He still loves them.

An early influence who became a brief collaborator.

In the early decades of the 20th century, Harlem transformed into a vibrant epicenter of Black creativity and ambition. An unprecedented wave of music, art, literature, and activism surged through its streets, igniting what would become known as the Harlem Renaissance. This wasn’t just a localized phenomenon—it was a cultural earthquake whose tremors reverberated across ...

by Martin Armstrong, Armstrong Economics: China has discovered a massive 1-million-ton thorium deposit valued at $178 billion that could potentially power the nation for the next 60,000 years. Thorium is a radioactive metal found in the Earth’s crust that is three times as common as uranium. One ton of thorium can produce as much energy […]

How do you put a stop to bullying? For a primary school in Cambridge, England, the answer lay in a work of fiction. For years, one class had had “real problems with bullying and damaging relationships,” says teacher Helen Mulligan. Malorie Blackman’s book Cloudbusting, the story of an unlikely friendship between two boys, offered a way to explore relevant issues without making it personal and potentially worsening the situation. The pupils discussed the roles and perspectives of each character — bully, victim, bystander, supporter — and what needed to change. “Children who played particular roles were suddenly able to see themselves in the characters,” Mulligan explained in a video testimonial. She saw pupils, who for years had not considered their own actions, “suddenly reflect, analyze and amend the behavior of the characters in the books — and then follow through themselves.” Children learning about empathy at Pembroke Dock Community Primary in Wales. Courtesy of EmpathyLab The school was using resources from EmpathyLab, a U.K. organization that aims “to raise an empathy-educated generation” through the power of reading. Independent research has shown that this is one of the best ways to understand other people’s perspectives.  Stories allow us to “walk around” the character, and to consider their viewpoint in a safe way, says Imogen Bond, managing director at EmpathyLab: “We might think of reading as something that you do in isolation … actually, it’s something that really connects us to other people.”  EmpathyLab is just one of a number of initiatives built on the premise that empathy is not so much a trait one is born with, but rather a muscle that can be trained. Many educators and experts see such training as vital — for individuals and for wider society. Empathy Studios has similar goals to EmpathyLab, but uses film rather than books to expose youngsters to other life experiences. But these are not your typical educational videos, says founder Ed Kirwan, a former science teacher turned filmmaker. “Unfortunately, because entertainment has got so good, students expect that same level of material in their education,” he says. A talking head explaining why bullying is bad, for example, won’t work: “They’ve heard it all before. … It’s boring. It’s dull. It’s repetitive,” he says. Kids disengage and don’t learn anything.  Students at an Empathy Week 2025 event with Amnesty International. Courtesy of Empathy Studios Instead, Empathy Studios creates what Kirwan calls “Netflix-style” stories about real people around the world — like the Mexican mountain guide, or the hijab-wearing female footballer — and accompanying, age-appropriate teaching resources. By encouraging curiosity and exploring different perspectives, the stories act as a “trojan horse for empathy building,” according to the organization.  And it seems to work: a 2024 evaluation of 900 students in six countries found that a semester-long program of Empathy Studios lessons led to measurable, positive changes in behavior, emotional awareness and curiosity about different cultures. Cambridge University’s Helen Demetriou, who has studied empathy since the mid-1990s and helped design and interpret the Empathy Studios evaluation, says these positive results were to be expected, given how “empathy-rich” the materials are. And yet, she adds, “to think that such a small amount of intervention and time and exposure has had this impact is quite surprising, in some ways.” Empathy can be viewed as three elements, Demetriou explains: There’s an emotional (feeling) part, and a cognitive (understanding) part. Too much of one without the other can be problematic, but combined, they prompt a third element: the motivation to help.  Thanks to a recent breakthrough in genetics, we know more about what makes us empathetic. In 2018, scientists discovered that only around 10 percent is genetic — meaning up to 90 percent comes from social factors, such as upbringing or environment. That makes it “really important to think about how it can be learned in schools,” Demetriou says. Weighed down by negative news? Our smart, bright, weekly newsletter is the uplift you’ve been looking for. [contact-form-7] Studies also show that children are naturally empathetic, but this drops away as life experiences make us biased or we become “cognitively busy” — thinking about multiple things at once and losing sight of the emotional aspects, according to Demetriou. The shift can happen at a young age if kids are exposed to negative experiences. But even children who retain their natural empathy need to build on it: “It’s so very important to keep going with it. It’s like a muscle: It needs exercising.” Educators are usually on board with this; after all, empathy is increasingly recognized as essential for everything from healthy relationships to creativity to getting ahead in the workplace. But teachers are often time-stretched and under pressure to focus on other priorities. It’s “really important to think about” how empathy can be learned in schools, says Cambridge University’s Helen Demetriou. Courtesy of Empathy Studios “There’s a real drive for being able to measure every inch of a child’s progress, and it is harder to do that with things like social and emotional skills, because it’s not a linear process and it’s just much harder to put a number against it,” says Bond. Schools are helping students to develop empathy, but “it’s happening as a byproduct of things, rather than as the main focus, which I think is really problematic.” Bond would like to see schools teaching empathy as a distinct subject, citing Finland as an example. Finland and Denmark have both used “empathy classes” to encourage respect, self-esteem and kindness, reportedly contributing to lower levels of bullying. Until that idea spreads further, initiatives like EmpathyLab are stepping in. Teaching empathy is not a new idea. Roots of Empathy was created in Canada in 1996, and now operates in multiple countries. In this program, a parent and their baby visit an elementary class over the course of the school year, along with a trained instructor. Pupils observe the parent-baby relationship, and develop emotional literacy as they identify the baby’s feelings, reflect on and understand their own feelings, then consider the feelings of others. Evaluations show that pupils are kinder, more cooperative and less likely to bully others, compared to those who did not participate, and that the positive effects can last for years. A Roots of Empathy family visit at Market Lane Public School in Toronto, Ontario. Courtesy of Roots of Empathy Some newer initiatives build empathy as part of a focus on giving back to the community. U.S. nonprofit The Giving Square runs a book award scheme, where kids select the best books each year that encourage empathy and responsibility toward others. The U.K.’s First Give gets pupils to explore issues affecting their community, identify a local charity addressing their chosen issue and then come up with ways to support it. This real-life context embeds empathy more deeply, says First Give director Isaac Jones, “laying the foundations for a more generous and connected society.” Other efforts train the empathic muscle through discussion: The charity Parallel Histories gets schoolkids to analyze and then debate controversial topics such as the Israel-Palestine conflict.  For EmpathyLab and Empathy Studios, balancing breadth of reach and depth of impact is important: both organizations work directly with schools, but also run large-scale, free annual events enabling them to reach hundreds of thousands of people.  Both also train teachers to ensure the resources have the maximum impact. “Reading on your own will take you so far in terms of understanding another perspective, or building that language or ability to reflect,” says Bond. But the “additional exploration” guided by adults requires that they feel confident in this area, too. “That’s not always easy when teachers are juggling a lot.” Bond points to wider issues in literacy. In 2024, the percentage of U.K. children and young people who enjoy reading hit its lowest level since 2005. School libraries and librarians are becoming less common. And celebrities-turned-authors dominate the shelves of new releases, which can mean less space for a diverse range of stories, with richly drawn characters, told from different perspectives. Wait, you're not a member yet? Join the Reasons to be Cheerful community by supporting our nonprofit publication and giving what you can. Join Cancel anytime There are also challenges in reconciling differing understandings of empathy. One social psychologist argues that the term can refer to eight different concepts, including imagining how one would feel or think in another person’s place, or feeling distress at their suffering. For Kirwan, confusion around the term is a barrier to teaching it as a skill. Some see it as acts of kindness or simply “being nice” — whereas, he says, “empathy, for us, is about understanding in its simplest form.” Empathy Studios’ work therefore includes explaining what empathy is, and showing that it can be a bridge to understanding someone’s behavior, even if you don’t agree with them. And while some may dismiss empathy as something gentle, soft or fuzzy, this is absolutely not the case, says Demetriou: “We need a re-education with the term. … If anything, it’s extremely powerful.” The post How Kids Are Learning Empathy at School appeared first on Reasons to be Cheerful.

  Throughout human history, people have sought to build and to find the most incredible and awe-inspiring things. Alongside this effort, people have also sought to categorize and determine which things are worthy of the greatest attention. In ancient times, the Greeks published their list of “Seven Wonders of the World”, and since then, others have replicated these efforts. Through personal and public opinion, there are hundreds of natural and man-made things that can be considered “wonders” today. Which ones are the most visited?   The Original Seven Wonders of the World The Pyramids of Giza. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Of the original Wonders of the World, only one of them remains. The Pyramids of Giza, the oldest of all the man-made wonders, is the only wonder from this list to survive. And they are still a huge contender for the most visited wonder, even when considering all the declared wonders ever since! The pyramids attract more than 14 million tourists every year, making it one of the most visited spots on the entire planet.    Modern Lists Christ the Redeemer, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil   Many authors and organizations have compiled their own lists of “Seven Wonders” which fit into different categories. Some of these lists have garnered public recognition and thus attained a semblance of authority, while many others have fallen by the wayside and have been forgotten.   As such, it is difficult to make the claim of which wonder is the most visited, as it is difficult to determine what constitutes a wonder!   In 2001, however, a campaign was started which gained huge amounts of public support. New7Wonders wanted to create a new list that took into account the entire world and not just the world known to the ancient Greeks.    New7Wonders The Pyramids of Giza: Wikimedia Commons   The campaign to determine the New 7 Wonders started in 2001, and in 2007, after many rounds of public voting, the wonders were named. Those given the honor of being the New 7 Wonders were:   Machu Picchu  The Taj Mahal  Petra  Cristo Redentor  Chichen Itza The Roman Colosseum  The Great Wall of China    The latter is the most visited, receiving approximately 10 million visitors per year. The attraction is so popular that one section of it reportedly had 100 000 visitors in a single day! The second-most visited place on this list is the Taj Mahal which receives between seven and eight million visitors every year. Following the success and popularity of this campaign, a new campaign was launched to determine the New 7 Wonders of Nature.    New 7 Wonders of Nature Yasuní National Park in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Source: imaggeo   From 2007 to 2011, New7Wonders held their next campaign to determine the New 7 Wonders of Nature. The final seven were:   The Amazon, Jeju Island  Ha Long Bay Puerto Princesa Underground River Komodo Island Iguazu Falls  Table Mountain   In terms of numbers of tourists, Jeju Island claims the top spot, having recorded a total of almost 14 million visitors in 2022.    Determining the numbers for natural wonders can, however, be difficult. The Amazon is so large that it covers an area almost as large as the area covered by the 48 contiguous states of the US. Tracking who goes in and out and for what purpose is almost impossible, especially since the Amazon Rainforest can be found in nine countries!   New 7 Wonders Cities Kuala Lumpur skyline at dusk. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the success of the previous two campaigns, New7Wonders launched a third to determine the New 7 Wonders Cities. The seven cities that were eventually chosen by public voting initiatives were:   Durban, South Africa Vigan, Philippines Havana, Cuba Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Beirut, Lebanon Doha, Qatar La Paz, Bolivia   The most visited city on this list is, by far, Kuala Lumpur, which is expected to receive almost 30 million tourists by the end of 2024.    Other Lists   Of course, there are other lists compiled by people and organizations. These lists contain vastly different wonders, from the wonders of the industrial world to the wonders of the solar system, to the wonders of human achievement, and even less tangible objects. Of Deborah Cadbury’s Wonders of the Industrial World, the Panama Canal could vie for a position at the top of the list of most visited wonders, while The American Society of Civil Engineers names several wonders that could be considered, such as the Golden Gate Bridge, the Channel Tunnel, and the Empire State Building.    Astronomy magazine lists the Earth’s oceans as one of the “Seven Wonders of the Solar System”. The other wonders listed don’t have any visitors at all, at least not from Earth! If, however, one considers the list compiled by USA Today in 2006, then the clear winner would have to be the internet. The internet has over five billion users.    Conclusion   Depending on which lists are considered authoritative and which aren’t, it is difficult to make any factual claims as to which wonder is the most visited. Determining authority is purely subjective, so there can be no definitive answer. 

  The history of Roman coins goes deep into the past, with the first true Roman coins introduced at the beginning of the 3rd century BCE. By the end of the 3rd century BCE, the silver denarius was first introduced, and it remained the dominant coin in the Roman world for the next four centuries. During the Imperial Era, some emperors reduced the quantity of silver in the denarius, reducing its value.   Regardless, during the first two centuries CE, the denarius retained a decent silver content. However, from the beginning of the 3rd century CE, the newly introduced antoninianus gradually pushed the denarius out of use. As the empire sank into the Third Century Crisis, emperors increasingly reduced the amount of silver in the antoninianus, which by 270 CE had become a base metal coin with a thin coating of silver.   Roman Monetary System Aureus of Gallienus, 260-268. Source: The British Museum   Before the introduction of coinage, the Romans used various types of proto-currency such as aes rude (small nuggets of bronze) and aes signatum (stamped bronze ingots). It wasn’t until around 280 BCE that the Romans issued their first coinage, the bronze aes grave. The basic denomination was an as, which was valued at 12 unciae (units of weight). Other denominations were also introduced that had smaller values ​​(semis, triens, quadrans, and sextans).   To facilitate trade with the Greeks and other peoples in Italy, Romans occasionally minted silver coins such as didrachmae and quadrigae. During the Punic Wars, this early monetary system failed due to reductions in the weight of the aes grave. Around 211 BCE, the silver denarius was first introduced and gradually became the main Roman denomination. In the beginning, the denarius was worth 10 asses, from where it got its name. Its weight was c. 4.5 grams. That value was later increased to 16 asses, which it retained in the Imperial Period. Two new denominations were introduced, the quinarius (1/2 of a denarius) and the sestertius (1/4 of a denarius), but they were rarely used during the Republican Period. The gold aureus was also rarely used, mostly for commemorative or military purposes.   Early Roman denarius, minted in Sicily, c. 209/208 BCE. Source: The British Museum   The imperial monetary system was established after the coinage reform conducted by the emperor Augustus (16 BCE-14 CE) during his early reign. Augustus reintroduced smaller bronze denominations such as quadrans, semis, as, and dupondius which were not regularly issued after about 82 BCE. However, they were now minted from different metals such as brass (dupondius) and copper (as, semis, and quadrans). The sestertius was also reintroduced but it was minted from brass instead of silver, with its weight and size increased while retaining its original value of 1/4 of a denarius. With a weight of c. 25-27 grams, the sestertius was by far the largest Roman imperial coin.   The golden aureus had now become a regular part of the monetary system, and it had a value of 25 denarii. Authority to mint brass and copper coins was nominally retained by the Senate, which is indicated by the mark SC (Senatus Consultum) on these coins. On the other hand, the authority to mint silver and gold coins was taken over by Augustus himself. Augustus increased the silver content of a denarius, which was now around 95-98% with a weight of c. 3.9 grams, and it stayed that way until the reign of Nero (54-68).   Debasement of the Denarius and Introduction of Antoninianus Deified Augustus depicted on a sestertius of Tiberius (14–37), Senatus Consultum on the reverse. Source: Online Coins of the Roman Empire   As the Empire and its expanses expanded, emperors had to increase the production of coins, which they could only do by reducing the amount of precious metals in coins because of limited resources. This process is known as a debasement, and it is mostly associated with the Third Century Crisis (235-284) when it was most intense. However, the debasement of Roman coins, especially the denarius, began much earlier.   Nero was the first emperor to significantly reduce the silver content and weight of a denarius, which dropped to c. 90% and 3.41 grams. Further debasement occurred during the reign of Trajan, around 107 CE when the silver content and weight dropped to c. 80% and 3.21 grams. Although the denarius retained a weight of 3.21 grams during the reign of Marcus Aurelius (161-180), its silver content dropped to c. 70%. The denarius hit its lowest point during the reigns of Septimius Severus (193-211) and his son Caracalla (211-217) when its silver content sank to c. 40-50% with the weight of a little over 3 grams.   Reduction of the silver content in the denarius from 31 BCE to 250 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Debasement also occurred in other coins. The weight of the aureus dropped from 7.85 to 7.31 grams during the reign of Nero. This remained unchanged until the reign of Caracalla when it dropped to 6.40-6.55 grams. Unlike its weight, the gold content of aureus did not change that much, dropping only from 99% to 93%. The sestertius remained relatively stable during the first two centuries CE, with the first debasement of that denomination occurring only during the reign of Severus Alexander (222-235) when its weight dropped to c. 20 grams. Antoninianus of Caracalla minted in Rome, c. 215 CE. Source: Online Coins of the Roman Empire   In 215 CE, Emperor Caracalla issued a new silver denomination. The ancient name of this coin is not known, but it is often referred to as the antoninianus after the regnal name of Caracalla (Marcus Aurelius Antoninus). Its distinctive feature on the obverse was a depiction of the emperor wearing a radiate crown. Because of this, it is also called “pre-reform radiate” by numismatists. The nominal value of the antoninianus was two denarii. However, the actual silver content was roughly equal to 1.5 denarii. It weighed 5.10 grams, while the actual weight of two denarii was c. 6.30 grams.   The reasons for introducing a new denomination are not exactly known. Caracalla faced a growing financial crisis during his reign, but nevertheless, he increased soldiers’ pay by 50%. The introduction of a new type of coin was probably a way to increase coin production without further debasing the denarius.   Further Debasements Frome coin hoard from Somerset (England), which contains over 50,000 Roman coins, most of which date from c. 253-305 CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Emperor Elagabalus (218-222) discounted the antoninianus, and it was not minted by succeeding emperors up to 238 CE. In that year, joint emperors Pupienus and Balbinus reintroduced the antoninianus. Their successor, Gordian III (238-244), reduced the weight and the silver content of the antoninianus to c. 4.75 grams and 40%. After his reign, the antoninianus definitively became the dominant Roman silver denomination. Over time, these developments created a situation where people started hoarding coins of better quality. Because of this, the denarius disappeared almost completely after c. 240 CE and was only minted on rare and special occasions.   This phenomenon, where “bad money” drives out “good money” from circulation, is known as “Gresham’s Law.” As the Third Century Crisis deepened, so did the expenses of the Roman emperors. During those turbulent times, the Empire was attacked on multiple fronts and suffered from almost constant usurpations and civil wars. The army became a major factor in obtaining imperial power, and emperors had to richly reward soldiers to keep them loyal. Again, more expenses meant increased coin production, which led to further debasements.   Barbarous radiates with the bust of Gallic emperor Tetricus I (271-274) compared to the original antoninianus (first coin). Source: Augustus Coins   The quality of antoninianii dropped rapidly during the 250s and 260s. During the reign of Valerian (253-260), the silver content of the antoninianus was about 20%, and by the late 260s and early 270s, it was less than 5%, sometimes as low as 2.5%. Its weight dropped to below 3.0 grams. At that point, the antoninianus became a base metal coin (bronze or copper) with just a thin coating of silver, which quickly wore off.   Unofficial imitations of antoninianus, known as “barbarous radiates,” spread through the Gallic Empire (260-274). They were much smaller than regular antoninianii and had a very crude design. These were probably produced locally, and their original function is not clear.   The rapid debasement was evident in other denominations as well. The average weight of aureus fell from c. 4.86 grams under Gordian III to c. 4.0 grams under Decius (249-251). During the 260s its weight was reduced even further, sometimes being as low as c. 3.0 grams. From c. 251 CE onwards, aurei with radiate busts were minted which were heavier than the regular aureus (which had laureate busts). This gold denomination is sometimes called a “double aureus,” although it is not clear whether its value was truly worth two aureii, because its weight varied over time. The minting of smaller denominations (such as the dupondius and sestertius) was reduced significantly.   Aurelian’s Monetary Reform Antoninianus of Aurelian was minted in Antioch with the mintmark XXI on the reverse. Source: Online Coins of the Roman Empire   Aurelian as an emperor is mostly remembered for his military accomplishments. After defeating Zenobia in 272 CE and the reconquest of the Gallic Empire in 274 CE, Aurelian tried to stabilize the monetary situation in the Empire and reform the coinage. The only ancient historical source that mentions this reform is a single passage in Zosimus’s Historia Nova. As Zosimus tells us, Aurelian called in “all counterfeit money and issued new to avoid confusion in trade.”   It is important to note that in 271 CE Aurelian faced a rebellion of mint workers in Rome, after which the mint of Rome stopped working for some time. In 274 CE, Aurelian introduced a new antoninianus, distinguished from the older issues by the mintmark XXI on the reverse (KA in Greek issues). Since Aurelian slightly improved the silver content of the antoninianus to about 4-5%, this mintmark probably represented a ratio of silver and bronze (i.e. 20 parts bronze to 1 part silver).   The average weight of the antoninianus also increased, which was c. 3.93 after the reform. Aurelian’s reforms included a wide range of denominations that he brought back. He reintroduced the denarius and other smaller denominations such as the as and sestertius. The effects of these reforms are not clear. After Aurelian, the antoninianus continued to be minted with about 4-5% silver until they were discontinued in 294 CE by Emperor Diocletian.

  The early modern period is often cited as a military revolution. Though some scholars describe an evolutionary rather than a revolutionary process, it is undeniable that European battlefields of the 16th and 17th centuries witnessed major changes in tactics and equipment. The supremacy of cavalry was finally ended by infantry advances. Artillery, siegecraft, and naval warfare also experienced great changes during this period.   1. Landsknecht Pike Squares Bad War by Hans Holbein, 1520. Source: Grafische Sammlung Albertina   Imitation is the most sincere form of flattery and the Landsknechts epitomised it. Modelled on the Swiss mercenaries who dominated European battlefields at the turn of the 16th century, they fought in similar blocks of pikemen and halberdiers. The main body was a pike square supplemented by halberdiers and Doppelsoldners. The latter were volunteers who took positions of extra risk but received double pay as a result. They could be armed with an arquebus or crossbow but the most popular depiction is of them carrying the zweihander, the distinctive double-handed sword that is still popular in games like Warhammer.   The Landsknecht were easily recognisable by their distinctive multicolored dress, the result of soldiers repairing their clothing with whatever material was at hand. Later it became a way to display wealth and experience, with a variety of color and material indicating a particularly well-off or well-travelled Landsknecht. In addition to their primary weapon, most Landsknechts also carried a katzbalger, a shortsword that became one of their signatures.   Unlike the Swiss, their discipline left much to be desired. Commonly employed by the Holy Roman Empire, Landknechts were famous for going on the rampage after taking a city, notoriously sacking Rome in 1527. They were viewed as dangerous, unpredictable, and mutinous if unpaid. They still remained a core component of Central European armies despite this mixed reputation. Their status was also threatened by units such as the Spanish tercios. Although Landsknechts were much cheaper to raise, train, and maintain than the expensive Spanish infantry, the role of the mercenary declined as states increasingly looked towards making a professional standing army.   2. Spanish Tercios: Pike and Shot Tactics Spanish Tercio Formation at the 1600 Battle of Nieuwpoort. Source: Atlas van Loon   The Spanish tercios were the most famous infantry in the 16th/17th centuries. Nicknamed the Invincibles or the Immortals, they were feared across Europe for their iron discipline. Spanish infantry were seen as the gold standard and rival powers did their best to emulate their training and tactics.   The tercios were the epitome of pike and shot tactics, relying on a cohort of pikemen and musketeers working together. The musketeers provided the offensive capability for the formation while the pikemen protected them from cavalry and infantry attacks. Early iterations also featured swordsmen who could be used to break up enemy pike formations. It was difficult to manoeuvre and an easy target for enemy artillery. The 17th century saw Spanish formations engaging smaller, agile enemy units that focused on firepower over sheer mass.   The tercios’ reputation for invincibility was finally shattered at the Battle of Rocroi against France in 1643, but even there while the Spanish lost the battle, the tercios withstood hours of artillery bombardment and attacks by infantry and cavalry. The tercios were also feared for their dangerous actions when mutinying. Unpaid tercios in Flanders were notorious for their rampages after capturing cities, sometimes taking days before officers could restore order. They became something of an international force as Spain found itself embroiled in larger conflicts, forced to recruit from everywhere to keep units up to strength. The officers and core of the tercios remained Spanish but in Flanders they recruited Italians, Germans, Irish, Scotsmen, Walloons, and Flemings.   3. Military Reforms and Professionalization A Soldier Loading His Caliver by Jacob de Gheyn, 1607. Source: The Morgan Library and Museum   The increasing scale of warfare in early modern Europe contributed to a resulting surge in professionalism. Military reforms were instituted that slowly broke the supremacy of the tercio just as pikes had reduced the prestige of cavalry. Military theorists scoured ancient manuals for inspiration to defeat major powers such as Habsburg Spain or the Ottoman Empire.   Many of the initial reforms drew on ancient Macedonian and Roman techniques. Close order drill (still a cornerstone of basic military training) was instituted, enabling soldiers to act in unison, enabling increasingly complicated formations and maneuvers on the battlefield. It also broke down basic military movements such as loading a musket or hefting a pike into a series of small imitable movements, a method of instruction still used by armies today. Soldiers became specialists in their chosen weapon, be that a pike or musket.   Another ancient drill that experienced a resurgence was that of the countermarch. Initially used by the Romans for slingers, peltasts, or archers, the same technique could be applied to troops using muskets or arquebuses. The front rank would fire before turning and marching down the gaps in the files to the rear of the formation. There they could reload while the next rank presented their weapons. This was mimicked by horsemen in techniques such as the caracole where the front rank would discharge their firearms before galloping to the rear to reload, allowing the next rank to push forward and fire. Professionally trained troops had a much greater advantage over hastily raised levies or militias.   4. Winged Hussars and Hakkapeliitta: Shock and Awe Hussar by Michał Kuleša, 19th century. Source: Lithuanian Museum of Art   Two distinct types of cavalry further east were the Polish winged hussars and the Finnish Hakkapelitta. The winged or Polish hussars were a distinctive type of lancer known for their elaborate wings worn on the back of their armor. Unlike hussars in other countries, used mostly as light cavalry and unarmored, Polish hussars served as heavy cavalry, used as shock troops to shatter enemy formations.   Polish hussars fought in nearly every battle of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from the mid-1500s to the early 1700s. They are most well known for their participation in the Siege of Vienna in 1683 where they formed part of the largest cavalry charge in history. Led by King Jan III Sobieski, the Polish hussars and thousands of allied cavalry struck the decisive blow to break the Ottoman siege of the Austrian capital.   A different sort of cavalry was the Finnish hakkapeliitta. The Finns fought as part of the Swedish Army. They employed similar tactics to the hobelar or reiver cavalry that had been used in Britain and Ireland until the 1600s. The hakkapeliitta were a versatile type of light cavalry that fulfilled all the duties of skirmishing, raiding, and reconnaissance that light cavalry were tasked with. They were also useful in battle, famed for their speed and aggressiveness. Their name is derived from their battle cry, hakkaa päälle, Finnish for “cut them down!”   The hakkapeliitta fought with the Swedish Army in Germany, Estonia, Livonia, Poland, Bohemia. During the Thirty Years War, they announced themselves on the central European stage when King Gustavus Adolphus led them to a crushing victory over the Imperial Army at the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1631.   5. Black Riders and Dragoons: Firearm Cavalry Pappenheim Cuirassiers by Hendrik Jacobus Vinkhuijzen, 1632. Source: New York Public Library   The most common type of cavalry found in central Europe were Black Riders (Reiters). In some ways a precursor to the dragoon, they marked the transition of cavalry from melee weapons to firearms. Reiters were armored but did not wear a full suit of armor like a knight. They carried swords but the main weapon was the pistol. The aforementioned caracole was their favored tactic, continually harassing infantry with volleys of pistol fire until (according to theory) the enemy formation disintegrated. The Dutch commander Maurice of Nassau aptly demonstrated their potential when he defeated Spanish infantry and cavalry with a mostly cavalry force at Turnhout in 1597.   While the name reiter shows a predominantly Germanic origin, many reiters served as mercenaries in foreign armies, thus exporting the term to different languages. A more international version of firearm cavalry were dragoons. Dragoons were a middle ground between cavalry and infantry. They moved on horseback but dismounted to fight. Cheaper to raise than cavalry, they were jacks of all trades, used as both infantry and cavalry depending on the situation.   This mixed origin made dragoons a flexible type of soldier but inferior to true cavalry in a melee due to their smaller horses and equipment. Against numerically superior infantry they could always retreat. Dragoons struggled for decades to raise their social status. In the Swedish army they were referred to as laborers on horseback, but by the late 1700s most dragoon regiments had become indistinguishable from that of other cavalry units.   6. Firepower Over Manpower Battle of Vienna by Frans Geffels, 1690. Source: Wien Museum   In the 17th century, reformers such as Maurice of Nassau in the Netherlands and Gustavus Adolphus in Sweden made their own modifications to the Spanish tercio which was still seen as the infantry gold standard. Both were from smaller nations that could not rely on large reserves of manpower like France, Spain, or Russia. Maurice emphasised broader narrower formations that brought more firepower to bear on a target, reducing ranks of musketeers from ten deep to six. He also utilized smaller formations than the Spanish. His theories proved effective when he defeated a Spanish army in the field at Nieuwpoort in 1600, a rare accomplishment at the time.   Gustavus Adolphus pioneered his own aggressive tactics. Like Maurice, he reduced his musketeer ranks, prioritising the shock of a mass salvo. Musketeers would pack together so three ranks could fire at once before the enemy were charged. Swedish doctrine also emphasized the shock effect of cavalry. Unlike rivals who would retreat to reload, Swedish cavalry would charge in tight packed formations, firing their pistols close in before crashing into the enemy. Tactics like these enabled the outnumbered Swedes to defeat larger armies and make up for their lack of numbers.   Other countries had their own innovations. Further east, Russian armies would use improvised fortifications to make a moving fort while other eastern armies in Europe prioritized cavalry. The terrain also dictated the tactics and style of fighting. Armor remained popular in eastern Europe because of the Tatars and Ottomans as they still used bows alongside firearms. The military revolution continued throughout the 1600s with innovations such as the bayonet, which enabled infantrymen to use their firearms as an improvised pike in melee combat, further enhancing their superiority over cavalry.

  Princess Alexandra led a privileged childhood in the German Empire, close to her cousins in the British royal family. Her charmed upbringing led to a teenage romance with the future tsar of Russia, Nicholas Romanov. She became the empress of the Russian Empire when her husband rose to power in 1894, but she would be the last. Their relationship was a loving one blessed with children. However, despite this good fortune, Alexandra would unintentionally play a role in the disintegration of the Russian monarchy and the devastation of her entire family.   Alix of Hesse’s Early Life Young Alix. Source: Royal Collection Trust / Wikimedia Commons   Victoria Alix Helena Louise Beatrice, known properly as Alexandra Feodorovna and as Alix or “Sunny” to her family and friends, was born June 6, 1872. She was born into her father’s Grand Duchy of Hesse, located in Darmstadt in the German Empire. Alix was the sixth child of her parents, Grand Duke Louis IV and Princess Alice, the daughter of famed British Queen Victoria.   Unfortunately, though she led a privileged childhood, it was also one of sadness. Her mother, Princess Alice, died when Alix was only six years old. Still, Alix remained close to her mother’s family, spending much of her childhood in the company of her cousins in England. She was a favorite child of her grandmother, the queen. Like many nobles, Alix was educated at home, then later attended both Oxford and Heidelberg University to study philosophy, receiving a doctorate at the latter.   Alix and her siblings mourned the death of their father together in 1892. Source: Carl Backofen / Wikipedia   Alix frequently traveled the European continent with her father and relatives, visiting many of the European royal courts that were interconnected by family and marriage at the time. One of these courts was that of the Russian Empire.   At age 12, Alix visited St. Petersburg for a six-week holiday. This visit celebrated the marriage of her older sister Ella (formally Elisabeth), to Grand Duke Serge, brother of the Russian Tsar Alexander III. It was on this trip that Alix first caught the eye of Alexander’s son, Nicholas II, who was the tsarevitch, or heir to the throne.   Nicholas, known fondly as Nicky, nursed his crush for a number of years, writing in his diary in 1892 that he dreamed of marrying Alix one day (Massie, 1995, p. 27). However, his anti-German father preferred his son find a wife elsewhere. Nicholas dated a few nobles and even a ballet dancer, but his heart remained set on Alix (Massie, 1995, p. 20).   The tsarevich’s parents eventually consented to the marriage, and the engagement became official on April 8, 1894. After some hesitation, Alix converted to Russian Orthodoxy, as required by the Russian monarchy. Alexander III passed away on November 1st, 1894, bringing his son into the role of tsar. As Nicky ascended to the throne, he finalized his marriage to Alix on November 26. The two settled into their recently developed roles, not only as newlyweds but as the emperor and empress of the Russian Empire.   A Happy Marriage Alix in 1908. Source: Boasson & Eggler / Wikimedia Commons   A rare situation among royals of the time, Nicholas and Alexandra had married for love and continually proved their devotion to one another, often preserved in letters. They decided to make their home at Tsarskoe Selo, a smaller home than the traditional home of the Russian royals, the Winter Palace. Still, it was a monumental home, grand and with a full staff selected by Nicholas’ mother, Marie, the dowager empress.   While Nicholas went right to work leading the country, Alix seized every opportunity to spend time with and aid her busy husband. The pair’s coronation didn’t take place until May 14, 1896, but it was a spectacular event. Her dress and jewels were exquisite and solemn. The ceremony took five hours, thus sealing Alix to Russia forever.   However, in Alix’s eyes, the event was marred by what was later known as the Khodynka Tragedy. Gathering to receive commemorative gifts, a tradition of the celebrated event, over half a million people gathered after the coronation. Rumors began to swirl that the gift items were limited in number, and people began to push toward where they would be given out. In the crush, thousands were killed. Hearing about the disaster, the royal couple visited victims in the hospital and distributed reparations to the families of those killed. Those close to the empress said the tragedy “rent the empress’ heart.”   The daughters of Alix and Nicholas, in a photograph sent to Alix’s aunt in 1914. Source: Royal Collection Trust   In 1895, the couple welcomed their first daughter. Though many had hoped for a son to carry on the royal line, the new parents were beyond pleased with baby Olga. However, three more daughters followed, and concern rose about the possibility of an heir. Still, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Olga were loved and nurtured by both parents. Known collectively by their nickname OTMA, the girls had unique personalities but were all fun-loving and family-oriented.   In 1904, fears were put to rest when Alix gave birth to a baby boy. Alexei would take on the role his father had once held, that of tsarevitch. However, not long after he was born, disaster struck Alix and Nicky’s marriage once again. They realized that their son had hemophilia.   A blood clot, something that is hard for hemophilia patients to form naturally. Source: National Institutes of Health   It is rumored that Nicholas’ parents had suspected Alix of being a hemophilia carrier, and that was part of the reason they did not want her to marry their son. Hemophilia was a royal curse of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Though it was not well understood or treated at the time, doctors did know that the affliction was carried somehow by parents and resulted in often uncontrollable bleeding. In addition to the risk of excessive bleeding, hemophilia patients face risks from blood pooling in the joints or seizures from blood applying pressure to the nervous system.   This inherited blood disorder generally only affects male children but is carried by mothers. Alexei was forced by his parents to be exceptionally cautious, missing out on many childhood activities such as sports and riding in an effort to protect his life (Massie, 1995, p. 141). Even with all of these precautions, Alexei suffered from a painful childhood, much of which was spent in bed recuperating.   As she watched her son suffer, Alix became more withdrawn and was often depressed. She worried for her son’s future and agonized alongside him. She often avoided public appearances. Her withdrawal made her seem disengaged and unappealing to the masses. This, along with her German heritage, made many in the general public suspicious of her and her role in the government. This would become even truer as Alix welcomed a new friend into her life and into the palace in hopes that he would help her son.   Rasputin Weaves His Web Alix, Nicky, and their children in 1913. Source: Library of Congress   Alexandra was introduced to Grigory Rasputin, who had a reputation as a mystic and a monk, by a friend. Rasputin shocked doctors and the royal family when his presence and rituals seemed to heal the tsarevitch and stop his bleeding. Desperate to help her son, Alix gave Rasputin unprecedented access to the palace and her family.   While he was popular among nobles for a while, it soon became evident to some that Rasputin was simply after power and that his mysticism was fake. As his popularity waned, there was worry that Rasputin held undue influence over the royal couple and was perhaps swaying some of Nicholas’ decisions as tsar. Rumors even swirled that Rasputin and Alix were having an affair. In 1916, Rasputin was assassinated by a cadre of nobles, and his hold over Alix was brought to an abrupt halt.   Final Days Alix spent many hours nursing the sick and volunteering. She is pictured on the right in this photo by an unknown photographer. Source: International Encyclopedia of the First World War   As his years in power continued, Nicholas struggled in many respects in his royal role. He was blamed for lost battles, food shortages, and inflation in the economy. As the people became more restless, rumors of revolution spread. As he lost the support of his military, Nicholas decided to abdicate.   Nicholas, Alix, and their children were immediately imprisoned. Despite their arrests, the family remained fairly comfortable, held at various estates around the countryside. Within months, the Bolshevik political party took power from the interim government that had stepped in after Nicholas’ abdication. During this time, Alix continued to focus on her children, particularly Alexei, secreting royal jewels and other valuables that she kept sewn into her clothing.   At the same time as the emperor and empress, other Romanov family members were kept under house arrest in different locations. Pictured here in 1918 are some of Nicky’s relatives, including his mother, seated in the center of the photo. Source: Royal Digest Quarterly / Wikimedia Commons   On July 17, 1918, Alix and her entire family were asked to report to the basement of the home in which they were currently held in Ekaterinburg. They were told that they would be preparing for another move. However, instead, the entire family was assassinated by Bolshevik revolutionaries.   They were initially shot, but the jewels that Alix and her daughters had sewn into their clothes deterred bullets, and they were bludgeoned and bayoneted to their final demise. The murder of the former royals was kept quiet and was not publicly acknowledged by the Soviet Union until 1989.   Alix pictured in 1894. Source: Royal Collection/National Portrait Gallery / Wikipedia   Despite a privileged upbringing, Alix of Hesse suffered many tragedies throughout her lifetime. From the loss of her mother as a child to supporting a sickly son, to battling rumors and eventually succumbing to a vicious murder, Alix remained steadfast and loyal to her family.   Further Reading:   Massie, R.K. (1995). Nicholas and Alexandra: The Story of the Love That Ended an Empire. New York: Ballantine Books.