"There was nothing definitive reached other than I insisted that negotiations with Iran continue to see whether or not a Deal can be consummated," Trump said following the meeting.

by Willow Tohi, Natural News: Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov accuses the U.S. of seeking to dominate global energy supply routes through coercive measures. Lavrov cites U.S. actions against pipelines like Nord Stream and sanctions on Russian energy firms as evidence of this strategy. The comments highlight escalating tensions between the U.S. and BRICS nations […]

by Paul Craig Roberts, Paul Craig Roberts: For the sixth time since Trump resumed the presidency a few days more than one year ago, Israel’s ruler, Netanyahu, will be in Washington on February 11 to meet with Trump and to give Israel’s puppet his marching orders concerning Iran.  Netanyahu is not content with Iran foregoing […]

from Judge Napolitano – Judging Freedom: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

Crispy, cheesy, and beefy. READ MORE...

Good thing there's four in a pack. READ MORE...

  When we think of ancient temples, we generally imagine the Parthenon in Athens or the Pantheon in Rome: monumental structures dedicated to powerful gods where priests performed rituals to appease them. Yet in ancient Mesopotamia, at the onset of urban civilization starting in the 4th millennium BCE, temples were more than just religious centers. They were social institutions that facilitated trade, provided employment and education, and governed the city.   Urbanization & the Rise of Mesopotamian Temples Cylinder Seal, found in Ur (modern day Iraq), c. 2600-2300 BCE. Source: British Museum   Ancient Mesopotamia, the “land between rivers,” was situated between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq. It was in an area of fertile land that also encompassed the Levant and southern Anatolia, called the Fertile Crescent. In Mesopotamia, flat plains were irrigated to produce abundant cereals and date trees. The steppes allowed for animal husbandry and hunting. There were marshes with fish, fowl, and water buffalo. This wide variety of food sources allowed people to specialize in particular skills.   A by-product of labor specialization was that family units were no longer self-subsistent, requiring cooperation with others and a system of exchange to survive. This gave rise to the first cities, central locations where people could gather to exchange goods. While a large portion of city dwellers still subsisted via agriculture, a small portion of the population began to specialize in non-agricultural crafts, such as pottery and weaving. This development led to the need for an authority to organize a system of exchange for goods and services. This authority was the temple.   Religious figures were already highly regarded in society and were naturally trusted to administer on the people’s behalf, with a portion of production being paid for those services. This made the temple the central institution of early cities, and an increasing portion of the urban population found itself employed by temples and dependent on them for survival. Dependent laborers were given rations of food, cloth, and oil for their services. This kind of administration required organization and accurate record-keeping. Standard measures were created for land, goods, and time, and a new technology was invented to keep track of everything: writing.   Imposing Structures Remains of Uruk, 150 miles south of Baghdad, occupied c. 4000-3100 BCE. Source: JSTOR   Given their central importance, temples were built on a grand scale to reflect that importance. It was tradition to rebuild temples on the exact site of the previous one, and after centuries, the debris from older temples built up in a mound, called a tell. Atop the tell, the temple presented a visual focal point. Uruk, generally considered to be the first city in world history, was surrounded by flat plains devoid of any mountains or bluffs, so the view of the city’s buildings and the temple that rose above the walls must have made for an impressive sight.   In southern Mesopotamia, where cities generally developed organically, the temple was centrally located, with the rest of the city growing outward from the temple precinct. In redesigned cities with planned layouts, such as Babylon and Borsippa, the city center was dominated by the religious sector, and the main processions from each of the city’s monumental gates led directly to it.   The Tower of Babel or Birs Nimrud Restored, by William Simpson, c. 1885 CE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   As cities became wealthier, temples grew into massive structures with decorated statuary and mosaics. These structures, called ziggurats, were made up of stepped platforms that rose in the center with a central staircase and two perpendicular staircases that climbed the face of the monument. The temple itself was located at the top and only accessible to temple priests. However, not all temples were located at the top of ziggurats. Some had just a vestibule where priests could go to entreat their gods.   Educational Centers Proto-Cuneiform Tablet with Seal Impressions, Sumerian, c. 3100-2900 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Temples were also where children, those of noble families or taken in by the temple, were educated in multiple disciplines. Known as edubbas, or tablet houses, the schools specialized in training scribes. The curriculum includes writing, math, astronomy, legal training, and administration skills necessary for the functioning of the city. Education was stratified, with the sons of nobles receiving advanced learning in literacy and religious texts, while the sons of lower-born families learning skills relevant to their family’s occupation.   The temple schools were attached to the temple building, reflecting the close relationship between education and religion. Children were enrolled as young as eight years old, and their education took approximately 12 years. Only a small percentage of the population became literate, and literacy was a source of prestige and authority. Education thus reinforced social stratification.   Reinforcing Social Stratification Cuneiform Tablet recording a Ration List, Babylonian, c. 20th-16th centuries BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Before the development of cities, social units were based on kinship ties, called households. These were extended family units that lived together, with each member fulfilling a specific role necessary for survival. For example, one member of the family might focus on weaving textiles while another would focus on agriculture. Whatever one member could not produce was supplied by another member. As households began to specialize in specific areas of production, they began to rely on other households to supply them with what they did not produce themselves. With the development of cities, rural family units moved to the urban area and could no longer depend on their traditional household ties. Instead, they depended on the temple.   The temple institution was structured as a household with the god as the “head” and those employed there or using its services as its dependents. In this way, the urban community was a larger scale version of a familiar social system. All those dependent upon the temple household provided a portion of their production or expertise to the institution in exchange for rations. However, how much someone received was dependent on their occupation. Unskilled laborers were at the bottom of the social hierarchy, with women receiving half as much as men. Supervisors received more, and skilled craftsmen received more than unskilled laborers. Those at the top of the social hierarchy were the scribes and leaders of the temple, the ones with the knowledge and skills to administer the city.   Religious Centers Temple of the Goddess Innin (Eanna) at Uruk, c. 15th century BCE. Source: Allan T. Kohl via JSTOR Temple layouts were larger versions of the homes in which the Mesopotamians lived. There was no difference in kind, only in scale. There were bedchambers, kitchens, storage spaces, and communal areas. This is because the gods were, like in Greek mythology, anthropomorphized and seen as having the same needs as their human worshipers. The Sumerian word bitu, meaning “house,” was used to refer to temples. The building itself was sometimes deified and spoken of in texts as if it were alive and divine. In this sense, it was as though the god continued to live in the divine realm even when they were on earth.   All religious activity, such as sacrifices and rituals, happened within the temples, which were always located in a city. There is currently no evidence of any cult activity that took place outside cities. No natural features like mountains or trees were venerated. This could be due to the relatively featureless plains of southern Mesopotamia.   Since temples were primarily economic and administrative institutions, religion was what formalized and legitimized their broader activities. Temples and their priesthoods acted as intermediaries between the inhabitants of the cities and their gods. When a temple or the city was destroyed, it was seen as the god abandoning the city.   Political Hubs Relief Panel of a King and his Attendant, Assyrian, c. 883-859 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Given their central importance to the community, the temple institution was politically dominant in early Mesopotamian history. As of the mid-3rd millennium BCE, the institution was incorporated into the palace hierarchy. As competition with other cities grew, the political authority of the temples was gradually usurped by a secular and military authority, namely kings. Conflicts with other cities were often framed as the military leader defending the land of the city’s patron god, giving the king an ideological basis for his leadership. Eventually, the distinction between temple leadership and palace leadership was erased when King Uru’inimgina took possession of all temple domains for himself through a series of reforms. While his reforms did not last long, later kings always held the position of high-priest of the temple institution.   Most Mesopotamian kings undertook temple-building projects to legitimize their rule. Since kingship was seen as having descended from the gods, the act of building a temple showed the people the king’s divine favor. Often, construction was justified as being requested directly by the gods. Kings would also place their family members into prominent temple positions. For example Sargon, the king of Akkad, installed his daughter, Enheduanna, as high priestess of the moon god Nanna at Ur. She wrote a series of hymns to various gods, integrating the disparate cults into a singular religious system. She is also the first identifiable author in world history. For the next few centuries, any ruler who claimed authority in Ur would install their daughter as high priestess of Nanna.   Ur, Neo-Sumerian, occupied c. 2100-2050 BCE. Source: JSTOR   Temples in ancient Mesopotamia were more than just places of worship. They were economic hubs, political authorities, and education centers. They formed the beating heart of the city. Empowered by a shared religious ideology, temples structured urban life and facilitated the development of the world’s first cities.   Select Bibliography   Hundley, Michael B. (2013). Gods in Dwellings: Temples and Divine Presence in the Ancient Near East. Society of Biblical Literature.   Makkay, J. (1983). The Origins of the “Temple-Economy” as Seen in the Light of Prehistoric Evidence. Iraq, 45(1), 1–6.   Nadali, D. & Polcaro, A. (2016). The Sky from the High Terrace: Stuy on the Orientation of the Ziqqurat in Ancient Mesopotamia. Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry, 16(4), 103-108.   Pongratz-Leisten, B. (2021). The Animated Temple and Its Agency in the Urban Life of the City in Ancient Mesopotamia. Religions, 12(8), 638.   Ur, J. (2014). Households and the Emergence of Cities in Ancient Mesopotamia. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 24(2), 249–268.   Van De Mieroop, M. (1997). The Ancient Mesopotamian City. Oxford University Press.   Yıldırım, E. (2017). The Power Struggle Between Government Officials and Clergymen in Ancient History. Journal of Ancient History and Archaeology, 4(3).

  Stories about the Vikings often focus on their raids of England and France, their settlement of Iceland and Greenland, and their early trips to the New World. But the Vikings did not overlook the nearby Emerald Isle. The Vikings raided and then occupied much of Ireland for a short but intensive period in the 9th and 10th centuries. While they left a significant archaeological footprint in key strongholds like Dublin, their impact on Irish culture was less pronounced than on English culture. This is because the Norse arrivals were quickly Gaelicized and converted to Christianity, becoming part of the local landscape.   Ireland Before the Vikings Reverse of the Tara Brooch, c. late 7th or early 8th century, Co. Meath, Ireland. Source: Wikimedia Commons; Christ Enthroned, from the Book of the Kells, c. 800, Columban monastery of Ireland or Scotland. Source: Trinity College Dublin   In the 8th century CE, before the Vikings set foot on the Emerald Isle, the local culture was Gaelic, a form of Celtic culture. It felt quite different from Britain, which had been heavily shaped by the Roman presence. Nevertheless, the country was already mostly Christianized, starting under the influence of Saint Patrick in the 5th century CE.   The Irish people mostly lived in small rural communities, and there were also many monastic settlements. These were loosely organized around 150 semi-independent kingdoms, known as Tuatha, ruled by petty kings and chiefs. Fighting and alliance-building were common between the kingdoms, not unlike in the Viking world.   Nevertheless, in the 8th century, Ireland was relatively peaceful and enjoying a Gaelic Golden Age. They were known for their fine artistic work, monumental Ogham inscriptions, and incredible illuminated Latin manuscripts, such as the famous Book of Kells.   Early Viking Raids Pommel of the Ballinderry Sword, a Viking weapon found in an Irish bog, c. 10th century CE. Source: National Museum of Ireland   The start of Viking raids and influence in England is marked by their attack on the monastery of Lindisfarne in 793, probably carried out by Danish Vikings. Viking interest in Ireland, just a short sail over the Irish Sea for the seaborne raiders, started around the same time. The first recorded Viking raid on Ireland happened in 795. The raiders were probably Norwegian Vikings, who sailed around the Scottish coast and then south to raid the island of Lambay. They are then recorded raiding the coast of Braga in 798, and the coast of Connacht in 807.   Just as in England, these initial raids were mostly small-scale, possibly involving just three or four ships. They launched smash-and-grab attacks, targeting wealthy monasteries, poorly defended and full of riches and literate monks, who would fetch a good price at Moorish and Volga slave markets. These sporadic raids continued for about two decades.   By the 820s, the Vikings brought over many more ships, reportedly 50-100. They established fortified settlements along the Irish coast so that they could winter there and expand their activities. The earliest Viking camps were at Linn Duachaill (modern Annagassan) and Duiblinn (modern Dublin). From these bases, the Vikings could attack further inland, using their shallow ships to sail down rivers considered unnavigable by others. They raided wealthy settlements and then retreated to their seaside forts.   Dublin-built Viking ship, tree-ring analysis shows that it was built in Dublin in 1042. Source: Roskilde Museum, Denmark   In 836, the Vikings raided the lands to the south around Ui Neill. The following year, they sailed down the Boyne and Liffey rivers in the east and down the Shannon River in the west. In 840, the Vikings spent a year on Lough Neagh, targeting the monasteries of Armagh and Louth. Clonmacnoise, Birr, and Clonfert were pillaged in 845. As a result of these activities, some Irish monks took up arms themselves, while others relocated to the continent, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands.   The Kingdom of Laithlind Map of Viking activity in Ireland, 795-873. Source: War History   The Irish sources refer to a kingdom called Laithlind (or Lochlainn), which was once considered to be in Norway but is now identified as a group of Norwegian settlements in Scotland and on the Isle of Man. This kingdom fed much of the Viking activity in Ireland. Many of the larger actions in the early 9th century are believed to have been part of a coordinated effort to take Ireland for the King of Laithlind, known as Turgesius, or Thorgils in Old Norse.   Thorgils has been variously identified. The Icelandic author Snorri Sturluson claimed he was the son of the first Norwegian king, Harald Fairhair, but Harald lived in the second half of the 9th century, making this chronologically impossible. Based on the testimony of the 12th-century chronicler Saxo Grammaticus, who states Ragnar Lodbrok raided Ireland, others have suggested that this king was Ragnar himself.   A reference to Laithlind scribbled in the top margin, in St. Gallen manuscript Priscian Institutiones Grammaticae, Cod. Sang 904, p. 25, c. 9th century CE. Source: Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen   While Thorgils’ identity remains unclear, he terrorized Ireland between 832 and 845. He reportedly oversaw the expansion of the Norse fortifications into full settlements, using them as a base to become the master of the northern half of Ireland. Snorri Sturluson says that he ruled this territory from Dublin, which was officially established in 841. The Annals of Ulster imply that his wife was a witch, or volva, casting aspersions on these pagan interlopers.   In 845, Thorgils was captured by the King of Mide, Mael Sechnaill, and drowned in Loch Uair. This was followed by several other Irish victories, culminating in the destruction of Viking Dublin in 849 by the same Mael Sechnaill, who was by then the High King of Ireland. The new King of Laithlind reportedly sent 150 ships in retaliation, which caused chaos across Ireland.   Dark Foreigners: Olaf and Ivar Wooden plank with Viking Ship and Weathervane graffiti, Dublin, c. 10th century CE. Source: National Museum of Ireland   The Viking dynamic in Ireland reportedly changed in 851 when, according to the Annals of Ulster, the “Dubgenti (dark foreigners) came to Ath Claith, made a great slaughter of the Findgailll (fair foreigners), and plundered the naval encampment, both people and property.” This seems to refer to the arrival of a new group of Vikings in Ireland, moving in to take advantage of the losses of the existing Vikings.   In 853, a new Viking called Amlaib, probably representing the Norse name Olaf, made himself the king of Dublin. Mael Sechnaill tried to negotiate with him in 854, but with no success, as Olaf had already made himself the undisputed leader of all the Norsemen in Ireland. Olaf then reportedly raided throughout England and returned with his two sons, Imar and Asl, or Ivar and Asl in Old Norse.   Ivar the Boneless and his brother Ubbe ravage the English countryside, Harley MS 2278, fol. 48r., c. 15th century. Source: British Library   Imar has been identified as Ivar the Boneless, the famous son of Ragnar Lodbrok, who was one of the leaders of the Great Heathen Army in England. Regardless of whether he was really the legendary son of Ragnar, he clearly had a significant influence on the Norse in Ireland. They became known as the Ui Imair, meaning “descendants of Imar/Ivar.” The same name was given to the Vikings in York in England, a city also believed to have been established by Ivar the Boneless.   The following decades saw many battles and alliances between the Vikings and the various Irish kings. Initially, the decentralized nature of Irish politics, with scores of petty kings, may have led the Vikings to believe that they could take Ireland with a strategy of divide and conquer. But because there were so many kings, it was never just a simple case of removing an aristocrat and taking their territory. Every time a leader was killed, another would pop up in their place. Therefore, the Vikings always held pockets of territory, but were never able to carve out a larger kingdom in Ireland.   The Hiberno-Norse Hiberno-Norse silver with gold leaf brooch, Waterford, c. 1100 CE. Source: Waterford Treasures   Throughout their time in Ireland, the Vikings intermarried with the local Irish and formed alliances. Archaeological remains suggest that many Viking strongholds were occupied by a Viking elite ruling over a mostly Irish population. As the Vikings in Ireland also began to convert to Christianity, a new Norse-Gaelic or Hiberno-Norse population emerged.   It is telling that when a group of Vikings led by a man called Hingamund was expelled from Ireland in the early 10th century and established themselves at Wirral in northern England, the English sources often refer to them as Irishmen.   Power in Dublin Silver Penny minted for Sithric Silkbeard, Dublin, c. 994 CE. Source: British Museum   Thanks to Viking influence, Dublin quickly became an important settlement and trading outpost in Ireland. Control of the city changed hands frequently, shifting among Viking, Irish, and Hiberno-Norse control.   Dublin is one of the most important Norse archaeological sites in Europe. Recent discoveries include the graves of five 9th-century Viking warriors. While the graves are Viking in style, Oxygen isotope analysis reveals that two were from Scandinavia and two from the British Isles, possibly Scotland, reinforcing a connection between early Dublin and the kingdom of Laithlind. These are among 100 Viking graves discovered across Dublin.   The bones of a Viking warrior in a grave partly covered by the boss of his iron shield, Dublin, c. 9th century CE. Source: Archaeology Magazine   The Vikings were forced out of Dublin in 902, only for Viking leaders called Ragnall and Sithric to return with a large fleet and retake the city in 916 following the Battle of Confey. This marked a period of stability that enabled the Vikings to establish additional strongholds, including Waterford, Wexford, Cork, and Limerick.   The Vikings in Ireland may have started to convert to Christianity not long after this, as, while the Vikings are described as actively raiding and slaving, in the 920s, they reportedly “spared the prayer houses… and the sick from destruction.” They were certainly Christian by the time Sithric III Silkbeard minted the first Viking-Irish coins around 994 CE, featuring a Christian cross motif.   Brian Boru Victor: Brian Boru at Clontarf in 1014, by James Ward, 1914. Source: Dublin City Council   A High King of Ireland would later sack Dublin in 944, opening a period of Irish rule. The famous Irish leader Brian Boru then emerged on the scene at the end of the 10th century, first defeating the Norse of Limerick in 977. He apparently killed every man in the village, looted everything of value, and burned Limerick to the ground.   Brian then entered an alliance with the Vikings at Waterford with the intention of attacking Dublin together. Instead, he let the Vikings attack on their own, and they were defeated. This tactic allowed him to weaken most of the leaders in southern Ireland and claim rulership over most of Ireland by 1000. He is considered the first real king of Ireland. He made the Viking leader Sithric Silkbeard ruler of Dublin, but only after he had formally submitted and handed over hostages, and after he had burned Caill Tomair, an oak grove sacred to Thor in Dublin.   In 1012, the Vikings of Dublin would revolt with the help of Sigurd Hlodvirsson, a Viking leader in Orkney, and more Viking allies from the Isle of Man. A great battle was fought on Good Friday in 1014, with the Irish winning a decisive victory. While Brian died in the battle, this put an end to major Viking political domination in Ireland.   Viking Impact on Ireland Surviving High Cross and Round Tower at Kilree. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Vikings left a smaller footprint in Ireland than in England. In England, they influenced language and culture, and even dominated politics for a period under the Viking kings of England. In Ireland, the Vikings were quickly Gaelicized, partially explaining their early conversion to Christianity by the end of the 10th century.   Nevertheless, early Viking raids seem to have been a terrifying prospect. A 9th-century monk scribbled in the margin of a manuscript that: “The wind is fierce tonight. It tosses the sea’s white hair. I fear no wild Vikings, sailing the quiet main.” Irish monasteries started to be built with stone towers known as round towers. Access doors to the towers were placed one floor up, so they could only be reached by ladder. Inside the tower, each floor was also accessible only by ladder, allowing the monks to pull up the ladders when they sighted the Vikings.   It was also during the age of the Viking raids that the Irish started replacing their wooden crosses with large stone High Crosses. The suggestion is that they made them big and heavy so that the Vikings could not knock them over or destroy them. Similar, but smaller, elaborate stone crosses emerged in England at the same time, some displaying themes from Norse mythology, such as the famous Gosford Cross. This suggests that these crosses may also have been influenced by the Viking practice of erecting enormous runestones with runic inscriptions and images from mythology. This may suggest one way in which Viking culture left its mark on the Irish landscape.

  An icon of American history, George Washington is remembered as the indomitable leader who led his country through a bloody revolution to become the United States. But no man is an island, and Washington relied on a close circle of trusted individuals to help him accomplish his incredible achievements. These are some of the men (and women) who Washington considered his “right hands.”   1. Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton by John Trumbull, c. 1806. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC   Before he stood on Washington’s side as a military aide and then cabinet member, Alexander Hamilton’s early days were challenging. He was born on Nevis, a Caribbean island ruled by the British. His unmarried parents didn’t provide Alexander with a stable childhood. His father abandoned the family, and his mother died before Hamilton reached adolescence.   The enterprising Hamilton supported himself by working as a clerk for a local shipping company. Several upstanding members of the community observed Hamilton’s skills and intelligence and created a fund to pay for his education in the American colonies. He arrived in New York in 1772, completed his preparatory education, and later attended King’s College.   The First Meeting of Alexander Hamilton and George Washington. Painting by Alonzo Chappel, 1856. Source: National Heritage Museum, Lexington, Massachusetts   His education was interrupted by the outbreak of the American Revolution. He left school and joined a local militia group, working his way up to captain. In 1777, Captain Hamilton was invited to join Washington’s staff as an aide-de-camp and promoted to Lieutenant Colonel. The pair worked well together despite their opposing personalities. The two men had a brief dispute in 1781, and Hamilton temporarily left the General’s staff, but returned before long.   After the war, Hamilton returned to New York to pass the bar and start a law practice. It wasn’t long before Washington, now the country’s first president, tapped Hamilton to join his staff, which would become known as the cabinet. As the country’s first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton worked alongside his mentor to navigate the early years of the country and its operation.   Hamilton would be brought down in an infamous duel in 1804, outliving his mentor by only five years.   2. William “Billy” Lee This John Trumbull portrait of Washington, painted in 1780, also includes Billy Lee in the background. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   In 1768, Washington purchased two young men to supplement his current holdings of enslaved people. One of these brothers, William, called “Billy” by Washington, would come to play a vital role in the future general’s life. Billy became Washington’s valet. He spent almost every waking hour at Washington’s side, doing everything from helping him dress to delivering messages and ensuring the general was ready for meetings or other engagements.   Throughout the Revolution, Billy remained at Washington’s side, maintaining the general’s papers and keeping essential tools such as his spyglass at the ready. The two became extremely close, and some claimed their connection helped Washington’s opinions on slavery evolve, though Washington would not manumit any of the people in his holdings until after his 1799 death.   Washington & Billy Lee in a 1780 lithograph by Noel Le Mire. Source: Morris-Jumel Mansion, New York   Lee gained celebrity status due to his proximity to Washington. He was described as athletic and an excellent horseman. He married a free Black woman in Philadelphia during the Revolution. Lee requested that his wife be transported to Washington’s home at Mount Vernon after the war.   Washington gave his permission, but there is no record of Lee’s wife, Margaret Thomas, in the Mount Vernon archives. Due to knee injuries sustained in an accident in the mid-1780s, Lee was unable to continue serving as Washington’s valet. He was sent to work in a shoe-making shop at Mount Vernon.   Lee was the only enslaved person freed immediately upon Washington’s death, and Washington ordered that he receive a $30 annual salary for the remainder of his life. Still, he remained at the estate until his death in 1810. Lee is believed to have been buried in the enslaved cemetery there.   3. The Marquis de Lafayette Marquis de Lafayette in bronze by Raul Josset, 1947, photo by Caitlin Martin. Source: Association for Public Art   Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roche Gilbert du Motier, better known by his title, Marquis de Lafayette, was a French nobleman who was inspired by the American colonial cause. He volunteered on the Patriot side of the American Revolution and was given the rank of Major General. He helped gain French financial support for the war and spent thousands on supplies for his soldiers, who were sorely under-outfitted by the fledgling Congress.   Lafayette and Washington bonded immediately, with personal writings demonstrating mutual love and admiration. They remained close friends upon the conclusion of the war and Lafayette’s return to France, with Lafayette naming his only son George Washington Lafayette.   The Marquis assumed command of the French National Guard in 1789 and played an important role in the French Revolution. He was present at the famed storming and destruction of the Bastille and sent Washington the Bastille’s key as a gift. It is still displayed at Mount Vernon today.   4. John Laurens John Laurens, portrait by Charles Wilson Peale, 1780. Source: National Portrait Gallery, Washington, DC   Born the son of a wealthy plantation owner in South Carolina, John “Jack” Laurens was nowhere near America when the Revolution broke out, as he was studying law in England. However, in 1776, he set sail for home, determined to participate in the war. He volunteered to join Washington’s staff as an aide-de-camp, quickly proving himself valuable with his fluency in French and friendliness with the other staff members.   Laurens was unique among many of his contemporaries in that he was an abolitionist, deeply influenced by the literature he had encountered while studying in England. He petitioned Congress to allow him to create a regiment made up of former slaves. Though his request was granted, reluctance among the southern planter class prevented him from raising the battalion.   Germantown Battle, Chews House, engraving by Rawdon, Wright & Harch based on a drawing by Koeltner. Source: National Archives   Laurens was briefly taken prisoner but returned to the battlefield, playing a crucial role in the British defeat and outlining the terms of surrender. However, one of the last battles of the Revolution, a minor skirmish outside of Charleston, would prove to be Laurens’ end. He was fatally shot just weeks before the final withdrawal of British troops.   5. Martha Washington A young Martha Washington. Source: Museums at Washington & Lee Universities   At just 26 years old, Martha Dandridge Custis would find herself widowed and the owner of a luxurious estate with two young children. Since Martha was financially independent, she was determined that her next marriage would be a love match. Her availability became the topic of much social discussion, and many suitors were vying for her attention. One of these young men was George Washington, one year younger than Martha, who first visited Mrs. Custis in March 1758.   Within months, the two were planning their wedding. Martha and her children, who had become legal wards of Washington, moved to the Washington family estate in 1759. Though the two would not have any children of their own, they raised Martha’s two children and eventually four grandchildren at Mount Vernon.   The Washingtons and their grandchildren, with an unnamed enslaved person in the background, painted by Edward Savage in 1796. Source: National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC   Martha assumed a more public role with the advent of the Revolution, and the two essentially became America’s first power couple. She represented her husband at social events and engagements. Fighting in those days generally ceased during the winters, and Mrs. Washington joined her husband at his winter encampments.   Martha was a sounding board for her husband and often helped with secretarial tasks. While Washington completed his duties, Martha spent time with other officers’ wives in camp. They aided in the care of wounded soldiers, hosted social events to boost morale, and welcomed guests, including political figures and military officials.   One of Martha Washington’s famous receptions, painted in 1861 by Daniel Huntington. Source: Brooklyn Museum, New York   In their later lives, Martha continued to support her husband as he became the country’s first president. She held weekly receptions at the presidential home in Philadelphia. She welcomed people of disparate beliefs and diverse individuals who may not have had the opportunity for introduction and discourse otherwise. These gatherings helped establish the idea that the president needed input from the people to complete his role effectively.   After the presidency, the couple returned to Mount Vernon, eager to enjoy retirement together. Unfortunately, only two and a half years after returning home, Washington passed away from a throat infection. His distraught wife burned their letters to one another, forever preserving the privacy of their most intimate words. Beside her husband in death as well as life, Martha joined her husband in the tomb he had planned for them at Mount Vernon on May 22, 1802.

We focused on hits released between 2000 to 2026 and tried to keep it one song per artist. Continue reading…