Under Emperor Constantine’s rule and within a half-century afterward, Christianity experienced significant changes. It went from a persecuted religion to becoming the state religion of the Roman Empire. This change was largely attributable to Constantine, a fierce defender of the Christian faith and a patron contributing to its expansion and preservation. Many scholars, however, point out that his influence also allowed some pagan practices to enter the Christian faith. Some even doubt the authenticity of his conversion.   Constantine the Great Statue of Constantine the Great in York, United Kingdom. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Flavius Valerius Constantinus was born around 272 CE in Naissus (modern-day Niš, Serbia). His father was a military officer who later became one of the four tetrarchs of Rome and served Caesar as ruler of the western part of the empire. His mother, Helena, became a prominent Christian figure.   Constantine learned much about politics and governance from his father. When his father passed away in 306 CE, his troops in York proclaimed Constantine Emperor. After a civil war against his brother-in-law, Maxentius, Constantine became the undisputed emperor of the West.   The Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 CE, which saw Constantine defeat Maxentius, marked a significant change in the political career of Constantine and the transformation of religion in the Roman Empire. According to Eusebius of Caesarea, a renowned historian, Constantine saw a vision before the battle. During the vision, he saw a sign and the words “In this sign, you shall conquer.” Many claim this event marked Constantine’s conversion. He had his soldiers paint the Chi-Rho sign on their shields before the battle. Once they were victorious, they considered their success a sign of God’s favor.   Equestrian statue of Constantine the Great, by Francesco Faraone Aquila, after Gian Lorenzo Bernini, 1690-1740. Source: The Met, New York   Constantine was a shrewd politician, and some scholars doubt the sincerity and timing of his conversion. Some historians believe his conversion was much more gradual, partly due to his late baptism, which happened shortly before he died in 337 CE. Other scholars are convinced Constantine used Christianity as a unifying force for political gain, and never truly embraced the faith. Whichever it was, the effects on Christianity were undeniable.   Constantine’s support for Christianity was a radical departure from the attitudes of prior emperors, especially Diocletian, who ferociously persecuted Christians. Constantine saw the atrocities that Diocletian committed against Christians as a young man. As the new emperor, Constantine had a fresh approach, and it showed in his policies.   Edict of Milan and Council of Nicaea Battle of Constantine and Maxentius, by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano, 1650. Source: University of Edinburgh   Constantine, ruler of the Western Roman Empire, met with Licinius, Emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, in Milan in 313 CE. Together, they issued the Edict of Milan, which granted legal status to the Christian religion, allowing them to practice their faith openly without fear of persecution.   The edict did not just legalize Christianity and end state-sponsored persecution, it also gave the faith protected status throughout both empires. Christianity, which was often practiced in secret, could now come out of the shadows and promote its tenets far and wide. Sacred manuscripts, ideas, and convictions were freely shared and debated, making it easier to determine a canon for the Bible and resolve theological disputes.   Christians reclaimed confiscated property, built churches, and organized openly. The edict provided the legal framework for Christianity to flourish and expand rapidly, and it had a profound impact on Christianity.   Licinius, however, started persecuting Christians again in 320 CE, and a civil war followed. Constantine emerged victorious and now ruled a unified Roman Empire. The reunification happened under the banner of Christianity, and Constantine ascribed his success to being an instrument in the hands of God.   The newfound freedom to practice the Christian faith came with challenges, with the Arian Controversy being one of the most significant at the time. Arius of Alexandria taught that Jesus was a created being, subordinate to God the Father. Most of Christianity held the orthodox view, which promoted three co-equal persons in the Godhead.   To resolve the problem, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE. It was the first of many ecumenical councils that would follow. Approximately 300 bishops attended. Constantine was not a theologian but facilitated discussions, urging the attendees to reach a consensus.   Constantine the Great, between 272 and 337 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The council produced the Nicene Creed, a statement of faith that affirmed the divinity of Christ and rejected Arianism. This creed became a cornerstone of the Christian faith, and Constantine played a significant role in the process. Though he likely had spiritual and political motives, his commitment to Christian unity was clear. Christianity served as a stabilizing force in an empire that was plagued by division.   Unfortunately, the emperor’s involvement in ecclesiastical matters set the stage for future state-church relations that would cause much strife in later centuries. The abuses of intertwined church-state relationships in Europe would result in a commitment to the separation of church and state in America that is codified in the First Amendment of the Constitution of the United States.   Constantine’s Policies, Patronage, and Paganism The Baptism of Constantine, by the School of Raphael, 1524. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Constantine renamed the city of Byzantium, “New Rome,” although it was soon known as Constantinople. He envisioned this New Rome as a Christian city free from the pagan history and traditions of Rome. He had the Hagia Sophia built, along with many other Christian churches, establishing the Roman capital as a Christian city that would become a bastion of Christian scholarship and ecclesiastical authority.   The shift eastward eventually resulted in the establishment of the Eastern Orthodox Church. It also ensured that Christianity would be a strong force in political and cultural life in the empire. His influence stretched far beyond Constantinople as he involved himself with construction projects significant to Christianity, like the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, where Jesus was supposedly buried, and the Old St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome.   In other politically expedient acts, he promoted Christians to powerful government positions and exempted the clergy from taxes. Faith became an integral part of the power structure in his empire.   The Edict of Milan ensured the free exercise of religion to more than just Christianity. Pagan worship could continue for the most part, but Constantine limited certain pagan practices, such as animal sacrifices. He showed preference by channeling resources toward Christian institutions.   Constantine’s policies struck a strategic compromise between alienating the majority pagan populace and promoting Christianity. His gradual approach to religious change showed that he was a pragmatist and knew how to change in a politically sensitive environment. The switch from pagan religion to Christian prominence during his reign is undeniable. His policies laid the foundation for the recognition of Christianity as the official state religion of the Roman Empire.   Was Constantine a Christian? Rebuilt Hagia Sophia, Constantine had the original constructed, Istanbul (Constantinople), Turkey. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The debate on whether Constantine truly converted to Christianity or whether the Christian faith merely served as a tool in the hands of a crafty politician continues. The importance of baptism in the forgiveness of sins was already a widely held view in Constantine’s day, yet he waited until shortly before his death in 337 CE to receive the sacrament. Though many believe Constantine converted in 312 CE, he retained and used the title Pontifex Maximus, which identified him as the high priest of the pagan state religion.   On the other hand, his actions to legalize Christianity, convene and facilitate councils to hash out doctrinal issues, and construction projects to build churches to expand and preserve the Christian faith show a commitment. His reign transformed Christianity from a persecuted sect to a state-supported religion and set the stage for it to become the state religion less than half a century after his death.   Constantine had a peculiar relationship with religion. Eusebius recorded that Constantine, on occasion, refused to take part in pagan festivities, not wanting “to be polluted by the rites of demon-worship” (Vita Constantini, IV.20). This enraged the pagan population in Rome. Around the same time, Constantine also had his wife and son executed for treason.   The chi-rho adopted by Constantine. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While Christians enjoyed freedom, Constantine persecuted Jews. These persecutions were not violent like those of previous emperors. Rather, they were discriminatory laws that prohibited Jews from certain practices.   Evaluating the sources that recorded Constantine’s reign, it is prudent to note that much of it may have been state propaganda, while other parts are likely the perspectives of his political enemies. Such sources tend to render history slanted and do not necessarily reflect the true nature of events.   Be that as it may, Constantine’s influence on Christianity reverberates throughout history. His influence in elevating the faith from sectarian roots to the preferred religion of the empire cannot be refuted. He elevated Christianity to a level that would see it influence world events for centuries afterward.   Eusebius, Constantine’s biographer, was convinced of the emperor’s conversion and authentic acceptance of the precepts of Christianity. Today, historians and Christian scholars remain divided on the matter. One thing no one denies is the indelible mark Constantine left on Christianity.

  In ancient Greek mythology, Helios was the embodiment of the sun and drove across the sky every day in his golden chariot, creating the day-night cycle. As the god of the sun, Helios was also associated with light, life, and truth. From his place high in the sky, he was said to see and hear everything his light touched. While he was a major cosmic force, Helios had very few temples across the Greek world compared with other gods. Over the centuries, he came to be increasingly identified with Apollo, who eventually overshadowed him completely in the Greek world.   Centers of Worship for Helios Colossus of Rhodes, print by Crispijn de Passe the Elder, after Maarten de Vos, c. 1614 CE. Source: British Museum, London   Helios was worshiped throughout the Greek world, but his cult was less prominent than other Greek gods. In Athens, his priests were part of the harvest festival dedicated to Demeter and Persephone, owing to his role in the growth of crops. Yet, the ancient Greeks seem almost to have been neglectful of the god.   In Aristophanes’ play Peace, Helios and his sister Selene are represented as outsiders among the pantheon. This attitude was, in part, a repudiation of the Persians, who practiced a more naturalistic form of religion. Their main deities were those of the sun and moon, as opposed to the Greek pantheon, which was anthropomorphic in nature.   “Know then, that the Moon and that infamous Sun are plotting against you, and want to deliver Greece into the hands of the barbarians. […] Because it is to you that we sacrifice, whereas the barbarians worship them; hence they would like to see you destroyed, that they alone might receive the offerings.” (406-413)   Helios Rising in his Chariot, attributed to the Sappho Painter, c. 500 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   However, there was a prominent center of worship for the sun god on the island of Rhodes. Helios was the patron deity of the island and was said to be the progenitor god of the Rhodians. Their coins were minted with his likeness. They also built a massive statue in the god’s image, the Colossus of Rhodes, which became one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Unfortunately, it was toppled by an earthquake 66 years after its construction. An oracle told the Rhodians not to reconstruct it, but even in ruins, it was considered a wonder. In Rhodes, they also celebrated a festival to Helios called the Halieia. The festival was celebrated around the temple to the god, where horse and chariot races were held.   Appearance & Iconography Helios Riding in his Quadriga, attributed to the Stuttgart Group, c. 320 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   The Homeric Hymn to Helios provides the main literary description of the god. In it, he wore a golden helmet, and bright rays of light shone from him. He had golden hair that framed his face, and his clothes glowed and fluttered in the wind. His chariot was also golden and pulled by a team of four stallions.   There were rarely any sculptures of Helios, except for the Colossus of Rhodes, so most images of him come from vase paintings. Helios was typically depicted with a radiant halo or disc above or behind his head. He was also commonly shown riding his four-horse chariot out of the sea, from where he was said to rise every morning.   One of the few examples of a sculpture of Helios was on the east pediment of the Parthenon. There, Helios was located on the left side of the pediment, in the corner, coming out of the sea with four horses carved almost in the round. Although not much of the actual sculpture survives, the iconography of a chariot emerging from the sea is unmistakable, identifying it as Helios.   Helios’ Family Helios Rising from the Waves, attributed to the Gela Painter, c. 510-490 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   According to the 7th century BCE poet Hesiod, Helios was the son of the Titans Hyperion and Theia. He was one of three siblings, the others being Selene, goddess of the moon, and Eos, goddess of the dawn. Together, the three were said to shine their light upon all those on earth and the gods in heaven.   Helios had several children, the most notable of which were his son Phaethon and his daughters Circe and Pasiphae. Circe was featured in the Odyssey as the lone inhabitant of the island of Aiaia. She aided Odysseus by offering him guidance to get past the monstrous Scylla and Charybdis. She also warned him about his inevitable landing on the island of Thranicia, telling him not to eat the cattle he found there.   Pasiphae was the wife of King Minos and the mother of the Minotaur. Helios also had some children who were kings of various cities, although they were of lesser importance in the greater mythological tradition. All of Helios’ children were easily identifiable because they were said to have golden, flashing eyes just like their father.   Helios in Greek Mythology Helios and Demeter, attributed to the Tarentum Group, c. 310 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   Helios’ track across the sky, creating the day-night cycle, was his main purpose in mythology. He had a palace in the east, where he started his journey, as well as one in the west, where he finished. He then traveled the ocean in a golden cup to reach his palace in the east and begin the cycle again.   Helios plays only a minor role in various Greek myths. His light was said to shine upon everything, which led to the idea that he was witness to everything. In the story of Ares and Aphrodite’s affair, Helios was the one who saw the infidelity and told Hephaestus about it. He was also witness to Hades’ abduction of Persephone. In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, when Demeter came asking after her daughter, Helios told her what happened and tried, poorly, to console her.   “Yet, goddess, cease your loud lament and keep not vain anger unrelentingly: Aidoneus, the Ruler of Many, is no unfitting husband among the deathless gods for your child, being your own brother and born of the same stock: also, for honor, he has that third share which he received when division was made at the first, and is appointed lord of those among whom he dwells.” (82-87)   Les Travaux d’Ulysse, print by Theodoor van Thulden, after Francesco Primaticcio and Niccolò dell’Abbate, c. 1633 CE. Source: British Museum, London   A common theme associated with Helios’ role in mythology revolves around his cattle. The Gigantomachy, a war between the Olympians and the Giants that took place after the Titans had been defeated, began when the giant Alcyoneus stole Helios’ cattle. In Homer’s Odyssey, Odysseus and his crew land on Thranicia, the island where the god kept his cattle. Odysseus was warned not to eat the cattle, but when poor weather waylaid their journey home and his men started starving, they slaughtered the cattle and ate them. Helios reported the incident to Zeus, and when Odysseus and his men were finally able to sail off the island, Zeus struck their ship with a thunderbolt, killing everyone except for Odysseus.   The most prominent myth associated with Helios pertained to his son, Phaethon. He convinced his father to let him drive the chariot he used to cross the sky for a day, but he wasn’t able to keep control of the horses, who left their usual path. They first passed through the heavens, setting it ablaze, and created the Milky Way. After, they galloped down towards the earth, setting the lands on fire. Zeus stopped the chariot by killing Phaethon with a thunderbolt. Phaethon fell to the earth, landing in the Eridanus river, which is today the Po river.   Helios Versus Apollo Apollo, by Hendrick Goltzius, c. 1588 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   By the Hellenistic period, Apollo had taken over many of the roles traditionally ascribed to Helios, to the point where Apollo completely overtook Helios in the role of sun god. Apollo was much more prominent after Alexander the Great’s conquests in the 4th century BCE. However, there is evidence that this was already happening in the 5th century and possibly even as early as the 6th century BCE. By the Roman era, Apollo had fully subsumed Helios’ place as sun god, as proven by Ovid’s version of the myth of Phaethon, where he was Apollo’s son instead of Helios’.   An early connection between Apollo and the sun comes from the 5th-century BCE tragedian Aeschylus. In The Seven Against Thebes, the playwright described the underworld as a sunless place “where Apollo does not walk.” Similarly, in the Odyssey, when Helios complained to Zeus that Odysseus and his crew had slaughtered his cattle, he threatened Zeus that he would descend into the underworld and shine upon the dead, implying that the underworld is a place he does not frequent. Clearly, in Aeschylus’ mind, and likely in the mind of the audience, there was a connection between the two deities to the point where they were interchangeable.   In one of Aeschylus’ lost plays titled The Bassarai, the general plot of which was recounted in Eratosthenes’ Catasterisms, the Thracian hero Orpheus stopped worshiping Dionysus for Helios, “whom he also called Apollo,” calling him the greatest of the gods. Here, there is an outright identification of Apollo as Helios.   Metope of Helios Riding his Quadriga, from the Temple of Athena in Ilion, c. 300-280 BCE. Source: State Museums of Berlin, Berlin   The story of Hermes’ birth also borrows certain tropes from the myths of Helios. Recounted in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, the newborn Hermes raided the cattle of Apollo and hid them away in a cave in Pylos. There are parallel stories concerning cattle being driven to Pylos. During Heracles’ labor to drive off the Geryon cattle, he traveled to Erytheia, a land in the west where Helios was said to keep his cattle, using the cup that Helios used to travel the ocean at the end of his path through the sky. These cattle were then stolen from him by Neleus and driven to Pylos, where they were kept in a nearby cave. Neleus’ son Nestor also stole cattle from a descendant of Helios who ruled in Elis, driving them to the same cave in Pylos.   With this connection between Pylos and the cattle of the sun, we can infer Hermes’ theft of Apollo’s cattle belongs to this same tradition of theft of the cattle of the sun. Given that the Hymn expressly differentiates Apollo and Helios, it is likely that Apollo already possessed some identification with the sun, and thus, artists and poets could freely interchange the two to suit their needs.   Influence on Later Culture Silver Disc with the Head of Helios, Hellenistic, c. 5th-2nd century BCE. Source: British Museum, London   Helios’ direct parallel in Roman culture was the god Sol, also known as Sol Invictus, the invincible sun. Sol shared the same iconography as Helios, with a solar disc around his head and riding in a four-horse chariot. However, even among the Romans, there was a tendency to equate Sol with Apollo. By the late Empire, the cult of Sol Invictus was the preeminent cult of Rome. It was only when the emperor Constantine had a vision of the Christian god and converted to Christianity that the imperial religion began to shift.   Christianity adopted many features of the cult of Sol Invictus, such as the halo, which is still used in many Christian images to depict divinity. The date of Christmas, December 25, can also be linked with Sol. This date was originally a celebration feast for Sol Invictus, placed on the winter solstice as the turning point in the year when the days begin to lengthen. Christ gradually subsumed the role of Sol Invictus in the state religion.   References   Bilić, T. (2021) “Early Identifications of Apollo with the Physical Sun in Ancient Greece: Tradition and Interpretation,” Mnemosyne, 74(5), 709–736.   Arnold, I. R. (1936) “Festivals of Rhodes,” American Journal of Archaeology, 40(4), 432–436.   Jeffrey M. Hurwit. (2017) “Helios Rising: The Sun, the Moon, and the Sea in the Sculptures of the Parthenon,” American Journal of Archaeology, 121(4), 527–558.   Segal, C. (1992) “Divine Justice in the Odyssey: Poseidon, Cyclops, and Helios,” The American Journal of Philology, 113(4), 489–518.

  To say that religion shaped everyday life in the Middle Ages would be an understatement. In fact, it was so important that not going to church once a week was simply not an option. There were multiple church services throughout the day, let alone the week, and Medieval religion provided answers where science and facts could not. Was it a bad harvest due to the climate or God’s wrath at the sinners, who needed to repent? Was England going to war to do God’s work for Him? Read on to discover just how important religion was to shaping everyday life in the Middle Ages.   The Impact of Religion on Medieval Social Structures Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont, from Livre des Passeges d’Outre-mer, c. 1474. Source: Galicia Digital Library   In medieval Europe, the most powerful organization was by far and away the Church.   In Western Europe, the Church in question, up until the Reformation movement, was the Catholic Church, and the Pope was God’s representative on Earth. What the Pope said, the Church followed through with, as he was God’s representative.   The Middle Ages saw some of the most powerful Popes in history emerge, from Urban II, who called for the First Crusade, to Innocent III, who expelled monarchs left, right, and center, and became one of the most famous and powerful men of the Middle Ages.   However, it was not just the election of the Pope that handed power to the Papal States and beyond—it was the word of the Church which decided how people were to act lawfully. Even bad harvests could be blamed on God’s wrath at a lazy populace, for instance, or, in the case of the English famine of 1315-17, the Church claimed that God was angry at King Edward II’s alleged homosexuality, and the fact that England had lost key battles against the Scots.   The Church dictated life and medieval social structures at a very precise level during the Middle Ages. There were certain times of day to pray, to eat, and more, and this applied even to those outside of religious organizations such as monasteries.   The social structure side of things was also hugely important in the medieval world: kings, powerful lords, knights, clergymen, landowners, peasants. The members of the clergy stood fairly high in medieval standards, so aspiring to become a clergyman—or a man of the Church—was seen as a very positive career choice.   Religion and Charity in the Middle Ages St Lucy giving alms, by Giovanni di Bartolommeo Cristiani, 14th century. Source: The Met, New York   The Church, and religion in general, has always gone hand-in-hand with charity and welfare, and in the Middle Ages, this was no different.   The Church was to give alms (or charity) to those less fortunate, and because it was the most powerful organization on the continent in medieval Europe, it was also the richest.   Charity started at home, or in most cases, in the Church itself. As such, despite the majority of the population being classed as peasants, many did not receive the adequate welfare that they could have received.   However, this is not to dismiss the huge efforts that the Church did partake in when it came to charity in the Middle Ages. While “poorhouses” were more of a Victorian institution, the answer to poverty in the Middle Ages was based around hospitals.   One of the best examples of this was the Knights Hospitaller, founded in the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century, before moving to Cyprus, Rhodes, and Malta later in the Middle Ages.   The Knights Hospitaller was founded as part of the Cluniac Movement, a series of moves by the Church to go back to their roots of looking after the poor and providing charity to those who needed it. This was a hugely popular organization, and it is still looked back upon fondly to this day.   Religious Education in Medieval Europe Riveaulx Abbey, North Yorkshire, the first Cistercian monastery in the North of England. Source: Wikimedia Commons   For those who were fortunate enough to receive an education in the Middle Ages, the primary theme was not geography, mathematics, or foreign languages as we might expect in modern-day schools, but rather, religion.   The same applied even to members of European royal families, such as would-be princes and kings, who received a strong Biblical education so that they could learn their morals and religious teachings from the Bible.   Other lessons were taught alongside religion, but religion was the main focus. In organizations such as monasteries, reading and writing were taught. Monks often made copies of religious texts or the Bible, as they were educated enough to do so.   Even for those who could not afford to receive a formal education, such as peasants or serfs, they would still learn about religion through the everyday activities of their trades or through the Church.   Carpentry was Jesus’s profession, and stories about Jesus would be told to carpenters, for example. Knowing about Jesus’s stories and miracles was a key part of everyday life and a form of education.   Spiritual Guidance Through Organized Religion in the Middle Ages Medieval depiction of Creation in Cappella Palatina, Palermo, Italy. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the primary jobs of the Church since its inception has been spiritual guidance. And due to Christianity being the primary religion in medieval Europe, there was little room for other faiths in general.   Perhaps the biggest form of spiritual guidance that the medieval Church offered was an understanding of being—how people lived where they did, and why they had been put on this Earth to serve God.   Teachings about the afterlife, about Creation, and about salvation through accepting Jesus Christ as the Savior of mankind were key themes in the medieval Church.   People understood that God created the Earth in seven days, that he saved mankind from sin through the Great Flood, and that Noah’s Ark preserved animal and plant species, and represented a new start for mankind.   Religion in the Middle Ages helped to guide people morally and provided a sanctuary where their questions could be answered before science took over. The Church provided answers to these key questions where science could not, and people would turn to the Church in their time of need.   Major Life Events and Religion in the Medieval World Romanian Icon of the Nativity. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While most births, marriages, and deaths today in Europe are secular, in the medieval world, the Church was in charge of these notable life events.   Traditional religious values were enforced through rituals and ceremonies held at these key life events, such as the birth of a child or the baptism of a newborn. These life events held major religious significance, harking back to the birth of Jesus himself or to John the Baptist in the Bible.   Marriages, while for the most part strategic, particularly when European royalty was involved, were still another religious celebration. The union of man and wife is a key aspect of the Bible, while any children who were born out of wedlock were ostracized and looked down upon.   This was the same even for royalty, where in medieval England, kings who fathered bastard children would often name them “Fitz” as a prefix to their name. As such, the illegitimate children would not be in line for the throne.   Deaths were another major event that the Church presided over; even monarchs were read the “Last Rites” on their deathbeds. Being reunited with God and Jesus in Heaven was the key message from the Church.   As such, the Church took control of a medieval person’s life from the moment they were born until the moment they died.   Religious Tolerance and Persecution in the Middle Ages The Alhambra Palace. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Generalizing Europe as predominantly Christian in the Middle Ages is fine, but it is also important to remember that other faiths existed, so how were they treated in medieval Europe?   A notable example is Judaism. Jews had lived throughout Europe for centuries, with strong concentrations in France, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and England throughout the Middle Ages.   In times of peace, Jews were generally treated fairly well, although in times of turmoil, things were completely different. In 1290, Edward I expelled the Jews from England, and the Crown took their possessions into its own hands. Jews were also blamed for the Black Death throughout Europe in the mid-14th century, and the Church did very little to protect them.   Similarly, Islam also existed in medieval Europe in the Iberian Peninsula. Some of the most unique Spanish buildings hark back to the country’s Islamic age, like the Alhambra Palace in Granada.   Seville was a unique city where Muslims, Jews, and Christians co-existed for many centuries together, but again, during times of turmoil, Muslims were expelled from Spain along with the Jews, bringing an end to over 700 years of Islamic rule in the country.   To say that religious tolerance existed is right to an extent, because in times of peace, it did. But in times of turmoil, it was completely different, and the Church often looked for a scapegoat.   Medieval Religion: In Conclusion Stained Glass Panel with the Nativity, German, 15th century. Source: The Met, New York   In conclusion, religion shaped everyday life in the Middle Ages to the most precise degree. From the moment a person was born until the moment they died, they were essentially the property of the Church.   While this may sound daunting, people then knew no better. Science could not provide them with the answers that they needed, but the Church could.   It is unfair to assume that people were oppressed by religion in the Middle Ages, because it was all that they knew.

July 1, 2025 — Today's Conservative Cartoon

Van der Graaf Generator frontman Peter Hammill will play shows in Edinburgh, Manchester and London

The Beatles have been gone for more than half a century, but their shadow still looms large over rock music and rock musicians - and these are their best albums

President Donald Trump is set to visit Florida’s newest illegal alien detention facility — dubbed “Alligator Alcatraz” — later today. Officials say the site will not only increase the federal government’s holding capacity, but also provide ICE with a detention facility that is nearly impossible to break out of. Construction began on the location, an old aircraft training site, in early June, and the facility is expected to have space for around 5,000 illegal aliens. It is expected to be operational this week and will include laundry facilities, air conditioning, and medical care. The facility’s construction costs, Department of Homeland Security officials say, will be paid for in part by FEMA funds that were used under the Biden administration to house illegal aliens in hotels. The site’s nickname is a nod to the harsh conditions that made escape from the notorious California prison, Alcatraz, incredibly treacherous and virtually impossible. Though Alligator Alcatraz isn’t tucked away on an island like its namesake, the facility’s security is similarly bolstered by a harsh landscape that would require escapees to contend with the forces of nature. Satellite images indicate that the ICE detention facility is being built at the Dade-Collier Training and Transition Airport, a 39-square-mile site nestled deep within Florida’s Everglades, a nearly 40 mile drive from Miami. Illegal aliens detained at the new ICE facility have little hope of escape. If they were to make it out of the detention facility’s walls, they’d be forced to navigate forests, marshes, challenging terrain, and a variety of fearsome predators — including, but not limited to, alligators — as they make a grueling trek towards civilization. Both White House Press Secretary Karoline Leavitt and Florida Governor Ron DeSantis touted the security of the site, and the natural deterrents that await illegal aliens who somehow break out of the facility. “There is only one road leading in and the only way out is a one-way flight,” Leavitt noted. “It is isolated, and surrounded by dangerous wildlife in unforgiving terrain.” “They ain’t going anywhere once they’re there, unless you want them to go somewhere,” DeSantis added. “Because good luck getting to civilization. So the security is amazing — natural and otherwise.” If illegal alien escapees were somehow able to walk along the one road connecting the facility to the western edge of Miami, it would take anywhere from 10 to 12 hours to make it to the city on foot. But the route would almost certainly result in their recapture, forcing escapees to brave the surrounding marshlands, waterways, forests, and swamps that separate Alligator Alcatraz from the city. Satellite images show the facility — the long vertical runway on the west side of the map — up against a sprawling marsh. Google Earth Screenshot The few available Google Earth images show vast, open lakes and waterways that only appear navigable by airboat and would be virtually impossible to traverse without specialized equipment, even if one was fortunate enough to evade predatory wildlife. Google Earth Screenshot The Everglades are home to several predators, perhaps most notably, the American alligator. Growing up to 15 feet long and weighing up to 1,100 pounds, the American alligator is among the most fearsome animals on the North American continent and the species is known to be common in the Everglades. “Do not swim, snorkel, or dive … in any canal, pond, freshwater lake, marked channel, or boat basin,” the National Park Service warns visitors to the Everglades. Escapees from the ICE detention facility would also run the risk of encountering the Burmese python, an invasive species with no natural predators in the region that can grow up to 20 feet long. Experts aren’t sure just how many Burmese pythons are roaming around the Everglades, with Rory Feeney, the bureau chief of land resources at the South Florida Water Management District, saying that “it could be tens of thousands, or it could be hundreds of thousands.” The population is so difficult to estimate, experts say, because of the challenging and often inaccessible terrain of the Everglades. The Everglades are also home to the black bears and a dwindling number of Florida panthers. “It presents an efficient, low-cost opportunity to build a temporary detention facility because you don’t need to invest that much in the perimeter,” Florida Attorney General James Uthmeier said of Alligator Alcatraz. “If people get out, there’s not much waiting for them other than alligators and pythons.”

You can’t read the book of Acts and the New Testament epistles without seeing the vital role elders play in providing leadership to the church (Acts 14:23; Titus 1:5). Also referred to as pastors/shepherds and overseers (Acts 20:28; 1 Pet. 5:1–2; Titus 1:7), these men are called to lead, teach, and protect God’s flock—always under the authority of Christ, the chief Shepherd (1 Pet. 5:4). Far more than organizational figures, elders are men of tested character, tasked with modeling spiritual maturity to the congregation (1 Tim. 3:1–7; Titus 1:5–9). They’re also entrusted with spiritual gifts to equip the saints for the work of ministry (Eph. 4:11–12). But how does a new elder—especially a lay elder (or ruling elder, in Presbyterian circles)—step into that calling with wisdom and clarity? Assuming that character qualifications are in place and that the elder understands the central role of the Word and prayer (Acts 6:4), what practical advice might help him navigate the day-to-day realities of this sacred work? I asked several friends of The Gospel Coalition who currently serve, or have served, as lead pastors, What’s the best piece of advice or word of exhortation you’d give to a new elder? Steve Bateman Play your position. Understand your role in the church. The church is a family that elders love as older brothers, a flock that elders guard as good shepherds, a fighting force that elders serve as commanding officers. Scripture doesn’t require elders to do all the work, but it does require them to oversee the church so that every member comes under the load to accomplish the mission of glorifying God by helping people know, love, obey, and exalt Jesus Christ. When the church functions in a healthy way, elders can focus on their principal duties: prayer and the ministry of the Word (Acts 6:4). The church will always have both spiritual and physical needs. Faithful, gospel-centered Christians will care for widows—but the Great Commission doesn’t say, “Go therefore and care for widows.” You can care for widows and still neglect the Great Commission, but you cannot faithfully fulfill the Great Commission and ignore the physical needs of others. Both are important, but spiritual needs must take priority. That’s why physical needs should be delegated to qualified deacons, so elders can focus on spiritual oversight. Many church prayer lists are dominated by requests for physical healing and financial relief, while requests concerning the salvation and sanctification of souls are slim to none. Likewise, many elder meetings are dominated by endless discussions over buildings, budgets, and benevolence, often neglecting the prayer and planning necessary to equip church members to make disciples of all the nations. What would the apostles say to this? “It is not right” (Acts 6:2). A common error of well-intentioned elders is stepping out of their position in the church to play the position of a deacon. The result is discouraged deacons and a distracted church. As a mentor advised me early in my ministry, “Let the elders ‘eld’ and the deacons ‘deac.’” Steve DeWitt You’re beginning a journey of ministry that our Savior highly values. God lauds your willingness to step into this responsibility (1 Tim. 3:1). In my experience, the elders who have led most faithfully are those who approach the role with a servant’s heart, eager to care for the flock (1 Pet. 5:2). It’s essential to realize that every leadership team has a culture, often formed over many years and through many trials. This culture may have written values. These are important, but it’s usually the unwritten, assumed, and underlying values that you need to understand in order to lead effectively as part of the team. I would encourage you to ask for the stories behind these values. Often, the leadership team went through a great struggle out of which these cultural values were formed. Learn the stories, and you’ll likely learn the why behind the what. A leadership proverb says that elder teams protect the vision and protect the visionary. While this may exceed true eldering polity, it highlights the need for elders to safeguard the church’s overarching directions and doctrines. You’ll bless your church and team if you help them keep the big picture in view: the glory of God, the gospel, discipleship, evangelism, prayer, congregational unity, and purity. Your wisdom and contribution to the lesser things will be heard and valued as your co-elders sense your true affections for the main things. As you do, you will “pay careful attention to yourselves and to all the flock” (Acts 20:28). Dan Doriani It’s essential that new elders get to know their people. Paul says our speech should meet the need of the moment and give grace to those who hear (Eph. 4:29). To do that, we must know the needs of the people God called us to shepherd. The simplest way to do this is to ask open-ended questions, such as “Tell me a little about your faith journey.” Then listen steadily, only rarely sharing parallels or differences from your life. That is, listen more than you talk. Another simple step is to come to church 15 minutes early and stay 15 minutes late, praying for divine appointments with your people. When you step in the building look for (1) your mini-flock and (2) people you don’t know. People who won’t answer a call, text, or email will talk to you when they see you. At church, the conversations will probably last just a few minutes—rather than half an hour that busy people can’t easily spare—and yet we can share prayer requests and updates in that short time—setting up a longer conversation if necessary J. D. Greear First, choosing elders wisely means more than simply choosing the most spiritually mature men in your congregation. Of course, we always begin with spiritual maturity as a baseline, and we can allow no compromises here. The apostle Paul makes that abundantly clear in his teaching on elders in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1. But Paul doesn’t merely say, “Choose the holiest people and don’t worry about the logistics.” Instead, he lays out practical concerns. Your church needs gifts appropriate to the task of eldering—for instance, teaching, leadership, and administration. Just think of how you might choose a teaching pastor or a worship leader. You don’t simply choose the most spiritual person or the most passionate worshiper, saying, “I don’t need to know about your specific skills here.” No, you choose spiritual people with the gifts appropriate to the position. Many churches get into difficulty because they simply make spiritual men—prayer warriors—their elders, but these men may not have the leadership gifts appropriate to sit in those seats. Second, prayer is the ministry. Prayer isn’t what you do before the ministry; it is the ministry. The apostles, for instance, didn’t see prayer as something they did around the margins of their ministry; they saw it as its center. In Acts 6, when the apostles urged the church to appoint deacons to assist in meeting some of the needs in the church, they said, “Appoint [deacons] to this duty. But we will devote ourselves to prayer and to the ministry of the word” (vv. 3–4). Not prayer as preparation for the Word. Prayer and the Word. As indicated by the Greek construction of the sentence, they’re equal parts of ministry. Far too often, elders’ meetings can feel like business sessions with perfunctory slivers of prayer added at the beginning and end. In the early church, though, prayer meetings—not business meetings—were where the action happened. So rather than feel like business meetings with a sprinkling of prayer, our elder meetings should feel like prayer meetings with sprinklings of leadership and announcements mixed in. Garrett Kell Build friendships with other elders (Prov. 17:17). You and the other elders are fighting together against the gates of hell. You need each other. And though you won’t be best friends with every elder, you should pursue personal time with them. Do breakfasts, lunches, or double dates together. Check in to see how you can pray for them and their families. Spend time with them, especially with those you don’t “click with.” Do all you can to be a “Barnabas” for the other brothers; they will need your encouragement. Be the friend you desire others to be for you (Matt. 7:12). The relationships you build with your brothers will sustain you amid battle. Bill Kynes Be a good listener. As you discuss how to handle sensitive pastoral issues, make an effort to discern the values that underlie the views expressed by others in your elder team. What seems most important to them? What are their priorities? These underlying values will differ. We’re united by the clear principles of Scripture, but our perspectives may vary. Some are motivated by compassion for the hurting, others by maintaining clear doctrinal truths, still others by practical matters in how certain decisions will affect the larger congregation. All these are valid, and all should be appreciated and valued as you seek the mind of Christ in the decisions that need to be made. That takes careful attention and a humble spirit—one that acknowledges that your perspective may not be the only one the Lord would approve of. Phil Newton Dear brother, as you embark on the joyous and solemn responsibility to serve your church as an elder, let me encourage you with simple counsel: Know the flock. Shepherding without knowing the sheep will be poorly done. Think about Jesus’s example in John 10. The Lord of the flock has called you not to superficial acts in the field of eldering but rather to care for the souls of those for whom you’ll give an account (Heb. 13:17). Soul care demands knowing the flock well. Although this is daunting, you can know the flock so that you might serve them effectively. How might you know them? 1. Pray daily for members of the church. Use a pictorial directory to familiarize yourself with those for whom you’re praying and doing soul care. The more you pray for the flock, the deeper you’ll have them on your heart. The deeper they are in the heart, the more effectively you’ll apply the gospel to them. Make it a rule that each week you’ll pray through your membership roll, bearing the flock’s needs before the Good Shepherd. Soul care demands knowing the flock well. 2. Have ongoing conversations with those you’re shepherding. You will pray and shepherd generically until you take the time to listen to the members’ concerns and feel their burdens. Get to know their voices—not just the intonation but the personalities, challenges, passions, and pursuits that shape them. You’ll find even short conversations opening windows into the soul for prayer and care. They’ll listen to you with greater attentiveness when they know you’ve taken time to listen to them. 3. Make regular eye contact with your flock. I’ve often pondered the work of shepherds in a sprawling pasture. We would look at a flock of sheep and think they all look alike, but that’s not how the shepherd who regularly looks into their eyes and reads their fears, needs, and hurts would see them. Do shepherding work by face-to-face contact with those you’re leading toward living in the fullness of Christ (Eph. 3:14–19; 4:12–13). Learn to read their demeanors to pick up on anything that needs prayer, counsel, and pastoral wisdom. Get to know details about their lives, families, work, burdens, and spiritual walks. Knowing the flock lays the groundwork for teaching, leading, caring, correcting, encouraging, and being an example for them. Bobby Scott “Daddy, are you going to play with us or read books?” More than 20 years have gone by, and I still remember how convicted I felt when I told my beautiful young daughter, “Honey, I’m sorry, I have to read.” My life was such a whirlwind in the early days of my ministry. It took all the energy I had to keep from getting thrown off the sprint-paced treadmill of my ministry obligations. I convinced myself that I had to teach the Sunday school class, preach for the worship and evening services, instruct the Bible institute class, equip the small group, counsel the struggling church members, and work through all the church issues at the elders’ meetings. Now to add to that, I was tent-making. Where was Moses’s father-in-law, Jethro, when I started pastoring? My candid advice to new elders is this: Believe what you teach others, and by faith, do that. Love God with all your heart, soul, mind, and strength, and love your neighbor as yourself. Make that the nonnegotiable on your schedule. Practically, that means keep God first by prioritizing your time in prayer and in the Word. If you do that by faith, know that God will enable you to love him and your neighbors (your family and church) without compromising those relationships. As you keep refueling your passion with your devotion to God, he’ll grant you the wisdom to manage your schedule. Don’t embrace the false guilt of not being able to do everything. Say yes to what you can do for the Lord and no to what keeps you from loving your family. That’s not a compromise; that’s God’s will (Eph. 5:2, 25; 6:4, 23–24). You can do both when you don’t try to do everything. T. J. Tims Dear brother elder, as you start your course, my best advice and encouragement, from one elder to another is this: Stay excited about Jesus and his gospel. You say, “Really? That’s it? Seems kind of obvious.” It’s obvious now. But the burdens of troubled souls haven’t yet begun to stack up. You aren’t yet feeling the daily pressure of anxiety for your church (2 Cor. 11:28). The “concerns” and “suggestions” of well-meaning members haven’t yet begun to roll in. To say nothing of the burden of your own flesh, the antagonism of the world, and the schemes of the Devil—who hates you with a special spite. When the weight of all this presses down, stay excited about Jesus and his gospel. Say no to meetings if you must—and you must! Everything under the sun contrives to disrupt our connection to Jesus. Remember that after a late night of healing others, the Lord Jesus rose early to be alone with his Father (Mark 1:35). Set your priorities accordingly. Be alone with Christ for your own enjoyment. If you do this, you cannot help but help the people of God. Be alone with Christ for your own enjoyment. If you do this, you cannot help but help the people of God. At the end of the day, what you’re excited about is what comes through. Let it be Christ, and this will have a double effect. Not only will the people be built up as your enthusiasm for Jesus becomes their enthusiasm, but Christ himself will carry you and your burdens with you. Stay excited about Jesus and his gospel, and you cannot fail. Andrew Wilson ​​My main piece of advice would be to keep your eyes on the whole church, rather than the people who are particularly close to you and/or part of your ministry responsibility. Scripture calls us overseers: watchmen, supervisors, those who keep an eye on the whole house or city. It’s easy to view events through the lens of our specific ministry area, gifting, interest, or life stage, and tempting to represent (or even be partial toward) particular constituencies in the church, however large or small. Try to avoid that. Step back regularly and ask how this decision or discussion affects the whole church, including the people you wouldn’t naturally think of or even notice. When eldership teams do that, the whole community is better cared for, taught, prayed for, and equipped for ministry.