"Me singing it was just tragic".

How the iconic group of entertainers came together, and how they fell apart.

How the iconic group of entertainers came together, and how they fell apart.

How the iconic group of entertainers came together, and how they fell apart.

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  There is a common perception that science is a modern invention with roots in the ancient Greek world. While the Greeks pioneered the kind of theoretical thinking that characterizes modern science, before the Greeks, people used practical science. The ancient Egyptians developed mathematics, astronomy, engineering, and medicine. It enabled them to build their pyramids and temples, devise their calendars, and generally maintain their society. While many elements of ancient Egyptian science seem more like magic today, some aspects still make sense in the modern world.   Egyptian Mathematics Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Egyptian, c. 1550 BCE. Source: British Museum   The first thing that a modern person will notice when looking at an ancient Egyptian ledger is how foreign it looks. The Egyptians did not use the modern Arabic numeral system or even the earlier Roman numeral system. The Egyptians used hieroglyphic characters to represent numbers.   The system used a combination of the decimal and the repetitive, so there were only symbols/numerals for 1, 10, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000, and 1,000,000. The numbers were written with the smallest to the largest number, but they could be written left to right or right to left, depending on the text. The Egyptians had no zero, although sometimes a scribe would leave a gap to denote null.   There are only four extant papyri recording Egyptian mathematics: the Moscow, Berlin, Kahun, and Rhind papyri. The Rhind Papyrus is the most commonly cited in modern publications.   The system was cumbersome yet simple. For addition, the scribe would simply add numerals after the others. Those who knew how to read the language would know where one number ended and another began. Multiplication was a bit more complex but still straightforward. Smaller numbers used a repetition format, while numbers above 10,000 used a system whereby the large number was written, and the multipliers were written below it. For example, if the number 100,000 was written above four ones, then it meant to multiply by four, giving 400,000.   Seventy Deben Weight, Egyptian, c. 1850-1640 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum. Each of the upside-down horseshoe-shaped symbols on the bottom represents the number ten.   The letter for the “r” sound, which was a human mouth character, was written above a numeral to indicate a fraction. For example, if the “r” letter was written above four ones, it represented 1/4. Division was achieved by reversing the multiplication process. The Egyptians also developed geometry and even determined the value of pi as 3.16 by squaring 8/9 of a diameter length. It is important to note that the Egyptians never developed theoretical math and used their math for practical concerns, including accounting, engineering, and currency.   Egyptian Astronomy Wooden coffin cover depicting the sky goddess Nut, the signs of the Zodiac, and personifications of the 24 hours of the day, Egyptian, c, 2nd century CE. Source: British Museum   While the ancient Egyptians devoted less of their intellectual powers to astronomy than their contemporaries in Mesopotamia, they were still observers of the skies. The Egyptians sighted Ursa Major and Orion using an instrument known as a merkhet (“instrument of knowing”), which was similar to an astrolabe. They used the merkhet, along with a sighting tool made from the central rib of a palm leaf. These instruments allowed Egyptian scholars to align the Old Kingdom pyramids and sun-temples with the cardinal points.   The Egyptians often recorded their observations on painted coffins during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BCE) and Late Period (c. 664-332 BCE). These star charts are known as “star clocks” or “diagonal calendars” because they are arranged in 36 columns that list the 36 groups of stars into which they divided the night. The most important of the stars was Sirius, known by the Egyptians as “Sopdet.” Sirius/Sopdet was the brightest of all the stars, and its rising coincided with the annual inundation of the Nile in July. Egyptian scientists also recognized and named five planets by the time of the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055-1650 BCE): Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Saturn, and Venus.   Egyptian Engineering Figurine of Imhotep, Egyptian, c. 664-332 BCE. Source: Louvre Museum   The ancient Egyptians are best known for their engineering practices, thanks to their enduring results. It is impossible to discuss Egyptian engineering without at least mentioning Imhotep, Egypt’s first known architect, engineer, and scientist. The ancient Egyptian written sources about Imhotep’s life and career are sparse, but it is known that he was the vizier to King Djoser (ruled c. 2667-2648 BCE). Viziers were extremely important in the Old Kingdom, as they were representatives of the kings in most government matters. Djoser obviously thought highly of Imhotep because, in addition to appointing him as vizier, Imhotep’s name was also inscribed on a statue of the king. Biographical inscriptions indicate that Imhotep was descended from a line of architects and engineers, and his descendants followed in his footsteps. But what makes Imhotep the most famous Egyptian engineer and scientist is his work on one particular pyramid.   Djoser tasked Imhotep with designing his pyramid. The engineer answered the call by inventing the predecessor of the true pyramid. Before Djoser, the kings of the 1st and 2nd dynasties were interred in what are known as mastabas, which is the Arabic word for “bench.” As the name indicates, mastabas were rectangular mud-brick tombs with a burial chamber underneath. Mastabas worked well for the first two dynasties, but Djoser wanted something grander to survive the test of time.   Scribal Palette, Egyptian, c. 1635-1458 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Instead of throwing the design of the mastaba out completely, Imhotep improved it by placing several successively smaller mastabas on top of each other. When it was completed, the Step Pyramid had six steps and towered 196 feet over the necropolis. The Step Pyramid is also important because it was built in stone, which would be more enduring than the mudbrick mastabas. The pyramid builders of the 4th dynasty improved on Imhotep’s idea and created the true pyramid, but it would not have been possible without Imhotep’s inspiration.   In addition to his engineering activities, Imhotep has also been credited as a physician. Many of these claims were made in Egyptian texts from the Middle Kingdom through the Late Period, long after the scientist had died. It is possible the skill was applied to him retrospectively as the ultimate scientist. However, many Egyptologists believe there is a credible argument that Imhotep was a physician based on the Edwin Smith Papyrus.   Ancient Egyptian Medicine  Brooklyn Snakebite Papyrus, Egyptian, c. 589-525 BCE. Source: Brooklyn Museum   Modern Egyptologists know about ancient Egyptian medical practices through more than a dozen surviving medical papyri. The extremely important Edwin Smith Papyrus is named for the man who purchased it in 1862, Edwin Smith. The papyrus is important because it has almost no magic in it, which is unusual because magic and medicine were intimately connected in ancient Egypt. Instead, it follows rational, scientific thought. The Edwin Smith Papyrus has been dated to the early New Kingdom, or about 1550 BCE. However, many Egyptologists have argued that the vocabulary and grammar indicate it was based on an Old Kingdom original. If this is true, then Imhotep may have been the original author.   Ebers Papyrus, Egyptian, c. 1500 BCE. Source: Leipzig University Library   When all extant medical papyri are considered collectively, there are a few important factors to consider. First, the Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest, while the London and Leiden papyri are the latest, dated to about 250 CE. This is important because, by that time, Egypt had been ruled by the Greeks and then the Romans for over 500 years. Certainly, the scribes who wrote those papyri were familiar with Greco-Roman theories and methodologies. It is also notable that many of the papyri concern general medical knowledge, but a few are specialized. For example, the Kahun Papyrus focuses on gynecological medicine, the Brooklyn Papyrus is mainly about snake bites, and the London Papyrus is primarily magical. It is important to note that the most educated Egyptians usually filled a number of different roles, with religious priests always being among them.   Canopic jar depicting a queen, Egyptian, c. 1349-1330 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Thanks to the mummification process, the Egyptians had a better image of human anatomy than their contemporaries in Mesopotamia. They named most of the internal organs. During mummification, they removed the lungs, liver, stomach, and intestines, preserving them in canopic jars. The heart and kidneys were left intact and the brain was removed through the nose with a special instrument. Interestingly, it appears that the Egyptians did not quite understand the function of the human brain other than that trauma to it could cause death.   Egyptian Pharmacology  Bag of natron from the embalming cache of King Tutankhamun, Egyptian, c. 1336-1327 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Because the Egyptians had not yet developed the concept of etiology or cause-and-effect diagnosis, prescriptions were used to treat symptoms rather than underlying causes. Most prescriptions were derived from one or a combination of three sources: mineral, animal, and vegetable.   Natron, a mineral commonly used in the mummification process to desiccate the body, was also used topically to draw puss from a wound. Animal products included urine and dung, which were also usually administered topically. Finally, vegetable products, including emmer, hemp, and castor oil, were taken orally. The efficacy of many of these prescriptions was questionable at best, but some pain relief remedies employed legitimate drugs.   The Ebers Papyrus mentions a possible opioid prescription as a remedy for a crying child. The prescription specifically states: “Remedy for driving out ‘much crying’: shepen of shepen, flies’ excrement which is on the wall, make into one thing, mash and eat for four days. It stops immediately.”   It has been proposed that shepen is the ancient Egyptian word for the opium poppy, but not all scholars agree. Other possible narcotics the Egyptians used were cannabis (shemshemet), which was used for ropemaking and also possibly for pain relief. The Egyptians also used mandrake and possibly nymphaea.   Medical Procedures Walking cane with a bronze tip of a man named Kha, Egyptian, c. 1424-1353 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Turin   Many Egyptian medical papyri focus on gynecological medicine, including procedures and prescriptions. The texts reveal an interesting combination of fairly sophisticated biological knowledge and a lack of understanding of how to treat ailments. For example, the Ebers Papyrus accurately describes amenorrhea (the absence of menstruation) but fails to give a proper prescription.   “If you examine a woman who was spent many years without her menstruation (hesmen) coming. She spits out something like hebed. Her belly is like that which is on fire. It ceases when she has vomited. Then you shall say concerning it/her: It is a raising up (Akhet) of blood in her uterus.”   The remedy was for the patient to drink an innocuous liquid concoction for four days. Although the prescription may have done little good, the passage demonstrates that the Egyptians did have an advanced understanding of human biology. The Egyptians also used their knowledge of human biology to conduct surgery.   Jar labeled as containing honey, possibly used as a medical prescription, Egyptian, c. 1390-1352 BCE. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Fractures are commonly attested in many Egyptian medical papyri. It was common for men doing manual labor on pyramids, temples, and monuments to suffer fractures. This gave Egyptian physicians plenty of practice. The Edwin Smith Papyrus describes simple fractures as “heseb,” and offers a number of descriptions of how to fix them. A detailed passage accurately describes how a fracture of the clavicle should be treated.   “You should place him prostrate [on his back], [with] something folded which is in [between] his two shoulder blades. You should spread out his two shoulders in order to stretch apart (dewen) his two clavicles until that heseb-fracture falls into its place. You should then make for him to splints (sesh) of linen, and place them, one of them to the inside of his upper arm, and the other to the under side of his upper arm. You should bind it with imru and treat him afterwards with honey every day until he recovers.”    London Medical Papyrus, Egyptian, c. 1300 BCE. Source: British Museum   The Egyptian medical papyri covered all of the above matters, as well as treatments for burns, animal bites and stings, and dentistry. However, the archaeological record is a bit lacking. To date, no examples of tools used specifically for surgery or other medical procedures have been identified.   Egyptian science was multi-faceted, often effective, and always practical. Although the Egyptians did not delve into theoretical science, what they developed met their needs, whether it was mathematics, astronomy, engineering, or medicine.

  Upon the mention of pirates, most people envision the swashbuckling brigands who terrorized the seas of the Caribbean. However, the calmer waters of the Mediterranean would also suffer the scourge of piracy. Between the 16th and 19th centuries, pirates from the Barbary States of North Africa plundered ships throughout the region, much to the frustration of the European empires. The Barbary Pirates became infamous for their role in the slave trade, capturing sailors from defeated ships or stealing away innocents from small coastal villages, all to be sold into slavery in the Ottoman Empire.   The Barbary States Map of Algiers, one of the most significant cities of the Barbary States, by Gerard van Keulen, c. 1690. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Maghreb region of Africa, today recognized as Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya, was once known as the Barbary States. The Europeans gave this name to the Berber people, known natively as the Amazigh, who inhabit the area.   The Barbary States were never a unified political entity but rather were a congregation of various military republics under the control of petty rulers. Much of the region’s power was centered in the major cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. During the 16th century, the Barbary States, except for Morocco, signed an agreement with the expanding Ottoman Empire, in which the Barbary States fell under Ottoman sovereignty. However, the states still maintained much of their autonomy.   The Barbary States lacked economic prosperity, failing to prosper as traders as many other states along the Mediterranean coastline. This led the states to seek fortune through other means, namely, through piracy.   Piracy in the Barbary States The Crew of the Enterprise Boarding a Barbary Ship by Rodolfo Claudu, 1801. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   The Ottomans gave authorization to the Barbary States to engage in piracy against Christian European shipping, thus weakening the Ottoman’s rivals. Piracy quickly became of huge economic importance to the region. Across the states, thousands of sailors were employed on immense fleets. The pirate fleet of Algiers, the largest across the Barbary States, consisted of over 100 ships crewed by as many as 10,000 men. It is estimated that 25% of Algiers’s workforce was employed in piracy. These sailors were not only native Berbers and Arabs but also heralded from Turkey, Syria, Greece, and Italy. Barbary Pirates also included English and Dutch sailors who mutinied from their respective nations and converted to Islam.   Barbary Pirates Attacking a British Ship by Willem van de Velde, c. 1680. Source: The Society for Nautical Research   Barbary pirates quickly extended their zone of operations, raiding ships throughout the Mediterranean, the Atlantic coast of West Africa, and even as far north as Iceland. European ships fell victim to the pirate’s sudden and vicious attacks. Between 1609 and 1625, a reported 466 British vessels were captured. Facing increasing disruption to their vital trade, wealthy European sea-faring nations such as Great Britain, France, and Sweden resorted to signing agreements and paying tribute to the Barbary Pirates in return for safe passage for their ships.   While the Barbary States became obscenely wealthy from the cargo they had plundered, the real fortune was found through enslaving those upon the ships they had captured.   The Barbary Slave Trade  The Slave Market of Algiers by Jan Luyken, 1684. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Piracy and slavery had been common practices in the North African region for some time. Notably, the North African coast was famed for its slave markets during its time under occupation by the Roman Empire.   Across the three centuries of Barbary pirate activity, between 1500 and 1800, it is roughly estimated that 1,250,000 Europeans were captured and enslaved. Predominantly, most of these slaves were sailors captured after their ships had been attacked. However, the Barbary Pirates increasingly raided coastlines across Europe, attacking small islands, towns, and fishing villages and abducting their population.   Notable instances of this include the 1551 attack on the Maltese island of Gozo, where pirates accompanying the Ottoman fleet captured 6,000 people, almost the island’s entire population. In 1543, pirates under the command of the famed Hayreddin Barbarossa enslaved 4,000 people from the Italian island of Ischia. Finally, in 1558, the Balearic Islands of Spain were attacked, and another 4,000 people were captured.   The Sack of Baltimore The Algiers Inn, located in Baltimore, Ireland named after the attack by pirates from Algiers. Source: Irish Examiner   One of the most famous examples of a Barbary raid occurred during the summer of 1631. During June, two Barbary ships under the command of Reis Mourad the Younger, a Dutchman who had converted to Islam, were prowling the coast of Ireland. On June 17, the pirates attacked and scuttled an English ship before capturing two Irish fishing boats two days later.   With the Irish fishing boats added to his flotilla, Reis turned his attention to the small coastal village of Baltimore on Ireland’s south coast. During the early morning hours on June 20, 1631, Reis and 230 of his men slipped ashore under the cover of darkness. The pirates spread out across the village before launching a simultaneous attack. As the villagers slept, the pirates smashed down their doors and dragged them from their beds. An estimated 20 men, 33 women, and 54 children were captured.   Little is known of the fate of the Baltimore captives. After arriving in Algiers, they were certainly sold into slavery, where they would face a life of cruelty and horror. It is believed that two of the Baltimore captives were successfully ransomed. Joan Broadbroke and Ellen Hawkins, after 15 years of captivity, were freed and returned to England.   Life Under Barbary Slavery Christian Slaves in Algiers by G. A. Jackson, 1817. Source: Historic UK   As expected, those unfortunate enough to find themselves enslaved by the Barbary Pirates endured a brutal and horrific existence.   Those captured can be placed into two broad categories: public slaves and private slaves. Public slaves belonged to the ruling Pasha, who claimed one-eighth of all enslaved people and reduced prices on all the others. These slaves were kept in large prisons known as Baños in squalid, overcrowded conditions with little food and water. Mainly, these slaves were used to row the ships of the pirates, during which thousands died at sea. Others worked on state projects, quarrying stone, felling timber, building infrastructure, and constructing new ships. Women who were captured were either forced into the Pasha’s harem or served him as attendants.   Christian Friars buying and freeing enslaved Christians from the Barbary States. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Private slaves, as the name suggests, were usually owned privately by wealthy individuals. Usually, they were used for agricultural labor and construction work. Though rare, privately owned slaves were more likely to be well cared for by their owners than public slaves.   Some slaves were fortunate enough to be ransomed and thus saved from their lives of dreadful servitude. In 1640, the English Parliament established the Committee of Algiers to oversee the ransoming of British captives. Five years later, following a pirate raid on the south coast, which resulted in 240 people being captured, Parliament dispatched Edmund Cason to Algiers. Cason successfully ransomed 250 English captives and spent much of the remainder of his life attempting to free more.   The Barbarossa Brothers  Aruj Barbarossa, Sultan of Algiers by Johann Ammon, 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Two of the most infamous Barbary pirates were the Barbarossa brothers, Aruj and Hayreddin. The brothers were born on the Greek island of Lesbos. Their father was a Christian renegade who joined the Ottoman army. Both brothers became seamen and settled on the island of Djerba, located off the Tunisian coast, which was a well-known recluse for piracy.   Together, they became successful pirates, commanding over a dozen ships and pillaging ships belonging to the Spanish. Aruj, however, had greater ambitions than being a mere pirate. In 1516, the brothers attacked and successfully captured Algiers, and Aruj declared himself the new Sultan. Aruj rapidly expanded his territory by capturing the key cities of Ténès and Tlemcen. However, in 1518, the Spanish, who were becoming increasingly concerned with Aruj’s growing strength, attacked Tlemcen. Aruj attempted to flee; however, he was killed and swiftly beheaded.   Infamous Barbary Pirate, Hayreddin Barbarossa, 16th century. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York   Upon Aruj’s death, Hayreddin assumed control of Algiers. Facing further threats from the Spanish, Hayreddin made an agreement with Suleiman I of the Ottoman Empire. In return for 2,000 Ottoman troops to support Hayreddin, Algiers would fall under Ottoman control. Years later, Charles V of Spain attacked numerous ports in Ottoman Greece. In response, Suleiman I summoned Hayreddin to Constantinople and named him Admiral in Chief of the Ottoman fleet.   Now commanding a fleet of over 100 ships, Hayreddin attacked ports across the Mediterranean and famously captured Tunis in 1534. After his many years at sea, Hayreddin retired to Constantinople in 1545 and died the following year.   The Barbary Wars The USS Constitution leads a squadron of US Navy ships off the coast of Tripoli by John Landry, 1804. Source: Naval History and Heritage Command   Prior to American independence in 1776, American shipping received protection from the Barbary pirates due to Britain’s treaty with the North African states. However, upon independence, the British notified the pirates that the US ships were now free for them to attack.   Subsequently, American ships came under increasing attacks from the Barbary pirates. In response to the piracy, Congress authorized the construction of the first ships of the US Navy. In 1795, the US dispatched diplomats to the Barbary States to negotiate treaties, agreeing to pay tribute to the pirates in return for safe passage for American ships.   The Assault on Derma, Libya during the First Barbary Wars by Colonel Charles H. Waterhouse. Source: US Naval Institute   However, in 1801, the Pasha of Tripolitania declared that the US was late on its tributary payment and, thus, declared war. Tripolitania had also declared war on Sweden the previous year for the same reason. Following a successful naval and land assault, the US defeated the forces of Tripolitania. A peace treaty was officially signed in 1805, ending the First Barbary War.   In 1812, the ruler of Algiers announced that the tribute money the US had agreed to pay as part of the 1795 treaty was insufficient and declared war. However, this coincided with the outbreak of the War of 1812 between the US and Britain. It was not until 1815 that President James Madison requested Congress to declare war on Algiers. By this time, a new ruler held power in Algiers, known as Dey Omar Agha. Following a successful naval battle off of the Algerian coast, Agha reluctantly accepted the US peace treaty. Following victory in the Second Barbary War, the US also signed new treaties with Tunis and Tripoli.   The Bombardment of Algiers The Bombardment of Algiers by George Chambers, 1836. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Despite his significant defeat during the Second Barbary War, Dey Omar Agha of Algiers sought to continue his piracy campaign. Britain had previously sought peaceful relations with the Barbary States, even requisitioning its piratic talents against the United States and the French during the Napoleonic Wars. However, with the aforementioned war finished, Britain applied greater pressure upon the Barbary States to end their slavery.   In 1816, Britain dispatched a diplomatic mission to North Africa. The leaders of Tunis and Tripoli agreed to Britain’s terms. However, Dey Omar Agha was reluctant, though seemingly agreed to Britain’s demands. Not long after the diplomats departed, approximately 200 Sicilian, Sardinian, and Corsican fishermen who were under British protection were massacred.   Lord Exmouth, Edward Pellew by James Northcote, 1804. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The massacre caused public outrage, and Britain immediately dispatched a squadron of Royal Navy ships under the command of Lord Exmouth. While stopping in Gibraltar on their way to Algiers, the British ships were accompanied by five Dutch ships that offered to join the British mission.   During the afternoon of August 17, 1816, the Anglo-Dutch squadron bombarded the port of Algiers. Algerian ships attempted to engage, and a significant naval battle ensued. By the late evening, Lord Exmouth ordered the squadron to move out of range of Algiers and weigh anchor. During the exchange, the Anglo-Dutch squadron had fired approximately 50,000 round shots and 960 explosive mortar shells. However, they had sustained significant damage, losing approximately 900 men. However, almost the entirety of the Algerian fleet had been destroyed. Lord Exmouth sent terms to Dey Omar Agha, who accepted and guaranteed the release of thousands of enslaved Christians.   Decline Charles X, King of France by François Gérard, 1825. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Defeat at both the Barbary Wars and the Bombardment of Algiers significantly weakened the Barbary States, as well as their appetite for piracy. Though Barbary slavery continued at a much-reduced level, it was of declining concern to the world’s great powers.   The final nail in the pirate’s coffin was in 1830, when France began its conquest of Algeria. At the time, France was amid political turmoil. The Bourbon Restoration, which saw the monarchy under the House of Bourbon restored in 1815 under King Louis XVII, was becoming increasingly unpopular among the French populace. Charles X, who succeeded Louis XVII in 1824, believed a colonial expedition might improve his favor.   In 1827, the French consul to Algeria, Pierre Deval, met with Hussein Dey of Algiers to settle a dispute between Algiers and some French merchants. However, tensions quickly rose at the meeting. Hussein Dey struck Deval with his fly-whisk, a small fan used to swat flies. Charles X used this altercation as justification to impose a naval blockade on Algiers. The blockade lasted for three years.   The French conquest of Algeria, La prise de Constantine by Horace Vernet, 1838. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Algerians refused to negotiate, so Charles X decided to take Algiers by force. French forces arrived in Algeria on June 14, 1830. After numerous victories, including the Battle of Staouéli, France captured Algiers three weeks later.   The French capture of Algiers and its subsequent expansion over further Algerian and North African territory conclusively ended both the Barbary States and its piracy. For over two centuries, the Barbary Pirates, from their strongholds in North Africa, terrorized the Mediterranean and caused major disruption to global trade. With unrelenting malice, the Barbary Pirates enslaved thousands and subjected them to a harsh life of depravity. Only successive attacks from the United States, Great Britain, and finally, France would finally end the Barbary scourge upon the Mediterranean Seas.

  The German geographer Friedrich Ratzel first introduced the term Lebensraum in his 1897 book Politische Geographie (Political Geography). According to Ratzel, a nation-state should become self-sufficient by acquiring resources and territories in order to maintain independence and thrive internationally.   In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Germany embraced Lebensraum as the basis for its foreign policy. German defeat in World War I and the subsequent loss of overseas colonies and territories on the European continent fueled the sense of national humiliation. Adolf Hitler had exploited this sense and blamed the post-war socio-economic suffering of German society on ethnic minorities (namely, Jewish and Slavic people, among others) and political “enemies.” During the interwar period, Lebensraum became an ideological tool utilized to justify Nazi Germany’s racial policies, expansionism, and militarism.   Friedrich Ratzel & The Concept of Lebensraum Portrait of Friedrich Ratzel, 1892. Source: Internet Archive   Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904) was a German scientist and geographer. He is regarded as the “father” of political geography, which acquired popularity in the 19th century. Ratzel relied on the Darwinian theory of evolution and stated that the characteristics of different nationalities were determined by their geographical environment.   Inspired by Darwin’s evolution theory, Ratzel compared the state to a living organism. He claimed that young states needed territories to sustain themselves, just like a living organism needs nutrients to grow. Just as organisms are bound to their environments, Ratzel believed states were also tied to their geographic locations.   Ratzel argued that the development of all species, including humans as a race, was influenced by their ability to adapt to geographical circumstances; those who successfully adapt to one location naturally migrate to others. Thriving species strive to expand the territory they occupy. This concept of territorial expansion was linked to the idea of Lebensraum—living space.   Ratzel’s theory of the state as a living organism was successfully utilized in 19th-century Germany to portray newly born Germany as an aggressive “Giant State” needing to “consume” territories in order to thrive.   Indeed, Germany emerged as Europe’s major economic and military force throughout the second half of the 1800s. Under Otto von Bismarck’s leadership, Germany expanded its territories in Europe and overseas in Africa, the Western Pacific, and East Asia.   Karl Haushofer & The Concept of Lebensraum Portrait of Karl Haushofer, 1934. Source: Lebendiges Museum Online, Deutsches Historisches Museum   Friedrich Ratzel’s theory acquired considerable attention among German authors and philosophers at the beginning of the 20th century. Karl Haushofer, also a geographer and Ratzel’s disciple, inspired by the concept of Lebensraum, further adapted it to Nazi ideology. He became a key figure, immensely shaping German socio-political discourse. It is widely acknowledged among historians that Haushofer was responsible for making it a household name in Germany.   According to Haushofer, Lebensraum was based on the idea that racially superior people have a moral obligation to confiscate the land of inferior peoples. Haushofer viewed Germany’s geographical location as extremely unfavorable and constrained in terms of military advancements. Additionally, Germany had limited food and raw materials. Darwin’s theory of the “struggle for survival” became the “struggle for space.”   Haushofer, within the broader context of geopolitical strategy, further developed the idea of Lebensraum into what he termed “the study of Darwinian natural selection as it related to specific areas such as blood, race, genetic inheritance, ancestral land, and culture.”   Haushofer, along with other figures like Heinrich Himmler, provided a theoretical base for Nazi racial policies, which culminated in Holocaust. The author Thomas Cussans states in his book The Holocaust: Origins, History, and Aftermath (2021) that Haushofer’s vision intended “to demonstrate not merely the superiority of Aryan genetics but also the inferiority of Jewish genetics.”   A man has his nose measured during Aryan race determination tests under Nazi Germany’s Nuremberg Laws that were applied to determine whether a person was considered a “Jew.” Source: Scientific American   Karl Haushofer was the founder of the journal Zeitschrift für Geopolitik in 1934. He successfully utilized the platform to popularize the ideas of social Darwinism and emerging doctrines of geopolitics.   Rudolf Hess, a member of the National Socialist Party and an advocate of geopolitics, played a key role in introducing Adolf Hitler to Haushofer’s ideas. As an enthusiast of geopolitics, Hess helped familiarize Hitler with the works of prominent authors in the field.   As history shows, the National Socialist regime adopted and misused this concept both ideologically and politically, radicalizing Germany socially, politically, and militarily.   Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf & Nazi Ideology in Interwar Germany  A copy of Adolf Hitler’s book Mein Kampf from 1940 in Berlin, Germany. Source: The Atlantic   From 1908 to 1913, Adolf Hitler lived in Vienna, Austria. He became familiar with the works of leading authors of theories on racial superiority, known as radical social Darwinism and Pan-Germanism. The latter outlined the superiority of the German race and the need for its expansion. Hitler was also exposed to the heated anti-Semitic and nationalist sentiments in Vienna, which formed the base of Hitler’s views on Lebensraum and the concept of a racially pure German Aryan Race.   The final shape of Hitler’s Lebensraum was formed while Adolf Hitler served prison terms at Landsberg prison for the failed Munich Beer Hall Coup in November 1923. During his time in prison, Hitler grew close to Haushofer, who provided Hitler with geopolitical literature, including the works of Friedrich Ratzel. During this period, Hitler wrote his infamous book, Mein Kampf (My Struggle), drawing on a variety of sources.   German Nazi Chancellor and dictator Adolf Hitler (C) consulting a geographical survey map with his general staff, including Heinrich Himmler (L) and Martin Bormann (R), at an unknown location during World War II, 1938. Source: Independent   Hitler himself viewed his work as a guideline of Nazi doctrine, outlining his views on race, expansion, and political strategy. In Mein Kampf, Hitler justified the war for territorial expansion with the idea of the German race’s superiority. Lebensraum would be achieved through the elimination of those deemed inferior according to Nazi ideology. A full chapter—entitled “Eastern Policy” (or “Ostpolitik” in German)—outlined the necessity for a new “living space” for Germany.   In Mein Kampf, Hitler stated that Nazi Germany should “concentrate all of its strength on marking out a way of life for our people through the allocation of adequate Lebensraum for the next one hundred years,” which implied the territorial expansion and the abolition of those deemed inferior.   Europe at the height of Nazi German domination, 1941-1942. Source: Heathen History   Based on Hitler’s ideas laid forth in Mein Kampf, three key foreign policy goals of the Third Reich were established:   1. Revision of the Treaty of Versailles: Hitler believed that borders of states were not fixed, and the restoration of pre-World War I Germany would not solve the issue of alleged national overpopulation. 2. The unification of the German-speaking people: According to Adolf Hitler, certain races were inherently superior and needed more territory to expand and thrive. Nazi ideology considered the “superior” Germanic Aryan race to have a natural right to expand into new lands. Nazi propaganda machine actively promoted the idea that Eastern Europe was historically German and had been stolen from the Aryan race. Lebensraum was utilized to ideologically justify the invasion of Eastern Europe. 3. The expansion eastwards to accommodate the needs of racially superior German people: The vast territories of the Soviet Union, rich in resources, fell in the category of Germany’s Lebensraum. In 1936, during the annual party meeting, Hitler stated: “If the Urals with their immeasurable raw material riches, Siberia with its rich forests, and the Ukraine with its measureless areas of grain lay in Germany, under national-socialist leadership, the region would swim in surplus… Every single German would have more than enough to live on.”   Hitler envisaged settling Germans in western Russia. Most of the local population, mainly Slavs, would be deported to Siberia for slave labor. According to Nazi ideology, Slavic people were considered subhumans (German: Untermenschen), unable to create civilization.   Lebensraum & German Expansion in Europe Propaganda slide for a Hitler Youth educational presentation entitled “German Achievements in the East,” c. 1934–1937. Source: United States Holocaust Memorial Encyclopedia   By the time Adolf Hitler became the head of the Third Reich in 1933, the concept of Lebensraum had become “a critical component in the Nazi worldview that drove both its military conquests and racial policy.”   In March 1938, Nazi Germany invaded neighboring Austria. The Anschluss, or the merging of the two nations, was successfully completed. In September 1938, Czechoslovakia followed. Nazi Germany annexed the region known as Sudetenland, which was primarily populated by ethnic Germans.   In September 1939, Adolf Hitler invaded Poland. The Treaty of Versailles established the Second Polish Republic. Important strategic German locations were handed over to the newly established Polish state, including West Prussia, Posen (Poznań), Upper Silesia, and Memmel territories.   Concrete measures were taken to clear the East and prepare it for German colonization. Prior to the invasion of the Soviet Union, widely known as Operation Barbarossa, a set of detailed economic and demographic policy guidelines, known as the Generalplan Ost (General Plan East), was prepared. The plan stated, “Many tens of millions of people in this territory will become superfluous and will have to die or migrate to Siberia… With regard to this, absolute clarity must reign.”   The Legacy of Lebensraum for the Third Reich Field Marshall Wilhelm Keitel signing the ratified surrender terms for the German Army at Russian Headquarters in Berlin, 1945. Source: National Archives Catalog   Historian Vejas Liulevicius claims that Germany’s ultimate failure in World War II was caused by the Nazi ideology’s obsession with the idea of Lebensraum. Hitler aimed to secure and enlarge the Lebensraum; in doing so, he frequently disregarded more rational military alternatives in favor of holding onto territory that he had already conquered. Hitler repeatedly refused to let German withdrawals or strategic retreats, particularly during Operation Barbarossa when the Red Army advanced. This was the case during the battles of Stalingrad, Kursk, Operation Bagration, and the Battle of Bulge, all of which occurred between 1943 and 1945.   Vejas Liulevicius wrote in his book War Land on the Eastern Front, published in 2000:   “The regime used modern techniques for the goal of a terrible future utopia, which classical modernity would not recognize, seeking space rather than development. While the Soviets retreated, ‘trading space for time,’ the Nazis gave up time to gain space—seeking an everlasting, timeless present of destructive expansion in their vision of the Ostland. As the tide of events turned in the East, Hitler refused to give up the spaces conquered and forbade withdrawal again and again, producing military disasters. The ideological primacy of Raum was fatal in its consequences in the East. At long last, this was brought home to Germans as the Red Army invaded their territory by 1945, turning the utopia of Raum into a nightmare of the advancing East.”   Dresden after World War II, 1946. Source: New York Times   Adolf Hitler utilized the idea of Lebensraum to accomplish his political and ideological objectives. He exploited it to validate Nazi racist policies against ethnic minorities and to justify expansionism.   He further employed the concept of carrying out propaganda to gain public support and enhance mobilization within German society. These steps ultimately resulted in World War II, a huge death toll, intense socioeconomic changes, mass migration, and the Holocaust.