by Peter Koenig and Whitney Webb, Global Research: Unconfirmed reports from Spain and elsewhere in Europe say that cash holdings in households may soon be restricted. No sums are given (yet). From the outset, it would look like one of those nonsensical “directives” coming out of Brussels, checked and supervised personally by Madame Von der Leyen, […]

from 21st Century Wire: For more than two decades, a disturbing accusation has hovered over one of the world’s most intractable conflicts. Claims that Israeli authorities or military forces have harvested organs from dead Palestinians, a charge rejected by Israel as slanderous, have surfaced again and again, each time reigniting outrage, suspicion, and diplomatic tension. […]

from TheSaltyCracker: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

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  As of November 2025, the Grand Egyptian Museum is fully open to the public. The long-awaited institution exhibits over 50,000 objects, tracing Egypt’s history from its Predynastic beginnings to the Coptic period.   Now, for the first time since 1922, the GEM’s King Tut galleries reunite all 5,398 objects excavated from the famed pharaoh’s burial across two extraordinary exhibition halls.   The Complete Assemblage in the GEM’s King Tut Galleries The gilded coffin of King Tutankhamun underwent restoration before going on view in the Grand Egyptian Museum’s King Tut galleries. Source: Mohamed Hossam/EPA.   The Grand Egyptian Museum‘s King Tut galleries reunite every zone of the KV62 archaeological site, including the antechamber, annex, burial chamber, and treasury. This allows the assemblage to be exhibited as a single, cohesive record for the first time in its history.   Everyday objects appear alongside ceremonial objects, inviting comparison within context. For example, Tutankhamun‘s clothing—sized for a teenager—is displayed alongside monumental shrines, sharpening the contrast between his boyhood and his pharaonic legacy.   Look for: The entire King Tut collection (5,398 objects), presented across two exhibition halls Four nested gilded shrines that enclosed the sarcophagus Three coffins of Tutankhamun, including the solid gold inner coffin Canopic shrine with four goddesses guarding the calcite canopic chest Funerary beds of Tutankhamun in animal forms (lion, cow, hippopotamus) Hundreds of shabti figures as royal servants for the afterlife   Daily Life and Craft in the GEM’s King Tut Galleries A pair of gilded sandals from Tutankhamun’sn’s tomb. Source: Al Pavangkanan/Wikimedia Commons.   The most ordinary objects can often tell the most interesting stories about the people who used them. Linen garments worn by King Tut exhibit stitch patterns optimized for climate and movement. Sandals preserve wear and ancient repairs that attest to their use. Cosmetic and writing kits record daily routine. And, visible joinery in stools and chairs—mortise and tenon, pegs, veneers, inlay—bears evidence of workshop training and imported timber supply in New Kingdom Egypt.   Look for: Tutankhamun’s sandals and gold toe stalls with visible wear Folding stool and inlaid chair showing mortise-and-tenon joinery Cosmetics of Tutankhamun, including kohl pots and unguent jars with residue Writing kit of Tutankhamun, featuring a pen case and palette Game boards, such as Senet and Mehen, from the royal household Headrests and travel chests that map routine and movement   Royal Ideology and Courtly Life Tutankhamun’sn’s gilded wooden throne, its backrest showing Ankhesenamun anointing the king. Source: Grand Egyptian Museum, Cairo   In King Tut’s burial chamber, four gilded shrines and three coffins were arranged in a nested formation. This was to preserve the mummy and to secure the boy king’s passage into the afterlife. Inside the shrines sat the stone sarcophagus, containing three coffins, which ended with a solid gold inner coffin and a mask. The canopic shrine with its four goddess guardians protected the mummy’s organs.   Ancient Egyptian customs are evident in the construction and decoration of the burial chamber, both of which are touched upon in the GEM’s King Tut galleries. Sun disks, wings, and cobras symbolize protection and renewal. Hinges, corner joints, gilding overlaps, and tool marks track how the enclosure was carefully designed and built.   Look for: Gold mask of Tutankhamun in the ritual sequence Tutankhamun’s gilded throne with Ankhesenamun anointing the king Coffins and sarcophagi as a stepwise program of protection and renewal Canopic jars of Tutankhamun within the canopic shrine Pectorals and collars with solar and protective motifs Funerary papyri and amulets that encode royal transformation   Mobility and Power Golden chariot of King Tutankhamun in the new conservation lab at the Grand Egyptian Museum. Source: Mohamed El-Shahed/AFP.   Six chariots excavated from King Tut’s tomb show how movement was engineered for display, sport, and war. Wheel hubs and spokes, axle placement, draught poles, yokes, and lashings register speed, control, and load. Gilding and paint residues mark parade builds, while plainer shells suggest training or hunting.   Additionally, conservators reconstructed approximately 1,500 gold flakes into leather harness panels, which feature Syrian plant motifs and an Aegean spiral—indicating a diplomatic influence on design choices.   Look for: Six Tutankhamun chariots with distinct wheels and lashings Reconstructed harness panels from 1,500 gold flakes with Syrian and Aegean motifs Composite bows and quivers with hundreds of arrows Shields and daggers of Tutankhamun as court and combat gear Throwing sticks and hunting equipment linking sport to kingship   Materials and Methods: Networks of Knowledge Tutankhamun’s meteoritic iron dagger with its gold sheath. Source: Grand Egyptian Museum.   Various materials found in King Tut’s tomb connect the boy king’s brief reign to broader Bronze Age networks. Blue glass and faience trace high-temperature craft, cedar and ebony trace supply routes, resins and pigments widen scope beyond the Nile, and gold leaf signals skilled labor.   Methods of creation are also visible. Conservation of the King Tut trove has revealed grid lines, underdrawings, reinforced joins, as well as the meteoritic dagger’s nickel and cobalt signatures. Objects shed light on the decision-making and creative processes of ancient people.   Look for: Meteoritic iron dagger of Tutankhamun with high nickel and cobalt Libyan Desert Glass scarab pectoral highlighting exotic materials Blue glass and faience as evidence of high-temperature recipes Imported cedar and ebony for furniture and chests Pigments and resins that trace long-distance supply Visible tool marks, grid lines, and ancient repairs made legible through conservation

© The Trustees of the British Museum   The legendary Trojan War was considered by the ancient Greeks to be the most important conflict of the Bronze Age. It pitted the Greeks (called Achaeans, Argives, or Danaans), imagined to be the Mycenaean ancestors of the classical Greeks, against the city of Troy and its allies in Asia Minor. The epic poem centers on conflicts between the heroes and champions on the opposing sides. Each hero is described in larger-than-life terms, but not all are equal in valor, skill, courage, or intelligence. Meet 13 of the great heroes that fought on the side of the Greeks, how they are portrayed in Homer’s Iliad, and the mark they have left on history.   1. Achilles: The Greek Army’s Greatest Hero Detail of a krater showing Achilles and Hector in combat, attributed to the Berlin Painter, c. 490-460 BCE. Source: British Museum   Achilles is portrayed as the greatest hero among the Greeks and is the central character of the Iliad. Achilles was the son of the Argonaut Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, a goddess of the sea. He was trained by the centaur Chiron, who taught him the art of war. It was prophesied that he would either live a long life in obscurity or die young and obtain glory. To avoid this, Thetis dipped him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable; critically, she missed his heel where she held him.   Homer’s Iliad begins with Achilles withdrawing himself and his soldiers from the war after quarreling with Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek army. As the situation deteriorates for the Greeks, Achilles rejects all attempts to mollify him. Finally, Patroclus, his cousin and close friend, convinces Achilles to allow him to take his place at the head of his troops, wearing Achilles’ armor. Patroclus saves the Greeks but is killed, causing Achilles to rejoin the war.   Kylix depicting Hephaestus giving arms of Achilles to Thetis, attributed to the Foundry Painter, c. 5th century BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Given new armor forged by the god Hephaestus, Achilles goes on a rampage, slaughtering hundreds of Trojans, fighting the river god Scamander, and killing the Trojan hero Hector. He then holds elaborate funeral games in honor of Patroclus. Achilles goes on to kill Penthesilea, the queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of Ethiopia, both of whom were Trojan allies. Achilles himself is killed by the Trojan hero Paris, though this scene does not appear in the Iliad. Achilles’ funeral is instead referenced in the Odyssey.   2. Agamemnon: Commander of the Greek Army at Troy Mask of Agamemnon, Mycenae, 1600-1500 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum, Athens   The king of Mycenae, commander of the Achaean army, and brother of Menelaus, Agamemnon was the most powerful lord in Greece. After Helen of Troy and Paris ran off, Agamemnon gathered the Greek contingents to invade Troy in response to the heinous breach of hospitality. Before the Greek fleet departed, Agamemnon insulted the goddess Artemis. He was forced to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to make amends, an act that his wife Clytemnestra never forgave.   According to the Iliad, in the 10th year of the war, Agamemnon again offended the gods by taking Chryseis, the daughter of a priest of Apollo, as a slave. He was forced to return her to avoid plague, and so decided to take Achilles’ slave girl, Briseis. This insult sparked the conflict that led Achilles to withdraw from the war. Agamemnon led the Greeks against Troy without Achilles, with disastrous consequences.   Chryses vainly soliciting the Return of Chryseis before the Tent of Agamemnon, by Jacopo Alessandro Calvi, 1760-1815. Source: National Trust Collections of Britain   Agamemnon, though not the equal of Achilles in bravery or Ajax in strength, is still one of the greatest Achaean warriors of all the Trojan War Heroes. In one memorable scene, he goes on a killing spree, almost on the scale of Achilles. After the fall of Troy, Agamemnon receives the Trojan princess Cassandra as a prize and delays his return voyage in an attempt to appease the goddess Athena, because Ajax had violated her sanctuary during the sack of Troy. Agamemnon’s eventual homecoming is not a happy one. He and Cassandra are murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Orestes and Electra, Agamemnon’s children, eventually avenge his death.   3. Menelaus: Homeric Lord of the Spartans Menelaus pursuing Helen and startled by her beauty, by the Altamura painter, c. 470-450 BCE. Source: British Museum   Husband of Helen, brother of Agamemnon, and king of Sparta, Menelaus appears in both the Iliad and the Odyssey. According to legend, Menelaus was one of many Greek suitors who sought to marry the beautiful Helen. To avoid conflict, her father made the suitors swear an oath to abide by the decision, support each other, and defend Helen’s husband. When Paris took Helen to Troy, Menelaus called on the suitors to fulfill their oath.   Attic black-figure amphora depicting Menelaus leaving Troy with Helen, c. 6th century BCE. Source: Antikensammlung, Berlin   In the Iliad, Menelaus challenges Paris to single combat and easily defeats him. However, Paris is saved by Aphrodite, and Menelaus is wounded by the Trojan warrior Pandarus, who shoots him with an arrow. Menelaus helps retrieve Patroclus’ body and is credited with killing eight named Trojan warriors. He is one of the warriors who hid inside the famed Trojan Horse and participated in the Sack of Troy; again, this episode is not recorded in the Iliad, but recounted in the Odyssey. Later, he takes Helen back with him to Sparta after a long journey during which a storm forces them to stop in Crete and Egypt.   4. Odysseus: Architect of the Greek Victory  Pottery cup depicting Achilles and Odysseus, Attic, c. 470 BCE. Source: British Museum   Odysseus is the cunning king of Ithaca. Always with a plan, he devised the oath that bound the Achaeans to come to the aid of Helen’s husband, though he himself tried to avoid the conflict. His attempt was discovered and exposed by Palamedes, whose downfall Odysseus later orchestrated with the aid of his usual partner in crime, Diomedes. Throughout the story, he often serves as counselor and advisor, especially to Agamemnon. He is the main emissary sent to persuade Achilles to rejoin the war, where he shows his diplomatic skills.   Terracotta relief of Odysseus returning to Penelope, Melia, Greece, c. 4th century BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   He and Diomedes also conduct several special operations against the Trojans. They kill the Trojan ally Rhesus and steal the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy. After Ajax and Odysseus retrieve the body of Achilles, Odysseus is awarded Achilles’ armor, which leads Ajax to commit suicide. Ultimately, it is Odysseus who engineers the fall of Troy. First, he reinforces the Greeks by bringing Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and Philoctetes, the wielder of Heracles’ bow, into the Greek camp. He then creates the famed Trojan Horse.   Odysseus is best known for his long journey home, recounted in the Odyssey, which took him ten years. When he finally arrived in Ithaca, he had to use his cunning again to reclaim his palace from suitors keen to marry his still-loyal wife Penelope.   5. Patroclus: The Tragic Martyr at Troy Achilles bandaging Patroclus’ wounds illustrated on the interior of a Greek kylix, or drinking cup. Source: Antes Museum in Berlin, Germany   The son of Menoetius, the king of Opus, and a former Argonaut, Patroclus was sent to be raised alongside Achilles after killing another child over a game. Slightly older than Achilles, he served as a squire, counselor, and wartime companion. Although later Greek authors expanded and reinterpreted their relationship, there is no sexual dynamic between Achilles and Patroclus in the Homeric tradition.   When the war turned against the Greeks and the Trojans threatened the Greek ships, Patroclus convinced the reticent Achilles to lend him both his soldiers and equipment. Wearing Achilles’ armor and carrying Achilles’ weapons, he leads Achilles’ troops. Patroclus drives the Trojans back to the city gates and kills the Trojan hero Sarpedon.   Achilles Removing Patroclus’ Body From the Battlefield, print by Léon Davent, 16th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   However, Patroclus pushes his luck and is killed by the Trojan heroes Euphorbus and Hector with the aid of Apollo. Hector takes Achilles’ armor, but Menelaus and Ajax rescue Patroclus’ body. A distraught Achilles later holds an elaborate burial and funeral games for Patroclus, and rejoins the war to seek vengeance.   6. Ajax the Greater: Defender of the Greek Ships and Army The duel of Hector and Ajax on an Attic red-figure cup,  c. 5th-4th century BCE. Source: Louvre Museum, Paris   The towering Ajax was the son of Telamon and king of Salamis. He was another Argonaut, who also hunted the Calydonian boar, and half-brother of Teucer, another warrior in the Greek army. The strongest of all the Greek warriors, Ajax was trained alongside Achilles by the centaur Chiron. Known as the “Bulwark of the Achaeans,” succeeding despite receiving little assistance from the gods (unlike many other heroes). Throughout the course of the Iliad, he is never wounded.   Ajax often fought alongside Teucer, who sheltered behind his massive shield. Ajax fought a duel against Hector, which lasted for an entire day. They meet again later, when Hector attacks the Greek camp and ships. Ajax is crucial to the Greek defense, nearly killing Hector with a rock and holding off the Trojan army almost single-handedly.   The suicide of Ajax the Great, Etrurian red-figured calyx-krater, c. 400–350 BCE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Ajax is one of the emissaries sent to Achilles by Agamemnon to try to convince him to rejoin the fight. He recovers Patroclus’ body after he was killed by Hector, and recovers Achilles’ body after he is killed, with the help of Odysseus. When Odysseus and not he is awarded Achilles’ arms and armor, Ajax’s honor is insulted, and he becomes enraged. Ajax slaughters the Achaean livestock, which Athena causes him to mistake for his enemies. Upon recovering his senses, Ajax is unable to live with the shame of his actions and commits suicide.   7. Diomedes: The Young Greek Rival of Achilles Roman Cameo of Diomedes Stealing the Palladium, c. 1st century BCE/CE. Source: State Hermitage Museum   Youngest of the Greek heroes, Diomedes, the king of Argos, still had more military experience than most of the other champions. Before the Trojan War, Diomedes led a major expedition against Thebes, where his father had died as one of the Seven Against Thebes. During the war, he kills the Trojan hero Pandarus, nearly kills the hero Aeneas, faces Hector, and becomes the only mortal to wound two gods, Aphrodite and Ares, in a single day.   Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium, from the Florentine Picture-Chronicle, circle of Maso Finiguerra and Baccio Baldini, 1470-1475. Source: British Museum   He was also respected for his wisdom and counsel. He was selected as an emissary to Achilles and had a memorable exchange with the Trojan hero Glaucus on the battlefield. Diomedes often partnered with Odysseus on special operations, such as the night raid on the camp of the Trojan ally Rhesus and the theft of the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy.   After the Fall of Troy, Diomedes returned safely to Argos but was exiled by his wife and the people who had turned against him. Eventually, Diomedes settled in Southern Italy and founded ten cities in the region.   8. Nestor: Counselor and Advisor of the Greek Army Cup showing Hecamede mixing kykeon for Nestor, c. 490 BCE. Source: Louvre   An Argonaut, who had battled centaurs and hunted the Calydonian boar, the aged hero Nestor was king of Pylos. Too old to engage in combat, Nestor led his troops from his chariot and let his sons, Antilochus and Thrasymedes, do the fighting. Nestor was a skilled public speaker and counselor who often offered his advice to the younger leaders of the Greek army.   There is a subtext of humor in Homer’s portrayal of Nestor, who is never able to dispense his advice without first offering long-winded accounts of his own heroic actions in the past when he faced similar situations. Nestor’s military advice is also often considered anachronistic, more suited to an earlier time when he was younger. While much of Nestor’s advice is of questionable quality, his reputation as a wise counselor rested on his speaking abilities.   A Roman mosaic probably depicting Nestor, between Achilles and Briseis, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   After the Fall of Troy, Nestor immediately left for home rather than trying to appease the gods and arrived safely without any issues. He later appears briefly in the Odyssey when Telemachus travels to Pylos seeking news of his father Odysseus.   9. Idomeneus: Cretan Ally of the Greek Army Le retour d’Idomédée, by Jacques Gamelin 1738-1803. Source: Musée des Augustins   The leader of the Cretan forces, Idomeneus was the son of Deucalion, an Argonaut who also participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, and the grandson of Minos, remembered for his Labyrinth and the Minotaur.  Idomeneus was one of the older Greek warriors and a trusted advisor, but continued to fight on the front lines. He is credited with killing twenty Trojans and three Amazons, and briefly repulsed one of Hector’s most determined attacks.   After the fall of Troy, Idomeneus returns to Crete, but his ships are caught in a terrible storm. In exchange for divine protection, Idomeneus promises Poseidon that, should he survive, he will sacrifice the first living thing he encounters to the god. Upon his return, Idomeneus is greeted by his son, whom he dutifully sacrifices. Angered by this, the gods send a plague to Crete, and the Cretan people exile Idomeneus, who travels first to Calabria in Italy and then to Colophon in Anatolia.   10. Machaon: The Greek Physician at Troy Asclepius with his sons Podalirius and Machaon and his three daughters, with supplicants, Greek relief, c. 470-450 BCE. Source: National Archaeological Museum of Athens Telephus, son of Hercules, cured of a potentially fatal wound with some rust from Achilles’ spear, with which he had originally been wounded, Pierre Brebiette, 17th century, courtesy The Wellcome Library[/caption]   Alongside his brother Podalirius, Machaon led the Thessalian contingent of the Achaean army, though he is remembered more as a healer than a fighter. Machaon was the son of Asclepius, the god of healing and medical arts. During the Trojan War, Machaon tended to the various Greek warriors when they were wounded.   Telephus, son of Hercules, cured of a potentially fatal wound with some rust from Achilles’ spear, with which he had originally been wounded, Pierre Brebiette, 17th century. Source: Wellcome Library   His most important contribution to the war effort was the healing of Telephus, the king of Mysia. After arriving off the coast of Anatolia, the Greeks attacked Mysia, mistaking it for the city of Troy. The Greek attack was beaten off, but Achilles dealt Telephus a wound with his spear, which refused to heal.   Seeking a cure for his wound, Telephus journeyed to Argos, where the Greek fleet was regrouping. Machaon revealed that the only way to cure the wound was with rust from Achilles’ spear. When his wound was healed, the grateful Telephus offered to guide the Greeks to Troy. Machaon was killed in the tenth year of the war by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus.   11. Ajax the Lesser: Brutal Greek Hero of the Locrians  Achilles and Ajax Playing a Board Game, by Exekias, black-figure, c. 540-30 BCE.   The leader of the Locrian contingent of the Achaean army, this Ajax was known as the “Lesser” or “Little” to distinguish him from Ajax, the son of Telamon. He was skilled at throwing a spear and was an exceptionally fast runner; only Achilles was faster. During the funeral games held to honor Patroclus, he competed in a foot race. He was tripped by Athena, who favored Odysseus, so that he finished second.   Later, Ajax participated in the sack of Troy, dragging the Trojan princess Cassandra from the Temple of Athena, and in some accounts, raped her in the temple. After his crime was revealed, he hid from the rest of the Greeks until they departed. As Ajax then made his own way home, Athena caused his ship to sink after it was struck by lightning. Ajax and some of his men survived with the aid of Poseidon and were left clinging to a rock, where he screamed his defiance at the gods. Offended, Poseidon split the rock so that Ajax was swallowed by the sea.   12. Teucer: The Greatest Archer of the Greek Army Bronze Sculpture of Teucer by Hamo Thornycroft, 1919. Source: Carnegie Museum of Art   This great archer Teucer, from the island of Salamis, was related to heroes on both sides of the Trojan War. He was the half-brother of Ajax the Greater, nephew of King Priam of Troy, and cousin to the Trojan princes Hector and Paris. Homer credited him with killing some 30 Trojan warriors and even with wounding the Trojan hero Glaucus.   During Hector’s drive towards the Greek camp and ships, Teucer teamed up with Ajax, firing his bow from the cover of Ajax’s shield. His attempts to kill Hector were thwarted by Apollo, who redirected his arrows. Hector briefly put Teucer out of commission by flinging a rock at him, but Teucer returned and continued to fight until Zeus caused his bow to break. Teucer later confronted Hector again with a spear and narrowly escaped.   After Ajax committed suicide, Teucer guarded his body to ensure it received a proper burial, but failed to recover his arms and armor. When he returned home after the war, he was banished for not returning with Ajax’s body, arms, or armor. He went on to found the city of Salamis in Cyprus.   13. Philoctetes: Wielder of Herakles’ Bow  Terracotta squat lekythos depicting Philoctetes, Greek c. 420 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Famed as an archer, Philoctetes was the son of Poeas, an Argonaut and the king of Meliboea in Thessaly. As a youth, Philoctetes won great favor from Herakles by being the only one brave enough to light his funeral pyre. Herakles had donned the shirt of Nessus, which was contaminated with the venom of the Lernaean Hydra. Unable to remove the shirt, Herakles built himself a funeral pyre to end his suffering. In gratitude, the newly deified Herakles gifted Philoctetes his bow and arrows, which had been dipped in the venom of the hydra.   On the way to Troy, Philoctetes was stranded on the island of Lemnos by his fellow Greeks, on the advice of Odysseus. There are at least four different explanations for this, but all agree that he received a wound on his foot that festered and had a terrible smell.   The isolation of Philoctetes on Lemnos, by Jean-Charles-Joseph Rémond, 1818. Source: Musee des Augustins   After ten years of war, the prophetic Trojan prince Helenus advised the Greeks that Troy would not fall without the bow of Herakles. Returning to Lemnos, Odysseus and Diomedes, or Neoptolemus, discovered that Philoctetes was still alive. After being convinced to sail for Troy, Philoctetes’ wound was healed at the Greek camp. With the bow of Herakles in hand, Philoctetes kills Paris and is one of the Greek heroes selected to hide inside the Trojan Horse.   Major Milestones in the Timeline of the Trojan War King Menelaus of Sparta marries Helen, and all her suitors swear to defend him Prince Paris of Troy visits Sparta and breaks the codes of hospitality, abducting Helen to Troy King Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, gathers the Greek troops, though Odysseus and Achilles try to avoid the draft Agamemnon offends Artemis and must sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia before sailing for Troy The Iliad picks up the story in the 10th year of the siege of Troy Agamemnon offends Achilles, causing him to withdraw from the war effort Patroclus fights in Achilles’ place and is killed by Hector Achilles rejoins the war in grief and vengeance, killing Hector and dishonoring his body Achilles is killed, shot with an arrow by Paris with the help of Apollo Odysseus is given Achilles’ arms and armor, and Ajax kills himself Following a prophecy, Philocetes, wielding the bow of Herakles, is retrieved from an island where he was abandoned, and kills Paris Odysseus devises the plan of the Trojan Horse, and Troy is sacked by the Greeks Each of the Greek heroes begins their journeys home, including the famous ten-year journey of Odysseus

  All cinema often dramatizes history, but several Japanese war films managed to stay grounded in fact while still delivering captivating stories. This article highlights four films that may use some dramatic license but ultimately get to the heart of some of Japan’s most iconic battles. From the legendary samurai duel at Kawanakajima to the largest field battle in Japanese history or the harrowing trench war at Port Arthur, these movies offer visceral, faithful insights into bloodsoaked episodes that have helped shape modern Japan.   Heaven and Earth (1990) and the Battle of Kawanakajima (1561) Takeda Shingen, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1843-1847. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The 1990 epic Heaven and Earth, directed by Haruki Kadokawa, dramatizes the fourth Battle of Kawanakajima, the most significant of five clashes between Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, two legends of the Sengoku period. After the emperor and the shogun lost authority in the mid-15th century, warlords across Japan began campaigns of conquest to consolidate power and put as much of the fragmented country under their control as possible. A direct confrontation between Takeda and Uesugi was all but inevitable.   One of the most famous battles in the history of Japanese warfare occurred on October 18, 1561, and involved roughly 20,000 troops under Takeda and 13,000 under Uesugi. Both sides suffered heavy losses—4,000 and 3,000 respectively—yet the outcome remained inconclusive.   Heaven and Earth captures the scale of the battle by using thousands of extras and filming in Alberta to recreate the open plains of Shinano (modern-day Nagano Prefecture). It faithfully reproduces uniforms and Sengoku-period tactics, such as the kakuyoku (“crane wing”), Takeda Shingen’s take on the pincer movement. The film also emphasizes the importance of subterfuge during large-scale feudal battles.   Uesugi Kenshin, Utagawa Kuniyoshi, 1843-1844. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Perhaps the film’s most iconic moment is the climactic one-on-one confrontation between Kenshin and Shingen. This idea was drawn from real accounts: “[Kenshin] swung his sword at Shingen, who did not have time to draw his own sword. He rose from his camp stool and parried the blows as best he could with the heavy war fan that he had been using for signaling” (Turnbull, S., 2008, p. 75). While the film embellishes this very brief encounter into a heroic and cinematic duel, it reflects a kernel of truth that underscores the weight of the rivalry between some of the biggest figures in all of Japanese warfare.   Heaven and Earth unfortunately emphasizes Kenshin’s spirituality and moral code and contrasts it with Shingen’s military drive, portraying the former as something of a hero and the latter as something of a villain, which does not conform to the historical facts. Beyond that, though, there are enough elements in the film that offer a solid foundational insight into samurai battlefield tactics.   The Floating Castle (2012) and the Siege of Oshi (1590) Still from the Movie “The Floating Castle” directed by Shinji Higuchi and Isshin Inudo, 2012. Source: Official trailer   The Floating Castle, directed by Shinji Higuchi and Isshin Inudo, tells the true story of the siege of Oshi Castle of 1590, when a small garrison held off a vastly superior force. In the late 16th century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, Japan’s second great unifier, was campaigning in Musashi Province. One of his main men on the ground was Ishida Mitsunari, who was sent with over 23,000 troops to take Oshi Castle defended by just a little over 500 samurai and around 2,000 civilians under Narita Nagachika in what is today Saitama Prefecture. Ishida’s victory seemed more than certain.   The Floating Castle nails the essentials of this historic event: the attacker’s numerical superiority, the fortress’ month-long, defiant resistance, and the innovative siege tactics used by Mitsunari. Mitsunari attempted to replicate Hideyoshi’s earlier success at Takamatsu by diverting local rivers to flood Oshi Castle, building 28 kilometers of dikes in the process. Yet owing to the castle’s high elevation, the stratagem failed. Another thing that the movie gets right is the role of Kaihime, a female warrior, in the defense of Oshi Castle: “Ishida Mitsunari was therefore surprised when he discovered that a woman was defending Oshi” (Turnbull, S., 2010, p. 34).   Oshi Castle. Photograph by kamoseiro, 2007. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The defenders only surrendered when news of their lord’s defeat at Odawara reached them. In the end, Oshi Castle was never taken by force. The Floating Castle weaves comic elements into the story, which does clash somewhat with the spirit of what was ultimately an inspiring tale of resistance against impossible odds. However, the topography, the design of the castle, the troop movements, and other military details are quite realistic and serve as a valuable visual aid to learning about the basics of Japanese siege tactics.   The movie also shines a light on female warriors and locations that rarely if ever get mentioned in the West when discussing Japanese warfare, such as Saitama or Odawara, elevating its educational value.   Sekigahara (2017) and the Battle of Sekigahara (1600) Still from the Movie “Sekigahara” directed by Masato Harada, 2017. Source: Official trailer   The 2017 epic war drama Sekigahara, directed by Masato Harada, tells the story of the 1600 Battle of Sekigahara, the epic clash that led to the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate and led to over two and a half centuries of peace. Taking place on October 21, 1600 in modern-day Gifu Prefecture, the battle pitted the Eastern Army of Tokugawa Ieyasu (Toranaga in Shogun) against the Western Army led by Ishida Mitsunari.   In total, over 160,000 troops were involved in the largest and arguably most important battle in the history of feudal Japanese warfare: “[In] the autumn of 1600 the issue of supremacy was settled clearly and permanently after only one major battlefield confrontation, at Sekigahara northeast of Kyoto” (Totman, C., 2016, p. 219).   The movie manages to capture a lot of the important background leading up to the battle, like the death of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the fracturing of his regime, and the power vacuum that ultimately ended with anywhere between 35,000 and 45,000 deaths.   While the film simplifies some political alliances and allegiances (which is to be expected since there were more than 40 generals and commanders on the fields of Sekigahara), it succeeds in conveying the unimaginable scale and chaos of the massive battle. But even trimmed down, the film does seem to have both regular audiences and history buffs in mind, bursting with tons of information like personal names and locations, all while trying to capture as much real history on film as possible. The final effect can be a little dizzying but so was the actual Battle of Sekigahara itself.   Battle of Sekigahara Folding Screen, Author Unknown, Date Unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While studying the film, it is important to look past its flattering portrayal of Ishida and the depiction of Ieyasu as a cold, calculating antagonist. It might make for a more easily digestible plot but it has little basis in reality. The romantic subplot between Ishida and a female ninja named Hatsume should also be overlooked.   However, despite its cinematic liberties, Sekigahara provides a very strong starting point for understanding one of the most pivotal battles in Japanese history, which has been brought to the big screen with more attention to detail than almost any other historic epic in recent memory. It is not perfect, but it goes beyond the basics by faithfully presenting the stakes, the key players, and the battlefield maneuvers that forever changed Japan.   The Battle of Port Arthur (1980) and the Siege of Port Arthur (1904-1905) Still from the Movie “The Battle of Port Arthur” directed by Toshio Masuda, 1980. Source: Official trailer   The Battle of Port Arthur, directed by Toshio Masuda, vividly depicts the battles for Hill 203/Mount Vysokaya during the Siege of Port Arthur. The brutal siege by the Empire of Japan to capture the Russian naval base in Manchuria lasted from August 1, 1904 to January 2, 1905, making it the longest conflict of the Russo-Japanese War. Hill 203 (named for its height in meters) was the key to Japan’s strategy. Capturing it would allow them to place an artillery spotter in the perfect vantage point and accurately shell Russia’s fleet, crippling their naval capabilities in the region.   However, the attack turned into a grueling affair, considered by some the most violent episode of the entire Russo-Japanese War. The exact details are scarce but we know that Russian defenses were fierce, using a complex system of trenches, machine guns, barbed wire, and heavy artillery in one of the earliest examples of modern siege warfare. Japan ultimately took the hill but suffered significant losses.   203 Meter Hill, Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, 1909. Source: Records of Naval Battles in Meiji 37th-38th vol. via Wikimedia Commons   The film accurately captures the savagery of the hill’s repeated assaults and the new, mechanized nature of war that the top brass failed to grasp. During the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), General Nogi Maresuke took the Port Arthur area from Qing China in just a few days, so it was expected of him to repeat that feat with the Russians. The same underestimation of the enemy is felt throughout The Battle of Port Arthur.   The movie emphasizes the physical and emotional toll that trench warfare exacts on soldiers. While it does not fully explore the broader elements of the siege, its focus on the personal hell that soldiers on both sides went through drives home the point that Hill 203 was a new frontier of combat. As such, it is not surprising that the movie features dramatized elements, especially fictional, personal stories of some individual soldiers, but in this case, the fiction helps us understand real history better. In the end, the film stands as a historically grounded, emotionally impactful portrayal of early 20th-century Japanese warfare that anticipated the bloody trench warfare of the First World War.   Sources:   Totman, C. (2016). A History of Japan, Second Edition.   Turnbull, S. (2008). Kawanakajima 1553-64: Samurai power struggle.   Turnbull, S. (2010). Samurai Women: 1184–1877.

  A surprising number of U.S. states owe their names to real historical figures,  some well-known and others more obscure. From monarchs and naval heroes to the nation’s preeminent Founding Father, these names grace US maps as well as fill its history books. Yet, behind them hide deeper tales of power dynamics, colonial ambitions, and cultural values.   Virginia: Queen Elizabeth I The Darnley Portrait of Elizabeth I of England, 1575, unknown artist. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   Virginia was the first permanent British colony established in the United States, so it was fitting to name it after the famous monarch who granted its charter, Queen Elizabeth I. Known as the “Virgin Queen” because she refused to marry, Elizabeth cultivated her image as a symbol of purity and national devotion and was more than happy to grant permission for the new colony to honor her title. The name “Virginia” first appeared on European maps following Sir Walter Raleigh’s use of the name in 1584. The courtier and one of the Queen’s favorite adventurers bestowed the title on the new English Colony without ever stepping on American soil, in honor and thanks to Elizabeth for granting his brother Humphrey Gilbert the charter for the expedition.   Interestingly enough, until the Virgin Queen presumably gave her blessing for the name, the British referred to their new American colony as Wingandacon—a misinterpretation of the land’s name derived from their initial encounter with the Indigenous population. The name appeared in official English documents until the more fitting one proposed by Raleigh replaced it in the late 16th century. The change was made official during Elizabeth’s reign, likely showcasing her support, when Richard Hakluyt, a well-respected chronicler, geographer, and promoter of English colonization, began using it in his published works, including 1589’s The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation.    Similarly to Elizabeth bestowing her name, albeit indirectly, on the new British lands in America, so did the colony confer it on the first baby born across the Atlantic Ocean, Virginia Dare, a granddaughter of the governor of the ill-fated first British settlement of Roanoke.   North and South Carolina: King Charles I Portrait of King Charles I by Anthony van Dyck, c. 1635. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   The name Carolina, like Virginia, stems from an English monarch, Charles I—more specifically, the feminine variation of the Latin version of the King’s name, Carolus. The earliest use of the name appears on the 1629 patent that Charles granted his loyal supporter Sir Robert Heath, then Attorney General of England, to establish a colony in the New World. Ironically, the venture never materialized due to the lack of funding and religious restrictions against Catholic settlers whom Heath hoped to grant passage to the New World. The idea was revived under Charles’ son, Charles II, in 1660, following his father’s execution and the English Civil War between the King and Parliament.   Having reclaimed the throne, Charles II issued a new “Carolina” charter in 1663 to a group of aristocrats who had supported his return to power after a time of Parliamentary rule. Known as Lord Proprietors, the eight aristocrats intended to create a quasi-feudal society proposed by philosopher John Locke. However, geography and economics soon divided the colony into two distinct entities. Whereas North Carolina developed slowly with diminutive tobacco farms, fewer water ports, and scattered settlements, South Carolina expanded and blossomed after establishing Charleston in 1670. It promptly became one of the wealthiest colonies in America, built on rice, indigo, and the backs of enslaved laborers.   The formal split occurred in 1712, yet the two existed under the same proprietorship until 1729, when the British government purchased them from the Lord Proprietors and turned them into two separate royal colonies. Despite the change, the name Carolina remained a symbol of the restored monarchy and the Crown’s colonial reach.   Georgia: King George II Portrait of George II by Thomas Hudson, 1744. Source: National Portrait Gallery, London   Georgia was the last of the original British colonies, and the last of the dozen original colonies formed and populated by immigrants arriving from the Old World, rather than carved out of other colonies. Unlike the other colonies’ ties to dreams of profit and religious freedom, Georgia was born out of a social experiment. Chartered in 1732 and named in honor of the reigning British King George II, who ruled from 1727 to 1760, the colony was a brainchild of a former army officer and member of the British Parliament, James Oglethorpe. The politician and a reformer envisioned a colony where the “worthy poor,” withering away in overcrowded debtor’s prisons in Britain, could receive a second chance at life.   Together with a group of philanthropists known as the Trustees for the Establishment of the Colony of Georgia in America—undoubtedly named as such to court favor for their endeavor—Oglethorpe petitioned the King for land where convicted debtors could repay their debt by building communities and avoiding the moral decay of urban poverty. With the charter in hand, the member of Parliament and 120 settlers founded Savannah in 1733. The settlers included debtors, persecuted Protestants, and other poor seeking new opportunities.   Intended to blend social idealism and military strategy by acting as a buffer zone between British colonies and Spanish Florida, Georgia hit a snag when it became apparent that its soil and climate made plantation agriculture highly profitable. The original charter favored a society of industrious farmers, banning slavery, large landholdings, and rum. Watching the success of the neighboring colony of South Carolina’s cash crop economy, the settlers demanded changes to Georgia’s strict rules. By 1752, the Trustees had given up control, and the colony’s utopian vision gave way to a market-based economy.   Louisiana: King Louis XIV Portrait of King Louis XIV by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1700-1701. Source: Louvre Museum   Because King Louis XIV, the Sun King, was arguably the most powerful monarch in France’s history, it was fitting to name the nation’s grand prize in the Americas after him. While an earlier expedition down the Mississippi River to find its source was unsuccessful, the 1682 endeavor by René-Robert Cavelier and Sieur de LaSalle that saw them reach the Gulf of Mexico secured for their King the rights to the entire river valley.   Standing on the banks of what today is New Orleans, La Salle proclaimed: “On the part of the very-high, very powerful Prince Louis the Great, by the grace of God King of France and Navarre, fourteenth of this name…[I have taken possession] of this country of Lousiana.” Following a ceremony at the mouth of the Mississippi River, the explorers planted a cross and buried a brass plate proclaiming the land as belonging to the Sun King. Their claim extended from the Great Lakes down to the Gulf, encompassing parts of fifteen current US states and more than 800,000 square miles.   Louisiana, or more correctly, La Louisiane (meaning “the Land of Louis”), was designed as a linchpin of France’s empire in the Americas, linking New France (modern-day Canada) to the Gulf of Mexico. Sparsely populated and thinly governed, the area became a loose network of missions and forts operated by French Jesuits and traders. Always lightly defended, France ceded Louisiana to Spain following defeat in the Seven Years’ War in 1763, to avoid losing it to the British along with French Canada.   Spain ruled the territory until 1800, when it quietly returned it to France through the Treaty of San Ildefonso. Seeking funds for his military conquests, Napoleon Bonaparte then sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803, doubling the size of the young republic.   Washington: George Washington America’s First President, George Washington, by Gilbert Stuart, 1803. Source: The Clark Museum   Washington became a state relatively late in the United States’ history. In fact, by the time it was admitted to the Union in 1889, more than a century had passed since George Washington led the nation as the first president, and the name Washington was already synonymous with American ideals of republican virtue.   Because the Columbia River acted as a natural divide within Oregon Territory, and the settlers of the northern portion felt cut off from the area’s political and economic center in the south, a petition arrived in Congress to carve out the northern portion of the territory and grant it its own governance. In 1853, Congress christened the land “Washington Territory” as a tribute to the nation’s Founding Father. The symbolism was not lost on the Legislative branch members as the United States was being torn apart at the seams by sectional conflict, which would plunge the nation into the Civil War in less than a decade. Washington’s name was meant to serve as a unifying symbol, a reminder of shared origins and ideals, especially with its location in the often-contested western frontier.   The only debate and confusion stemmed from fears that its name would be confused with Washington, D.C., the capital also named after the Revolutionary War general. Ultimately, the symbolism and need for a unifying event won over, leading to Washington Territory becoming the only state named after a native-born American when it was finally granted statehood in 1889. Unlike previous states named after people, Washington’s naming celebrated democracy, merit, and American identity instead of honoring hereditary titles and noble patrons.   Lesser-Known Inspirations in the Mid-Atlantic The Thirteen Original Colonies in 1774 (McConnell’s historical maps of the United States). Source: Library of Congress   What separates Maryland from other early colonies named after kings or queens is that Queen Henrietta Maria, in whose honor the colony was christened in 1632, was a consort and not a reigning monarch at the time. The French-born Catholic wife of King Charles I of England never visited or influenced the colony’s founding. Terra Mariae (Mary’s Land) first appeared in the original charter granted to Cecil Calvert, the 2nd Lord Baltimore, to lend the colony monarchical legitimacy. It was also a nod to Catholicism, as Calvert envisioned Maryland as a haven for persecuted English Catholics, who shared the Queen’s religion.   The name Delaware originates from Sir Thomas West, the third Baron De La Warr, who once served as the governor of Virginia in the early 17th century. West never set foot in Delaware during his lifetime. Having arrived with fresh supplies and military leadership following Jamestown’s “Starving Time” of 1609-1610, West was widely credited with saving the Virginia colony. The following year, sailing under De La Warr’s authority, Virginia explorers encountered a body of water they decided to name after him, De La Warr’s River and De La Warr’s Bay, as a way to honor the hero of Jamestown, who at the time was the highest-ranking colonial official. Soon, the locals began calling the surrounding lands Delaware, a name that stuck when the area ultimately became a colony.   Finally, in the late 17th century, King Charles II of England owed a significant debt to the estate of Admiral Sir William Penn, a distinguished naval officer who helped restore the monarch to the throne. To settle the said debt, the King granted Admiral Penn’s son, the young William Penn, a large tract of land in the Colonies in 1681. Charles named the 45,000 square miles in the New World “Pennsylvania,” which means “Penn’s Woods.”