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Charles VIII’s Invasion of Italy Sparked a War That Lasted 65 Years
Today the conflict, or rather series of conflicts, which Charles’s invasion of Italy triggered are known as the Italian Wars. This series of battles, on land, and at sea, would entangle France, the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, and nearly all of the various Italian powers and would not end until the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in 1559. But what led Charles to invade Italy in the first place, and how did that invasion play out? Did it achieve its goals?
Naples: The French Connection
Portrait of King Charles VIII of France, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Unlike the more or less unified kingdoms of France and England, Italy in the 15th century was a congeries of smaller political entities, the five most prominent of which were the Kingdom of Naples, the Papal States, the Duchy of Milan, and the Republics of Venice and Florence. Alongside these were many smaller city-states, such as Urbino, Ferrara, and Genoa. France had trading relations with many of the Italian states and even occasional political alliances with some, such as Florence and Genoa. But the only dynastic claim that the French throne had in Italy was to the Kingdom of Naples (although the French Orleans family had a claim to the Duchy of Milan, which would be pursued later in the Italian Wars).
In 1265 Pope Clement IV conferred the Kingdom of Naples, a Papal fief, on the Angevins, a branch of the French Capetian Dynasty, out of which the Valois Dynasty (of which Charles VIII was a member) would also spring. The Angevins ruled the Kingdom of Naples until it was conquered by Alfonso V of Aragon (not yet part of a unified Spain) in 1442.
In 1481 the Angevin line died out and their lands, as well as their claim to Naples, reverted to the French crown. Thus, when Charles VIII ascended the throne in 1483, his patrimony included the Angevin claim to the Neapolitan throne. And as French power and influence in the Mediterranean grew, through ports such as Marseille and Toulon, Charles was quite interested in expanding into Italy, encouraged by some of his closest advisers.
King Ferrante of Naples receiving gifts, 1480s. Source: Beinecke Digital Library
The various Italian powers had courted foreign leaders as allies in their intermittent feuds over the centuries, but none of them ever really wanted a foreign power to intervene militarily, especially with the intention of establishing a permanent presence. The Aragonese (Spanish) conquest of Naples earlier in the 15th century was bad enough, and many resented the domination of a large piece of the Italian peninsula by a foreign regime.
Indeed, King Ferrante of Naples had made many enemies in Italy, and not just because of his legendary cruelty. The Venetians saw him as a threat to some of their territories, such as Cyprus, while Ferrante’s meddling in the affairs of the Papal States made him no friend of the pope. Even Ludovico Sforza of Milan, whose family had marriage ties to Ferrante, had begun to see Naples as a threat. Pope Innocent VIII actually deposed Ferrante in 1489 (the Kingdom of Naples was still under the suzerainty of the Papacy) and offered the Neapolitan crown to Charles VIII, thus creating the justification for the eventual French invasion in 1494.
The Invasion Looms: A Game of Diplomatic Chess
Portrait of Lorenzo de Medici, “The Magnificent,” workshop of Agnolo Bronzino, ca. 1565-69. Source: Wikimedia Commons
With the possibility of a French invasion on the horizon, the Italian powers began a series of diplomatic moves and countermoves, jockeying to gain the most advantage out of the situation. Ludovico Sforza of Milan sought a formal alliance with France, the port of Genoa being the lynchpin. Sforza would essentially recognize French suzerainty over Genoa in return for French protection; Genoa would supply a safe harbor for French ships, while Milan would materially support any French invasion of Italy.
Meanwhile, in 1492 Pope Innocent VIII negotiated a treaty with Ferrante of Naples whereby the Aragonese claim to the Kingdom of Naples was once more officially recognized.
Venice, determined to stay neutral and therefore uninvolved in any potential conflict, supported neither Naples nor France, arguing (justifiably so) that its territories in the eastern Mediterranean were under threat from the Ottomans and its attention must remain focused there.
Florence, despite a long history of friendly relations with France, began to become more heavily involved in Naples toward the end of Lorenzo (“the Magnificent”) de’ Medici’s life. When he died in 1492, his son Piero continued this policy, much to the consternation of Charles VIII.
Portrait of Alexander VI, by Cristofano dell’Altissimo, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons
In addition to Lorenzo de’ Medici, Pope Innocent VIII also died in 1492, bringing the infamous Rodrigo Borgia to the papacy as Alexander VI (often referred to later as simply “the Borgia pope”). Despite the normalization of relations between the papacy and Naples earlier in the year under Innocent VIII, there was soon a falling out between Alexander and Ferrante over a land dispute involving a powerful Roman baron, leading Alexander to send an embassy to Charles VIII inviting him to invade Naples.
As Piero de’ Medici, Lorenzo’s successor, was on the side of Naples in the dispute, this also caused enmity between Alexander and Florence. Charles VIII made a series of treaties with his main adversaries—Spain, England, and the Holy Roman Empire—over the course of 1492-3 so that he could focus his attention on Italy, and it became clear to all the Italian powers that a French invasion was becoming more likely by the day, and the threat of one was no longer just another piece to play on the diplomatic game board. Unbeknownst to anyone, the Italian Wars were about to begin.
The Invasion, Part I: The Surprisingly Smooth Road to Naples
Portrait of Alfonso II of Naples, Aliprando Caprioli, 1596. Source: The British Museum
In January of 1494, King Ferrante of Naples died. His son Alfonso, through a series of exorbitant concessions (essentially bribes), received confirmation of the Neapolitan crown from Pope Alexander VI, and Charles’s claims to Naples were rejected by the Papacy, despite the fact that he had been invited to invade Naples by Alexander himself less than two years previously.
After having his emissaries to the pope rebuffed, Charles began to assemble his army. Although initially planned for a smaller force of around 13,500 troops, the army that was assembled was closer to 30,000 troops, including Italian mercenaries and a hired contingent of the much-feared Swiss pikemen, as well as the largest and most modern artillery train anywhere in Europe. Such an army had not been seen on Italian soil in generations and it caused much fear and trepidation, including among Charles’s allies such as Ludovico Sforza of Milan.
French troops under Charles VIII entering Florence 17 November 1494, by Francesco Granacci, 1517. Source: Wikimedia Commons
By August 1494, Charles and his massive army had crossed the Alps and were in Italy. Alfonso of Naples, having built up his defenses at home, sent forces to attempt to harry and delay the French advance while the army was still in the north, but none of these actions were effective. At Mordano, a combined French and Milanese force besieged a combined Neapolitan, Florentine, and Papal force, eventually taking the town, leading the Swiss troops to murder everyone inside—an act which merely increased the fear that the French army created as it moved through Italy.
As the French army neared Florentine territory, Piero de’ Medici himself visited Charles in his camp and made massive concessions in order to ensure the safety of Florentine lands. However, he had overstepped his authority and was forced into exile by the angry Florentines. Charles entered Florence with his army like a conqueror but left it intact, much to the relief of the inhabitants.
The French encountered hardly any resistance as they advanced southward. Some towns simply surrendered at the French approach rather than be bombarded or suffer the fate of Mordano. At Rome, Charles was able to come to terms with Pope Alexander VI, and the final push to Naples was at hand. Charles and his commanders expected the easy road thus far to change dramatically, as Alfonso had significant defenses and a strong army. However, before Charles himself had even left Rome for the final stage of the invasion route, Alfonso had abdicated his crown to his son Ferrandino and left for Sicily, most likely out of despair at the relative ease of the French advance.
The new young king could muster little support in defending the kingdom against the French, and in less than a month, on February 22, 1495, Charles VIII entered the city of Naples.
The Invasion, Part II: The Surprisingly Rough Road Back to France
Battle Scene: Charles VIII Receiving the Crown of Naples, by Francesco Bassano the Younger, ca. 1585-90. Source: The Louvre
Young Ferrandino also left for Sicily after his request to be left in charge of the city of Naples while the French controlled the rest of the kingdom was dismissed by Charles. In Sicily, King Ferdinand of Aragon had already been building up troops since late the previous year, preparing for a possible offensive against the French. Ferdinand was also in contact with several other Italian powers who now resented the French presence, including Pope Alexander VI, Venice, and even Ludovico Sforza of Milan—once Charles’s ally but now horrified at the cost of his support and also extremely suspicious of French intentions on Milan itself.
On March 31, 1495, an alliance was formed between Aragon, the Papacy, the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian (Habsburg), Milan, and Venice, which came to be known as the Holy League, or sometimes the League of Venice. This was framed as a defensive agreement against other Italian powers, but as Charles was now an Italian power himself and was not part of the league, it was fairly obvious against whom it was targeted.
Francesco II Gonzaga at the Battle of Fornovo, by Tintoretto, 1578-80. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Meanwhile, in Naples, Charles was making few friends among the local population. He granted many lands to his followers and appointed Frenchmen to control every city in the kingdom. While most of the local nobles were not adversely affected per se, they nonetheless resented what they saw as haughty French behavior in their kingdom.
As summer approached, Charles prepared to return to France, his mission accomplished. In May Charles left a viceroy and a small garrison to maintain control in Naples and left for his return journey. He hoped to receive papal investiture of the Neapolitan crown on the way, but Pope Alexander VI intentionally avoided him, thus making investiture impossible. Charles also angered the Florentines by refusing to return their towns and fortresses that he had “borrowed” until Naples had been taken.
As Charles continued northward he learned that an army of 20,000 troops, mostly Venetian but also including a sizable number of Milanese, was waiting for him near Parma.
The Battle of Fornovo, by the Master of the Battle of Fornovo, ca. 1495-1506. Source: National Gallery of Art
The Battle of Fornovo, the first major battle of the Italian Wars, was fought on July 6, 1495. Charles’s army numbered around 11-12,000, while the mixed Venetian/Milanese army of the Holy League, under the command of Francesco Gonzaga, numbered around 20,000.
Gonzaga had picked a location along Charles’s route where the French army would be strung out due to the terrain and where the League army would be able to ford a shallow river and attack the French flank. However, Charles was able to arrange his troops into a formation where they could turn and fight if necessary, and a storm the previous day had swollen the river, hindering any easy fording. The ensuing battle was a confused affair by all accounts, and both sides claimed victory at the end. The league army had definitely suffered more casualties, but they had also captured the highly valuable French baggage train, and the French army had been the one to quit the battlefield.
The battle sent the message to the other Italian powers that while the French army was formidable, it would not always have its way in on the field of battle. As a further blow to Charles, the city of Naples fell to a Spanish army on the same day as the Battle of Fornovo.
Aftermath and Implications for the Future
Battle of Pavia, unknown Flemish artist, after 1525. Source: Wikimedia Commons
Charles was able to return to France, but his position in Italy was thoroughly weakened. The French troops remaining in the Kingdom of Naples fought against the Spanish and Venetians for several years but were ultimately unable to hold the kingdom. By the time the last French garrison, at Taranto, had surrendered in February 1498, Ferrandino had already died, and his uncle, Federigo, was now the king of Naples. Charles died two months later. However unsuccessful it was in taking and holding the Kingdom of Naples, Charles’s invasion of Italy was only the beginning of the Italian Wars.
Over the next 50 years, Italy would be the primary battleground in the great rivalry of the first half of the 16th century—that between the Valois (French) and Habsburg (Austrian/Spanish) dynasties. Although this rivalry played out in other areas of Europe as well, Italy was the scene of some of its most well-known events.
In 1515, French king Francis I led his army to a decisive victory at Marignano, proving that the Swiss pikemen could be beaten. In 1525 Francis himself was also captured at the battle of Pavia and held prisoner by Emperor Charles V. In 1527, Rome was sacked and pillaged and the pope was taken prisoner by the Imperial army. All told, four French and four Habsburg monarchs (including the Spanish and Austrian branches) would be involved in the Italian Wars before they ended in 1559. But it all began with Charles VIII’s fateful decision to invade Italy in 1494.
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