ researchers are making all sorts of discoveries. The latest is two new species of ancient sharks‚ thought to have lived over 325 million years ago.Both species were identified from fossils collected in the cave system. It was through adult and juvenile teeth‚ for example‚ that palaeontologists classified Troglocladodus trimblei: a shark that’s estimated to have reached around 3-3.6 meters (10-12 feet) in length. That’s about the same as an oceanic whitetip or lemon shark.T. trimblei also represents both a brand-new species and genus of shark. The genus name translates to “Cave Cladodus” or “Cave Branching Tooth”‚ whilst the species is named after park superintendent Barclay Trimble‚ who found the first specimen (a tooth) back in 2019.The second new shark species discovered was Glikmanius careforum‚ identified from teeth and a partial set of jaws and gills found in different regions of the cave system. Though its genus was already known to science‚ there was still novelty to be found‚ as the cartilage fossil found was the first of its kind for this genus. This particular species revealed that it may actually have originated 50 million years earlier than previously thought.It’s estimated that G. careforum was about the same length as its fellow new discovery‚ whilst its jaw shape indicates that it likely had a short head with a powerful bite. That bite would probably have been directed towards smaller sharks‚ or bony fish‚ but regardless‚ you wouldn’t want to be on the receiving end of it.Both of the new species belong to the ctenacanths‚ an extinct order of fish characterized by their multi-cusped teeth and spines on their dorsal fins. It’s thought that they would’ve hunted along the shores that make up modern-day Kentucky and Alabama during the Mississippian subperiod‚ around 325 million years ago. At the time‚ that region was part of an ancient seaway connecting what would later become eastern North America‚ Europe‚ and northern Africa – though Pangaea decided to get in the way first.The fossils were uncovered as part of an ongoing collaborative project in US National Parks known as the Paleontological Resources Inventory (PRI)‚ which aims to survey the parks for fossils‚ assess their significance‚ and identify how they can be managed and preserved. Since it began‚ at least 70 species of ancient fish have been identified from samples collected at Mammoth Cave.“Every new discovery at Mammoth Cave is possible due to collaborations‚” said Superintendent Barclay Trimble in a statement. “Our park team is honored to work alongside the National Park Service Paleontology Program and now the University of Alabama Geological Sciences Department whose coordinated efforts have made this latest announcement possible.”

One of the most important and enigmatic Bronze Age discoveries appears to have incorporated meteoritic iron. The discovery could resolve confusion about the ages not only of the iron items‚ but the hoard of gold with which they were buried.The Treasure of Villena was discovered in what is now eastern Spain in 1963. The 59 bracelets‚ bowls‚ and assorted items are most famous for their wealth of gold‚ but the more intriguing aspect is the iron from which two of the items were made. These were the oldest iron pieces found on the Iberian Peninsula‚ and based on the accompanying riches appeared to date to at least 3‚000 years ago. The origin of the entire Treasure is mysterious enough‚ given the lack of evidence of the civilization that made them‚ and the presence of apparently Bronze Age items with the iron pieces deepened the mystery. However‚ long before humanity learned to mine and smelt iron‚ we were using iron from meteorites found on the Earth’s surface. Most famously‚ Tutankhamun had a dagger forged from meteoritic iron‚ its possession by the boy pharaoh demonstrating the immense value placed on such items. The capacity to work the mix of iron‚ nickel‚ and sometimes cobalt known as meteoritic iron must have developed independently in many places‚ since pre-Iron Age examples are found in North America‚ southern Africa‚ and Tibet‚ as well as the Middle East.One iron piece is a hollow hemisphere partially covered in gold (referred to as a cap or pommel) and the other a bracelet. Their purpose is unknown‚ but at face value their existence indicates the treasure must date from the Iron Age‚ albeit the very start when ironwork was new enough to be very valuable. Yet if so‚ what are they doing with so much gold in the Bronze Age style? The gold covering makes this item look a little like the rest of the treasure‚ but when it was made the iron peaking through might have been more valuable. Maximum diameter 4.5 cm (1.8 inches).Image credit: Photography Villena Museum (Alicante); Rovira-Llorens et al‚ Trabajos de Prehistoria 2023 (CC BY 4.0)However‚ if the iron from which the two pieces are made is from the heavens‚ not the Earth‚ there would be no discrepancy.Inevitably archaeologists have been keen to test the iron pieces for a long time. However‚ the combination of corrosion making most ancient iron very delicate‚ and the desire to protect the items from damaging test methods‚ has been an obstruction. Increasing availability of non-destructive tests has changed the situation‚ leading retired museum curator Salvador Rovira-Llorens and co-authors to explore the pieces' composition.To our eyes the open bracelet looks worthless compared to the rest‚ but what a journey it has been on. Maximum diameter 8.5 cm (3.4 inches).Image credit: Photography Villena Museum (Alicante); Rovira-Llorens et al‚ Trabajos de Prehistoria 2023 (CC BY 4.0)Portable X-ray fluorescence spectrometry produced uncertain results‚ so the team turned to mass spectrometry applied to tiny samples. They found the proportion of nickel in the cap (5.5 percent) is very much in line with known iron meteorites‚ and well above what is usually found in terrestrial deposits. On the other hand‚ preliminary measurements of the bracelet gave the distinctly ambiguous result of 2.8 percent.Corrosion can cause more nickel to leach than iron‚ however‚ lowering its concentration. Deeper analysis revealed more nickel towards in interior areas less exposed to air and water‚ indicating the bracelet was made from meteoritic iron as well. Indeed‚ it is likely it was from the same meteorite‚ with the uncorroded composition being the same. Matching the composition to a specific meteorite has not so far been possible‚ however.“The available data suggest that the cap and bracelet from the Treasure of Villena would currently be the first two pieces attributable to meteoritic iron in the Iberian Peninsula‚ which is compatible with a Late Bronze chronology‚ prior to the beginning of the widespread production of terrestrial iron‚” the authors write.Outside Greenland‚ almost all terrestrial iron is in the form of iron oxide‚ which Bronze Age people lacked the technology to reduce. Meteorites not only avoided the need for this‚ but the iron nickel alloys were more resistant to corrosion even once pure iron became available. The immensely rare product was the Earthly equivalent of Valyrian steel in Westeros‚ given immense value by its extreme rarity.The study is published in Trabajos de Prehistoria. 

Gold has long been the go-to element for money. However‚ with gold coins now rarely used in circulating currency‚ it’s down to mints to produce these impressive promotional hunks of cash – many of which are legal tender.The largest gold coin in the world is the Australian Kangaroo One Tonne Gold Coin ‚produced by Western Australia’s Perth Mint in 2011. As the name would suggest‚ this kangaroo coin weighs 1 tonne (2‚200 pounds) – roughly the weight of 11 real kangaroos – and is made up of 99.99 percent pure gold.Produced to showcase the mint’s gold kangaroo coin series which began in 1989‚ the coin has a face value of AU$1 million (US$648‚000) making it the world’s largest legal tender coin.However‚ you might need to invest in a slightly bigger wallet if you plan on carrying this chonky bit of change around‚ as this 12-centimeter (4.7-inch) thick coin is roughly half a Danny Devito tall – that’s 80 centimeters (31.4 inches) in old money.Its impressive size‚ purity‚ and record-smashing title mean that despite the coin’s technical value standing at AU$1 million (US$648‚000)‚ the current market value of the metal alone by gold prices at time of publishing is around AU$110‚055‚898 (US$71‚429‚850)‚ making the true value of the coin far higher than its tender.After hitting the Guinness Book of World Records one year after its release‚ the coin went on to tour Asia and Europe in 2014 and even did a day trip to New York in 2019‚ all in the name of promoting the Perth Mint’s gold exchange-traded fund‚ Perth Mint Physical Gold (AAAU). The mint also holds smaller denominations of the kangaroo coins‚ with the 28-gram (1-ounce) variety having a face value of AU$100 (US$65).The previous world record holder‚ the 99.7 kilogram (220 pound) Canadian coin known as The Big Maple Leaf‚ was the first of five identical massive coins struck in 2007. But‚ in a frankly impressive turn of events‚ one of the coins was stolen in a 16-minute heist from a Berlin museum in 2017. The coin had a tender value of CA$1 million (US$741‚000)‚ but‚ like the kangaroo coin‚ its true value is thought to far surpass that."We thought well‚ we'd better make it so much bigger that it'll stay the biggest coin in the world for a long time‚" Perth Mint chief executive Ed Harbuz said at the time. "To cast and handcraft a coin of this size and weight was an incredible challenge - one which few other mints would even consider."Australia‚ which birthed the largest gold nugget ever found‚ sparked one of the world’s greatest gold rushes in the 19th century and is still heavily mined for its ample gold reserves today. You don’t even need all the tech to strike gold in Aus‚ as an amateur gold hunter who recently found an AU$240‚000 (US$160‚000) gold nugget will tell you.The total amount of gold ever discovered on Earth could fit inside a 23-meter (75-foot) square cube‚ so fingers crossed someone makes another ridiculously huge coin soon.

What we know about the birth of the Sun comes from the many stellar nurseries that we can observe elsewhere in the Universe. Direct evidence is rare‚ the elements and molecules that were present there have been changed into what the Solar System is like now. But some of those molecules persist and we have been lucky to get them with home delivery: They came to us inside meteors falling down on Earth.The specks of dust that are older than the Sun are known as presolar grains and survive in several meteorites. One of the most interesting examples of such space rocks is the Allende meteorite‚ for a variety of scientific reasons. But let’s rewind the clock exactly 55 years. February 8‚ 1969. At 1:05 local time‚ a bright fireball lights up the sky above the Mexican state of Chihuahua.It is roughly the size of a car moving at about 16 kilometers (10 miles) per second. The passage through the atmosphere is fatal‚ the asteroid is ripped apart‚ and thousands of fragments are spread over a huge area. This will become one of the largest meteorite strewnfields known‚ with an area of 8 by 50 kilometers (5 by 30 miles). Fragments continue to be found even today.It is a carbonaceous chondrite‚ a specific class of meteorite – the most primitive known as well as fairly rare. Less than 5 percent of all meteorite falls are carbonaceous chondrites. And among the Allende is by far the biggest. Samples found go from 110 kilograms (240 pounds) to a single gram (0.035 ounces). In total‚ 2 tons have been found and studied – and what insights they have provided scientists.The meteorite is rich in calcium–aluminum inclusions‚ or CAI. These are among the oldest formations in the whole Solar System. Inside the CAI‚ researchers have found‚ for example‚ silicon carbide expected to have an age of 7 billion years. Two whole billion years older than the Sun.The CAI have also provided insights into the environment of the pre-solar nebula‚ and provided supporting evidence to a scenario. The composition of those grains suggests that just a couple of million years before the birth of the Sun‚ a supernova went off very close by. Scientists think that this might have played a role‚ through shockwaves‚ in the formation of the Solar System.And it’s not just elements from before the Sun that have intrigued scientists. More complex organic molecules have been found in this object: Amino acids‚ polymers‚ and even what are proposed to be fragments of a whole protein. The fragments in the Allende‚ and the whole one in meteorite Acfer 086‚ would make the first extraterrestrial protein ever found.Meteorites are treasure troves and scientists are keen to find as many as possible. Just recently‚ a bolide broke up over Germany with researchers hunting for fragments in the following days. They found many (not as much as Allende) and it turned out to be an even rarer type.