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  How many Egyptian pharaohs were female? While they were a minority of the people who ruled in ancient Egypt, there were more female pharaohs than most people imagine. The challenge is that they are difficult to trace in history as they either legitimized their rule by presenting themselves as male, as in the case of Hatshepsut, or they were called queens, as in the case of Nefertiti, making it unclear whether they ruled independently or with a partner. As a result, female pharaohs remain an intriguing historical puzzle.   Which Female Pharaohs Do We Know the Most About? Relief depicting Nefertiti, Tell el-Amarna, Egypt, c. 1352–1336 BCE. Source: Brooklyn Museum, New York.   Probably the most well-known female pharaoh was Hatshepsut, who ruled Egypt for two decades and constructed a plethora of imagery representing her rule. The world-famous bust of Nefertiti makes her name well-known beyond the realms of Egyptology. Despite her fame, evidence of her role as a pharaoh is disputed. Then there is Cleopatra, the most popular female pharaoh in modern times.   But there were many more women who ruled ancient Egypt during its long history. However, proving the number of female pharaohs and the extent of their power is a challenge that often raises more questions than answers.   Ancient Egyptian scholars have evidence for several other female pharaohs. Tawosret was a mysterious woman who ruled in the 19th century BCE. She was buried in the Valley of the Kings and her impact is clear in the archeological record. An even more obscure female pharaoh is Neithikret (also called Nitiqret or Nitocris), who may have been the first female pharaoh dating back to the 6th dynasty. The trouble with identifying Neithikret is that the records of her rule describe her as a male king. The first Egyptian woman who is agreed upon as rising to the top is Sobekneferu.   How Sobekneferu’s Story Explains Female Rule Bust of Sobekneferu, Middle Kingdom. Source: Musée du Louvre, Paris.   The first female pharaoh for whom there is definitive evidence was Sobekneferu, who held the title of king of Egypt from 1760 to 1756 BCE. Her story of becoming pharaoh is complicated. After the death of her father Amenemhet III, there were three natural options to fill his shoes: his son (or grandson, son-in-law, or stepson) Amenemhat IV, his other daughter Neferuptah, or Sobekneferu. As a result, Amenemhat IV became king and ruled for about ten years until his death. By that time, Neferuptah had also passed away, leaving Sobekneferu in a place of rightful succession.   This evidence provides us with a general timeline of succession for the 12th dynasty, ending with Sobekneferu. While few details survive, the fact that Amenemhat IV, who may have been a more distant relative of the previous pharaoh than either of his two daughters, demonstrates the preference for male rulers.   But the story of Sobekneferu also highlights the importance of royal bloodlines. An empty throne without a male heir produced a clear line for Sobekneferu to become king. In this case, the familial lineage can be deduced as being more important than crowning a male. This is probably how most female pharaohs came to power, being in the right place at the right time and the only viable option.   Egyptian Women Often Held Important Titles Votive statuette of queen Ahmose Nefertari, New Kingdom (c. 1292–1076 BCE). Source: Museo Egizio, Italy.   The relative equality of women and men in law, society, and religion in ancient Egypt explains why female pharaohs existed. While most women did not work outside the home, those who did received the same pay as their male counterparts. Unlike women in other parts of the ancient world, Egyptian women-owned estates, received honorable awards for military campaigns, developed trade businesses, and held the highest positions in religious and political leadership.   Personified as a goddess, the deity Maat represented order and justice. Her worship was part of the pharaoh’s job description, and if Maat was not appeased, chaos would ensue. In the absence of a male heir, placing a queen as pharaoh may have prevented cosmic imbalance.   While poorer Egyptian women prioritized motherhood and running the household and were defined as wives and mothers first, wealthy women could play a much greater role in society. Rather than running the household personally, she would have managed a team of servants. She probably also had fewer children, since the extra labor provided by a large family was unnecessary. Therefore, women of rank were in a position to take on leadership roles, including royal positions.   Female Pharaohs Presenting as Male Kings Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut, New Kingdom (c. 1479–1458 BCE). Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.   Although men and women in ancient Egypt were considered equal under the law, the position of king was designated through male succession. The women who took the status of pharaoh often adopted male characteristics to imitate their predecessors and reinforce their legitimacy. In general, pharaohs represented themselves with consistent imagery to show the continuation of successful Egyptian leadership. This included a regal headdress, strong masculine body, and a fake beard called a pschent. Archeological evidence shows that Hatshepsut often represented herself with the same male characteristics, including beard. In the above example of a kneeling statue of Hatshepsut, only her face reveals more slender, feminine features.   Sometimes, this use of standard iconography can make it difficult to distinguish between male and female pharaohs. It is possible that some surviving pharaonic images, assumed to be male, actually belonged to forgotten female pharaohs.   Hatshepsut was another queen who became pharaoh by happenstance. Her kingship was required to avoid disorder and keep her family on the throne. During the two decades she ruled, Egypt was prosperous. She focused heavily on new construction, therefore her position as pharaoh is well-documented. Nevertheless, the imagery that she used became more masculine throughout her reign. Images from her later years are impossible to differentiate from images of male pharaohs without an identifying inscription.   The Difference Between a Queen Regent and a Female Pharaoh Statue of Queen Ankhnes-meryre II and her Son, Pepy II, Old Kingdom (a. 2288–2224 or 2194 BCE). Source: Brooklyn Museum, New York.   Another key obstruction in finding women who had absolute power in ancient Egypt is their ambiguous titles. For some women, there is good evidence that they had sole ruling power, but were referred to by titles such as “Queen” or “Mother of the King.” The reason for this phenomenon is that their claim to power was based on their role within the royal family, and these female royal titles were extremely important.   These titles equated the wife or mother of the pharaoh with important goddesses, such as Isis, and lent support to the idea that the pharaoh was a divinity on earth. Female pharaohs often possessed these titles before coming to power, and they could not just be abandoned because they supported the legitimacy of the entire dynasty.   In some cases, the pharaoh would be polygamous, and if his son did not survive, a stepson could take charge. In a few unfortunate circumstances, the pharaoh died while his oldest son was still a young child. The queen was often assigned the title of regent for her son and was honored as the mother of the king. But even when serving as regent, in some cases, for all intents and purposes, the queen was the pharaoh.   This is how Hatshepsut came to power, as she was originally the regent of her two-year-old stepson. As a member of the royal family she had to step in as regent to prevent other powerful people taking advantage of the infant king and usurping power. She partially erased and reshaped previous artworks representing her as a queen to reinforce her role as pharaoh. She proclaimed herself as the daughter and wife of the god Amun and the true pharaoh in direct communication with the gods.   Were Female Pharaohs Only Enlisted to Prevent Downfall? Head of a Queen, Ptolemaic Period (c. 305–30 BCE). Source: Brooklyn Museum, New York.   In a way, female pharaohs were utilized during dangerous times when the line of succession was threatened. While history shows that male pharaohs were preferred, maintaining the royal bloodline was more important than having a male as pharaoh. The pharaoh was required to have direct ties to their predecessor for religious purposes. The family of the pharaoh was part of the family of the gods and joined them as deities themselves after death. Therefore, a female member of the family could fill that role temporarily.   The Egyptians would see a break in the lineage as a punishment from the gods and a guarantee for disorder. The pharaoh was a religious leader who communicated divine wishes to the mortal realm. Choosing the wrong pharaoh would be sure to upset Maat. Not to mention, unwelcome groups were more likely to invade if the royal family lost absolute power. The queen becoming king was a last resort to keep the peace. So, in a way, female pharaohs were only enlisted to prevent downfall. Many queen regents did not claim ultimate power over Egypt. A few queens declared their autonomy as king. No matter the scenario or title, many females took power in ancient Egypt and constructed evidence of their rule intended to last thousands of years.   The difficulty in discerning details about the identities of pharaohs is not limited to the scope of those who were female. The names and deeds of many pharaohs have been lost to history. But between the looted burial sites left behind by tomb raiders and our inconclusive understanding of how female rulers became pharaohs, the clues point to an intriguing history of female leadership in ancient history.

  Known as the birthplace of country music and home to iconic Civil War battlegrounds, Tennessee’s heritage is as diverse as its landscapes. From its role in westward expansion to its contributions to American culture, the Volunteer State offers countless reasons to visit. Beyond its larger cities, Tennessee is dotted with historic towns that tell the story of its early settlers, battles for independence, and cultural evolution. Each town offers a unique glimpse into the past, making Tennessee a must-visit for history enthusiasts and travelers alike.   1. Jonesborough Main Street, part of the Jonesborough Historic District, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Established in 1779, Jonesborough holds the title of Tennessee’s oldest town and is considered one of the most historic towns in the US. Its well-preserved Main Street showcases 18th- and 19th-century architecture, reflecting a rich history that includes serving as the capital of the short-lived State of Franklin.   You can explore several historic sites, such as the Chester Inn, built in 1797, which now operates as a museum offering insights into the town’s past. The Christopher Taylor House, dating back to 1777, provides a glimpse into early frontier life. Additionally, the Jonesborough United Methodist Church, constructed in 1847, stands as a testament to the town’s longstanding community spirit.   Jonesborough is renowned for its vibrant storytelling heritage, hosting the annual National Storytelling Festival, which attracts visitors worldwide. Strolling through the historic district, visitors can enjoy quaint shops, local eateries, and the town’s charming ambiance. Guided walking tours are available, offering deeper insights into Jonesborough’s storied past.   2. Dandridge Buildings along Main Street in Dandridge, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Dandridge is Tennessee’s second-oldest town, named after Martha Dandridge Washington, the nation’s first First Lady. It was established in 1793, and its history is evident in its well-preserved architecture and significant events. During World War II, the construction of Douglas Dam threatened to flood Dandridge. Residents successfully petitioned First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt, emphasizing the town’s unique namesake, leading to the construction of a protective dike that saved the historic district.   You’ll have the chance to explore several historic sites, including four original taverns: Roper Tavern (1817), Hickman Tavern (1820), Shepherd’s Inn (1814), and Thomas Tavern (1843). Shepherd’s Inn notably hosted Presidents Andrew Jackson, James K. Polk, and Andrew Johnson.   The downtown area, a registered National Historic District, offers boutiques, antique shops, and restaurants set against the backdrop of the Smoky Mountains and Douglas Lake.   Dandridge hosts annual events like the Scots-Irish Festival, celebrating the town’s heritage with traditional music, dance, and cuisine.   Outdoor enthusiasts can enjoy Douglas Lake, providing opportunities for boating, fishing, and swimming amidst scenic beauty.   3. Greeneville Greeneville Town Hall located in downtown Greeneville, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Named after Revolutionary War hero Nathanael Greene, Greeneville holds the distinction of being the only town in the United States with this specific spelling.   Founded in 1783, it is perhaps best known as the home of Andrew Johnson, the 17th President of the United States and the first president to be impeached. Visitors can explore the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site, which includes his early home, tailor shop, and gravesite. This site offers a comprehensive look into his life and presidency.   The town’s historic district features a variety of 18th and 19th-century architecture. Notable sites include the Dickson-Williams Mansion, a circa-1821 historic house with Federal-style architecture, and the First Presbyterian Church, established in 1780, which played a significant role in the abolitionist movement in East Tennessee.   For those interested in local history, the Greeneville Greene County History Museum offers exhibits covering centuries of the region’s past. Additionally, the town is near the birthplace of legendary pioneer David Crockett, adding to its historical significance.   Greeneville’s downtown area is lined with numerous churches, reflecting Greene County’s strong faith base with more than 250 places of worship. The General Morgan Inn, a historic hotel and state-of-the-art conference center, is also located on Main Street, offering visitors a glimpse into the town’s rich heritage.   4. Franklin Historic Franklin Presbyterian Church in Franklin, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   This historic Tennessee town, founded in 1799, is renowned for its pivotal role in the Civil War, particularly the Battle of Franklin in 1864, one of the bloodiest battles of the conflict. When visiting it today, you can explore key historic landmarks like the Carter House, which bore witness to the battle, and Carnton Plantation, where its grounds became a burial site for over 1,500 soldiers. Both sites provide guided tours that delve into Franklin’s wartime history.   Franklin’s downtown district, a National Historic District, features beautifully preserved 19th-century architecture. Main Street is a bustling hub with locally-owned shops, award-winning restaurants, and art galleries, making it a favorite destination for visitors seeking both history and leisure.   Unique attractions like Harlinsdale Farm, a historic horse farm turned public park, and the Factory at Franklin, a former manufacturing plant now home to shops and event spaces, showcase the town’s adaptive reuse of historic structures.   Annual events, such as the Main Street Festival and Dickens of a Christmas, celebrate Franklin’s heritage and community spirit, offering visitors an immersive experience year-round.   5. Rogersville Downtown Rogersville, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Rogersville holds a vital place in Tennessee’s early history. It was the birthplace of The Knoxville Gazette (1791), Tennessee’s first newspaper, making it the state’s journalism capital before most cities even existed. The Tennessee Newspaper and Printing Museum brings this legacy to life with original equipment and artifacts.   One of the most unique natural phenomena in the world resides here: the Ebbing and Flowing Spring, a rare tidal spring that mysteriously rises and falls every few hours. Locals often suggest visiting it in the evening, as it’s most mesmerizing at twilight.   For those seeking to soak in early-American charm, the Hale Springs Inn (1824), once hosting Andrew Jackson, offers a historic stay. A short drive leads you to the Amis Mill Historic Site, established in 1780, a pre-Revolutionary War settlement where you can explore pioneer relics and even dine beside cascading waterfalls.   Rogersville is alive with Appalachian culture. Every October, the Heritage Days Festival turns downtown into a celebration of crafts, music, and storytelling, a true homage to East Tennessee traditions.   6. Clinton Life-size bronze statues of the Clinton Twelve in front of the former Green McAdoo School, now the Green McAdoo Cultural Center, in Clinton, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Clinton, established in 1801, may look like a quaint Tennessee town, but its streets are woven with stories of resilience and transformation. In 1956, Clinton High School became the first public high school in the South to desegregate following the landmark Brown v. Board of Education ruling. The bravery of the “Clinton 12,” twelve African-American students who faced immense hostility, reverberated across the nation. Their legacy is preserved at the Green McAdoo Cultural Center, where powerful exhibits bring their courage to life.   The Historic Downtown Clinton Antique District draws collectors and casual visitors alike, with its eclectic shops housed in historic buildings that have stood for over a century.   Looking for serenity? The Clinch River, a haven for fishing and kayaking, meanders through the town, offering a peaceful counterpoint to Clinton’s powerful past. For an immersive dive into Appalachian culture, the nearby Museum of Appalachia showcases life in the region with authentic cabins, tools, and stories.   7. Elizabethton Buildings along Elk Avenue in Elizabethton, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Elizabethton, established in 1799, is a small town with a monumental past. Nestled in the Appalachian Mountains, it served as the site of one of America’s first experiments in self-governance: the Watauga Association. Formed in 1772, this independent government predated the U.S. Constitution and left an indelible mark on the town’s identity.   Visitors can step back in time at Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park. The park commemorates key moments in American history, such as the Transylvania Purchase, where settlers negotiated the largest private land deal in U.S. history, and the gathering of the Overmountain Men, a militia that marched to victory during the Revolutionary War. Fort Watauga, a reconstructed frontier settlement, offers immersive experiences with reenactments and living history events.   The town’s charm continues with the iconic Elizabethton Covered Bridge, constructed in 1882. Spanning the Doe River, this picturesque landmark draws photographers and history lovers alike, while the surrounding area hosts community events, including the annual Covered Bridge Days.   For those seeking outdoor adventure, the Tweetsie Trail provides a scenic journey through the Appalachian foothills, connecting Elizabethton to Johnson City along a converted rail line. The trail’s gentle terrain and stunning vistas make it perfect for walkers and cyclists.   8. Savannah James Graham House, Savannah, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Founded in 1820, Savannah grew alongside the Tennessee River, shaping its identity as a center for trade, history, and culture. The town’s story intertwines with pivotal moments in American history, particularly during the Civil War.   A key landmark is the Cherry Mansion, built in 1830. During the Battle of Shiloh, it served as a Union headquarters, where strategic decisions were made that altered the course of the war. While privately owned, the home’s historical significance draws visitors eager to learn about its past.   For a broader view of the area’s heritage, the Tennessee River Museum showcases everything from ancient fossils to Civil War relics, offering a fascinating look at the town’s evolution. Savannah also serves as the gateway to Shiloh National Military Park, one of the most well-preserved Civil War battlefields in the country.   The Tennessee River remains central to the town’s character. Nearby Pickwick Landing State Park offers opportunities for boating, fishing, and exploring scenic trails, drawing outdoor enthusiasts year-round. Meanwhile, Savannah’s charming downtown invites visitors to enjoy local shops, cafes, and annual events that highlight the community’s warm, welcoming spirit.   9. Winchester Buildings along 1st Avenue on the courthouse square in Winchester, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Winchester was established in 1810 and named after General James Winchester, a Revolutionary War veteran. As the seat of Franklin County, the town became an important center for trade and community life in southern Tennessee.   One of Winchester’s most notable landmarks is Hundred Oaks Castle, originally built in the 1830s as a plantation home and later transformed into a Gothic-style castle by former Tennessee governor Albert S. Marks. Though not always open to the public, it remains a unique architectural highlight of the area.   Winchester’s historic downtown features 19th-century buildings that now house a variety of shops, restaurants, and local businesses. It’s a hub for both locals and visitors looking to experience the charm of a small Southern town. Every spring, the International Dogwood Festival brings the community together with music, crafts, and food, showcasing the area’s cultural vibrancy.   Just outside of town, Tims Ford Lake provides opportunities for fishing, boating, and hiking. The lake, created by the Tims Ford Dam, has become a popular destination for outdoor enthusiasts, with parks and trails offering scenic views.   10. McMinnville Fountain on the courthouse square in McMinnville, Tennessee. Source: Wikimedia Commons   McMinnville was founded in 1810 and named after Governor Joseph McMinn. Nestled in Warren County, it combines a rich history with its status as a hub for agriculture, culture, and natural exploration.   Often referred to as the “Nursery Capital of the World,” McMinnville boasts an economy deeply rooted in the plant nursery industry. This reputation is backed by the countless nurseries in the region, supplying greenery across the globe. For those curious about this legacy, a drive through the town’s outskirts reveals sprawling fields of ornamental plants and trees.   Downtown McMinnville blends the past and present together. At its heart lies the Park Theatre, a 1939 gem restored to its former glory. Today, it hosts live performances, films, and community events, making it a vibrant centerpiece of town life.   Nature lovers are drawn to nearby Cumberland Caverns, one of the largest cave systems in the United States. This underground wonder not only offers guided tours but also features the Volcano Room, an iconic concert venue that turns the cavern into an unforgettable performance space.   Community events are a cornerstone of McMinnville’s charm. The Autumn Street Fair, held annually, transforms the town with local crafts, food vendors, and live entertainment. It’s a time when residents and visitors alike come together to celebrate the town’s unique character.

  Otherwise known as the Royal Army’s 79th Armored Division, Hobart’s Funnies nickname resulted from its collection of specialized armored vehicles during World War II. Under Major General Percy Hobart’s command, these unique vehicles significantly impacted operations like D-Day. To read about his funnies, scroll to learn more!   Who Was Major General Sir Percy Hobart? Major General Sir Percy Hobart. Source: Wikimedia   Born in 1885, Percy Hobart was a British officer who served in the Great War and India. During the mid-1920s, Hobart volunteered for the Royal Armored Corp. Here, Hobart’s intelligence and innovative genius for mobile warfare got him noticed. He developed new or advanced theories and tactics about mobility and armored warfare, earning him a promotion to general by 1937. Forcibly retired in 1940, it took Prime Minister Churchill’s direct order to bring him back. His unique experience earned him the command of the 79th Armored Division in August 1942.   Why Were Hobart’s Funnies Created? Winston Churchill riding on one of Hobart’s Funnies. Source: Alamy   It took a nasty defeat to spur Hobart’s Funnies’ formation. That spur occurred with Britain’s failed Operation Jubilee on August 19, 1942. Jubilee’s plan called for British and Canadian troops to attack Dieppe, a well-defended French port. The Allies wanted to test amphibious assault methods, disrupt German defenses, and draw German resources from the Eastern Front. Yet the German Wehrmacht smashed Jubilee, inflicting heavy losses of life and equipment.    However, the failure showed what needed improvement or invented. The biggest Dieppe lesson learned: any amphibious invasion needed specialized armored vehicles to overcome strong beach defenses or conditions like soft sand. So, the Royal Army turned to Hobart’s 79th Division, changing its principal role to defeat the above challenges. That mission change to Hobart’s Funnies happened in early 1943. With the upcoming 1944 Normandy Invasion, such out-of-the-box thinking became a priority.   What Kind of Funnies Did Hobart Create?  Sherman DD tank. Source: World War Photos   General Hobart and his staff created the Funnies for specific roles. Using existing tanks like the American Sherman and British Churchill, Hobart’s team created useful but sometimes odd-looking vehicles. The DD Sherman “swam” to the beach using two propellers and a canvas flotation screen like a small boat. Driven off a ship with the screens up, the Sherman headed for the beach. The crew next dropped the screen and drove into the fight.   Of all the Funnies, the Churchill Bobbin was the oddest looking. Due to its resemblance to a spool of thread, the tank spread a layer of steel mesh over soft beach sand, allowing other vehicles to cross. During the Dieppe Raid, the Germans picked off helpless British tanks stuck in the sand due to their weight. So, getting tanks off the beach quickly was crucial. Only one Funny, the flame-throwing Crocodile, truly put fear into German soldiers on D-Day.    Churchill Bobbin Tank. Source: World of Tanks   Towing a trailer full of petrol, the Crocodile drove up close to the target, firing its flame thrower. Many soldiers gave up before this, not wanting to be burned. Even preventing a fight displayed another function. Hobart also adapted the Churchill into the AVRE. His men installed a 230mm petard mortar instead of the main gun. This mortar could destroy concrete or blow holes in obstacles to get men and vehicles off the exposed invasion beaches. The ammunition was called the “flying dustbin” due to its resemblance to a wastepaper basket.   Who Used Hobart’s Funnies? A photograph of US soldiers during the D-Day invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944, opening the “second front” in France. Source: The National WWII Museum – New Orleans   On June 6, 1944, or D-Day, American and British armies used Hobart’s Funnies. The British and Canadians enthusiastically used all the different Funnies. The Americans kept to the Sherman swimming or their mine-clearing flail tank. Before D-Day, Hobart demonstrated the Funnies to senior British and American commanders. They included Hobart’s brother-in-law, General Montgomery, in early 1944. While the British already decided, the Americans declined. They stayed with just the DD Swimming Tanks and dozer tanks, similar to bulldozers.   What Happened to Hobart’s Funnies on D-Day? British Officers Crossing the Rhine. Source: mikesresearch.com   Hobart’s Funnies landed with the Allied armies on D-Day. They worked as designed, even under intense fighting. The most numerous Funnies, the DD Tanks, drove off, landing ships towards the beaches. Yet many DD Tanks sank, swamped by rough surf as water spilled over their canvas skirts or hit by German fire. One DD tank battalion lost 27 of 29 attempting to land on Omaha Beach, but most of the tank crews escaped.   Any DD tanks or other Funnies, like the Flail or Churchill Bobbins, that landed were successful. Despite tenacious German resistance, they knocked out defenses or provided exits off the beach. This needed to be done fast, as the Germans mapped all the beaches for their big guns to fire on.   The 79th Armored proved useful in later campaigns, such as fighting in Holland with its canals or the later 1945 Rhine Crossings. The Rhine was the last natural defensive barrier and gave access to the center of Germany.

  On June 24, 1812, Napoleon Bonaparte launched the most audacious campaign of his career. With the most enormous army ever assembled in Europe, he made the fateful decision to invade Russia. With an army of over 600,000 soldiers, the thought of suffering defeat was a reality far from the French emperor’s mind.   The French were in high spirits, but as the weeks dragged on, the Russians refused to give the French battle. Retreating farther into the hinterland, the Russians avoided large, pitched battles, and instead concentrated on whittling down the enemy by whatever means necessary.   Battle, however, could not be avoided forever, and at Borodino, the Russians gave the French what they were looking for. The outcome was an extremely bloody affair.   The Invasion of Russia Portrait of General Pyotr Bagration by George Dawe. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The invasion of Russia was an incredibly audacious plan for the time. Napoleon’s Grande Armée was the biggest Europe had ever seen, and it was reasonable to assume that such a huge army would have few difficulties in forcing the Russian Empire to capitulate.   Hoping to outmaneuver the Russians, the Grande Armée struggled in its attempt to force a conclusive battle. The Russians knew their weaknesses and slowly withdrew their forces to the interior, using scorched earth tactics as they pulled back. By doing so, Napoleon was forced to pursue the Russians deeper into hostile territory while logistics and supply lines stretched to breaking point. The Grande Armée began to feel the effects of lack of food and desperately searched for the victory it needed in order to avoid a disaster.   The Russians, however, could not run forever. Public opinion and morale were important. The armies needed to prove that they were actually willing to fight a pitched battle. The armies of Mikhail Barclay de Tolly and Prince Pyotr Bagration united at Smolensk.   The Battle of Smolensk, 17th August 1812 by Jean-Charles Langlois. Source: Wikipedia   From August 16 to 18, the Russians fought at Smolensk. The French gained a victory, but the casualties were high, and it was not enough to gain strategic control. For the Russians, the continued retreat and lack of any victory had a dire effect on morale, especially as the French had razed Smolensk and left little more than smoldering cinders.   The Russian retreat was well strategized, and Napoleon maneuvered to try and trap the Russian armies, but this proved a difficult task. After the Battle of Smolensk, Barclay de Tolly left a rearguard at Valutino to hamper the French advance. The French won the battle, but the action resulted in the main elements of the Russian army being able to escape, with the French suffering casualties they could ill afford. Napoleon was furious. Tsar Alexander I realized that scorched earth had been an effective strategy in whittling down the French army, but the army still needed to present a victory to the Russian people.   Although his efforts had been monumental in setting the tone of the invasion and causing great casualties among the French, Barclay de Tolly had become unpopular with the Russian people as a result of his scorched earth policy. He was relieved of overall command and replaced with Mikhail Kutuzov, a man who was intent on giving a major fight.   Preparations Portrait of Mikhail Kutuzov, artist unknown. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Kutuzov struck defensive positions near the village of Borodino, 75 miles west of Moscow. Realizing his left flank was exposed, he pulled his defensive line back but left troops to garrison the forward defenses at the village of Shevardino, where a redoubt had been built.   From this position, the troops at Shevardino could slow the French advance and relay French paths of attack back to Kutuzov in the rear, who could adjust his forces accordingly. Despite the preparations, the Russian left flank was still in danger.   The French launched a major attack on the redoubt on September 5, and bloody fighting ensued. Twenty thousand Russian defenders attempted to defend their position against 36,000 French who had seized an early opportunity to threaten the Russian left flank.   After a brutal battle, Shevardino was taken. The French suffered 4,000 casualties, and the Russians suffered 6,000.   A Day of Carnage: The Morning of September 7, 1812 Dispositions at the start of the Battle of Borodino. Source: Warfare History Network   With the Russian left flank exposed, the French saw their opportunity and pressed the attack. Despite holding the high ground, Prussian military theorist Carl Von Clausewitz argues that this high ground was negligible and provided little advantage for the Russians stationed there.   At his command, Napoleon had 130,000 soldiers with whom to attack the Russian defenders, who numbered around 120,000.   The Battle of Borodino began at dawn on September 7, 1812. A barrage from 102 French cannon sparked the beginning, followed by an assault on the village of Borodino by Prince Eugène de Beauharnais. The Russians fell back with heavy losses.   De Beauharnais continued through the village to the Great Redoubt on the heights around Gorki but was driven back by determined Russian resistance.   As this was happening, the center-left of the Russian line was beginning to feel the weight of 22,000 French soldiers under the command of Marshal Davout. Savage fighting broke out as the troops clashed in hand-to-hand fighting. Both sides took severe losses, and the Russians were forced to fall back, only to retake their positions after a successful counterattack. The defensive flèches that had been constructed here were critical to Russian success.   This section of the battlefield went back and forth, and the fighting was extremely vicious. The slaughter which occurred here was undoubtedly one of the bloodiest moments of the Napoleonic Wars.   French paths of attack. Source: Roberts, Andrew. Napoleon: A Life via usefulhistory.substack.com   Holding the line was a desperate endeavor. Bagration, in charge of the center, was able to draw on reinforcements from both left and right wings. This opened a weak point on the left flank, which the French attempted to exploit. Here, the village of Utitsa was the focal point, and 10,000 Polish troops under the command of Prince Józef Poniatowski were able to push the Russian defenders under the command of General Nikolai Tuchkov. Tuchkov led a successful counterattack but was killed in the process. Fighting for Utitsa continued throughout the day.   At the flèches in the center, a Russian cavalry charge was met by French cavalry charges under Joachim Murat and Michel Ney. To the north, De Beauharnais launched an attack on the Great Redoubt and captured it for a brief period before being driven back by a Russian counterattack. Russian artillery commander, General Kutaisov, was killed in the fighting, and lacking command, the effectiveness of the Russian cannon was tempered for the rest of the battle.   Meanwhile, the battle for the center went back and forth, and at around 10 am, Bagration was mortally wounded. With their commander out of action, Russian troops fell back to the town of Semenovskaya to the east, and the French took the Russian defenses in the center.   On the Russian right flank, all seemed quiet, and contingents were sent south to bolster the center, which had now formed defensive lines at Semenovskaya. The French brought cannon forward and pounded the Russian positions, but the Russians stood firm.   The Afternoon Detail from a panorama painting of the Battle of Borodino by Franz Roubaud. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On the Russian right, 8,000 Cossacks, under the command of generals Platov and Uvarov, swung around the Russian right flank and attacked the French left flank at Borodino. The French 3rd Cavalry Corps, under the command of Emmanuel de Grouchy, had to be pulled back from the center to drive the Russians off. Although successful, it delayed the next French attack on the center by two hours.   At around 3 p.m., the French assault on the Great Redoubt finally came. The French pushed through and took the redoubt, but a desperate cavalry charge from the Russians stopped their advance.   The French still had 20,000 troops of the Imperial Guard and another 10,000 fresh soldiers waiting for an order to advance, but Napoleon did not wish to commit these forces. He wanted fresh troops available in case there was another battle. His concession was to send more cannons forward to aid in the attempt to break the Russian center.   By the afternoon, French cannons were devastating the Russian defensive lines, but successive waves of French attacks failed to break the Russians. They still held their ground. Russian cannons were also active and wrought havoc on the French lines, which were bolstered by cavalry as there was a lack of infantry to fill the gaps. These cavalry elements made perfect targets.   The Battle of Borodino by Peter von Hess, 1843. Source: The Hermitage via Wikimedia Commons   The fighting continued for the next few hours, both sides utterly exhausted. Viewing the situation overall and the French failure to break the Russian line, Kutuzov sent word to the tsar that the battle had been won. However, upon reports of the massive casualties, Kutuzov ordered the army to withdraw. He realized that if the fighting continued, his army would likely be destroyed, and Moscow would be taken anyway.   In a conversation between Napoleon’s generals, Marshal Ney and Murat, Ney expressed profound surprise when he was informed that the Russians had withdrawn. “Good God!” he exclaimed. “How can that be after such a slaughter?”   Thus, Napoleon’s frontal assault in favor of flanking maneuvers allowed the Russians to withdraw in good order. What was a narrow victory for Napoleon has thus been challenged as a draw or even a Russian victory. The latter can certainly be supported by the overall strategic situation.   Casualties A section of the Borodino battlefield today. Source: Mark Nakoykher/Wikimedia Commons   Napoleon had won, but the carnage was horrendous. Accounts of losses suggest the French lost between 28,000 and 35,000 killed or wounded, while the Russians had lost between 40,000 and 53,000.   The Battle of Borodino on September 7, 1812, was the single bloodiest day of the Napoleonic Wars and remained the bloodiest day in European history until the First Battle of the Marne in 1914.   Outcome The Fire of Moscow by Alexander Smirnov, 1813. Source: Wikimedia Commons   It is certainly true that the Battle of Borodino was a massive battle. It involved a total of around 260,000 troops, of which at least 68,000 were killed or wounded. The losses were staggering on both sides and while it cannot be denied that the Russians lost more in the actual battle, the losses on a strategic level were disastrous for the French.   The Russian losses could be replaced. Far from home, the French could ill afford any more losses to an army already struggling to stay alive even outside combat. The gates to Moscow were open, giving the Grande Armée a brief morale boost. They and Napoleon fully expected Tsar Alexander I to surrender once Moscow was taken. This assumption proved to be a fatal error.   Moscow was empty and on fire. The Russians had fled the great city and set it ablaze rather than give Napoleon the satisfaction of any meaningful victory. The Grande Armée billeted in the city while Napoleon waited for the tsar to send word of a surrender.   For his efforts, Napoleon received nothing but silence. For one month, he sat and waited, but from the tsar, there was no word at all. Meanwhile, the notorious Russian winter was setting in.   Napoleon’s Retreat From Moscow by Adolph Northen. Source: Wikipedia   With nothing left to do but retreat, the remnants of the Grande Armée began a most brutal retreat. Frozen by the bitter cold, starved by the lack of supplies, and harried at every turn by Cossacks and partisans, the French suffered monstrous casualties. At the front of the army were few soldiers in fighting order, while for miles behind, stragglers did what they could to survive.   In a few short months, the greatest army ever assembled in Europe was reduced to an embarrassing mess. Less than a sixth of Napoleon’s forces that entered Russia managed to leave and most of these survivors were reduced to beggars wearing rags, fighting for meager scraps of food.   Napoleon was completely defeated. His grandest campaign was, in no uncertain terms, a total disaster. The Battle of Borodino represents a massive moment that turned Napoleon’s fortunes into a string of defeats that would see the great powers of Europe throw off the yoke of French control and join together to put a final end to Napoleon’s empire.   Later in exile, Napoleon wrote of the Battle of Borodino: “The Frenchmen showed themselves deserving a victory, and the Russians merited the right to be invincible.”   Napoleon spent his career fighting battles in which his enemies made predictable decisions based on the conventions of war at the time. However, Russia was a completely different war from what Napoleon was used to. The result was a stunning blow to the French Empire and a nail in the coffin of Napoleon’s imperial plans.   Although Borodino was a close-run battle on the ground, its strategic implications made it a massive victory for the Russians. They continued to grind down the French forces, putting a sobering end to Napoleon’s imperial designs.

  Over the centuries, the fight for racial equality has produced many interesting characters and just as many contentious perspectives. One of the most contentious figures was Marcus Garvey, who, unlike many others who fought for equality, did not argue for integration but wanted Black people to move back to Africa and form a unified African state.   Known by many as “Black Moses,” Marcus Garvey was a segregationist who established a considerable following around the world.   Early Life of Marcus Garvey Marcus Garvey in 1922. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Marcus Garvey was born on August 17, 1887 into a relatively well-off family in Saint Ann’s Bay, Jamaica. As a teenager, he worked in the print trade and was introduced to trade unionism. When he was still a teenager, he left Jamaica to travel around Central America. In 1914, he moved to London, where he stayed for two years before returning to Jamaica.   Flag of the Universal Negro Improvement Association. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Upon his return in 1914, Garvey and a group of friends founded the Universal Negro Improvement and Conservation Association and African Communities League, often shortened to Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). The purpose of this organization was to promote pride among Black people and to uplift African communities.   Garvey Moves to the United States Stock certificate for one share (five dollars) of the Black Star Line, Inc. Source: New York Library Public Collections   In 1916, Marcus Garvey moved to the United States, taking his organization with him, and founded a UNIA branch in Harlem, New York. His first attempt at spreading his views publicly was a disaster. He was heckled, and he fell off the stage. Rather than let this deter him, Garvey continued addressing crowds and quickly gained a considerable following. After speaking in New York, he embarked on a tour throughout the United States and made speeches in 38 states.   After the United States got involved in World War I, Garvey volunteered but was ruled unfit to serve. Despite his attempt to join, he would later oppose African-American involvement in what he and fellow activist Hubert Harrison described as a “white man’s war.”   One of the major facets of Garvey’s philosophy was separatism. He argued for self-reliance from Black sectors of society and held the view that Black people would only be respected if they were economically strong.   To forward the economic goals of UNIA, Garvey founded the Black Star Line in 1919 and the Negro Factories Corporation in 1920. The former was a shipping company designed to facilitate commerce between African communities on both sides of the Atlantic, while the latter was an array of companies intended to sell marketable goods in industrial centers in North America, the West Indies, Central America, and Africa. The companies were aimed at providing economic development for those of African descent and included a chain of grocery stores, a publishing house, a tailor and dressmaking shop, a millinery store, a restaurant, and a steam laundry.   Negro World Front page of Negro World, July 31, 1920. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the most powerful ways in which Garvey and others like him reached their audience was through a newspaper called Negro World. It was published weekly and distributed to UNIA chapters in 40 countries.   An immensely successful newspaper at the time, it reached a circulation of 200,000 copies at its peak. In its pages, articles promoted the arts and African-American culture. Of note were the prominent contributions of and about Black women.   Running throughout the 1920s and into the early 1930s, the publication had such scope and reach that many colonial governments banned its sale and possession for fear that it would embolden Africans in the colonies and stir unrest.   Assassination Attempt UNIA parade in Harlem, 1920. Source: Wikimedia Commons   On October 14, 1919, a part-time vendor of the Negro World, George Tyler, entered Marcus Garvey’s offices, demanding an audience. When Garvey came to investigate the disturbance, Tyler shot at him four times with a .38 revolver. One of the bullets grazed Garvey’s scalp, and another two bullets entered his leg.   At this point, Amy Ashwood, leader of the UNIA women’s faction, entered the fray. A scuffle ensued, and Tyler ran off but was caught by the police and taken into custody. The next day, Tyler attempted an escape and jumped through a window, plummeting 30 feet to his death.   The reasons for the attack are speculative, but opinions at the time suggested that Tyler was an investor in Garvey’s Universal Restaurant and had been rebuffed by the UNIA. The popular story was that New York’s white Assistant District Attorney, Edwin Kilroe, had failed to charge Garvey for alleged crimes, and Garvey had recently written a damaging editorial about Kilroe.   According to legend, Tyler said that Kilroe had sent him before opening fire. The veracity of this claim was never verified and is dubious at best.   Marriage and Divorce From left to right: Amy Ashwood Garvey. Source: The Marcus Garvey and UNIA Papers Project via PBS; Amy Ashwood Garvey. Source: womenwhomeantbusiness.com; Marcus Garvey and Amy Jacques, January 1, 1922. Source: Wikimedia Commons; Amy Jacques Garvey in 1923. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Shortly after the assassination attempt, Marcus Garvey proposed to Amy Ashwood. She accepted, and they were married in a Catholic ceremony on Christmas Day of that year.   They went on a two-week honeymoon to Canada and were accompanied by a small retinue of UNIA members. Garvey used this opportunity to address Canadians and made speeches in Montreal and Toronto before returning to Harlem.   The marriage would not last. Amid accusations of infidelity on both sides, Garvey divorced Ashwood in 1922. Ashwood never accepted the divorce. Nevertheless, Garvey would go on to marry Amy Jacques soon after. Jacques was a former roommate of Ashwood, and had been the maid of honor at her wedding.   Marcus Garvey and Amy Jacques had two children, Marcus Mosiah Garvey Jr., born in 1930, and Julius Winston Garvey, born in 1933.   Enemies John Edgar Hoover, 1932. Source: Library of Congress via Wikimedia Commons   Marcus Garvey’s philosophies brought a certain amount of criticism. While UNIA was exclusively made up of Black people, a more popular movement in the United States was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which had a foundational commitment to multiracial membership. Leading rights activist W.E.B. du Bois, a member of this organization, referred to Marcus Garvey as “the most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America.” The reasoning for this was that Garvey and UNIA promoted the idea of racial segregation, which Du Bois argued was supporting the same argument as the Ku Klux Klan.   Those with philosophical differences, however, were not the most dangerous of Marcus Garvey’s enemies. Garvey was a prime target of J. Edgar Hoover, a relatively new addition to the Federal Bureau of Investigation. To Hoover, Garvey was a man whom he perceived to be spurring Black people to take up arms against American society. A young Hoover, working his way up through the upper echelons of the FBI, had considerable power behind him and employed spies and saboteurs in his dealings with Garvey and UNIA.   Marcus Garvey, accompanied by US marshals, on the way to federal prison in Atlanta. Source: New York Public Library Digital Collections   Garvey’s problems lay mainly with the operations of the Black Star Line. The company was failing, and the ships were in disrepair. Despite this, UNIA officials continued to sell stock, allegedly soliciting by mail. Hoover and others in the FBI determined this to be fraud, and Garvey was arrested and put on trial.   The prosecution was flimsy, but Garvey was nevertheless convicted and sentenced to five years in prison. Lengthy appeals saw him having to wait on a legal system that procrastinated. The Supreme Court refused to review his case, and in 1925, three years after his arrest, he began serving time in the Atlanta Federal Penitentiary.   Two and a half years later, in November 1927, President Calvin Coolidge commuted the sentence, and Garvey was released and deported. He traveled to Switzerland to speak at the League of Nations before returning to Jamaica.   Later Years and Death The final resting place of Marcus Garvey in Kingston, Jamaica. Source: Jamaica Information Service   After returning to Jamaica, Garvey established the People’s Political Party, which focused on workers’ rights and the poor people in Jamaican society. Back in the United States, UNIA survived, but it did not generate the following it had once enjoyed.   Garvey moved to London in 1935, where he lived until his death on June 10, 1940 from a stroke. Due to wartime issues with transport across the Atlantic, Garvey’s body was buried in London. In 1964, his body was exhumed and repatriated to Jamaica, where it was buried under the Marcus Garvey Memorial in National Heroes Park in Kingston.   Marcus Garvey’s Legacy Black Prophet by Tosin Oyeniyi, 2022. Source: Artsper   In an era before the Civil Rights Movement, Marcus Garvey became a voice for Black people the world over and an icon for Black pride in the decades that followed.   His vision and beliefs influenced many subsequent groups with wildly differing political and religious views. Rastafarians, the Black Panther Party, and the Nation of Islam, among many others, can all claim to have been shaped in part by the philosophy of Garvey.   To this day, he is held in high regard, and his sentiments are still widely discussed and adopted by Africanist Movements. In doing so, his legacy and his name have joined the esteemed ranks of others who fought for Black rights such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X, Rosa Parks, Ella Baker, Nelson Mandela, and Steve Biko to name just a few.   Like these heroes and heroines, his name will live on for decades and even centuries to come.

A.F. Branco Cartoon – Katie Blackwell’s law sit against Alph News may backfire. Dozens of Police officers claim Katie Blackwell perjured herself when testifying in the Chauvin Trial that MPD didn’t train officers in the knee on the kneck ‘Improvised Position.  33 former Minneapolis police officers and one current officer who have all sworn under oath that MPD actually trained the knee on the neck restraint. Director of ‘The Fall of Minneapolis’ responds to defamation lawsuit after bombshell court filings By Liz Collin – AlphaNews.com – Jan 8, 2025 Dr. Chaix believes that in filing her lawsuit, Blackwell has unwittingly helped bring more of the truth to light. For the first time, the director of “The Fall of Minneapolis” responded to the defamation lawsuit filed by Minneapolis Assistant Police Chief Katie Blackwell. The suit names producer and reporter Liz Collin, Alpha News and director Dr. JC Chaix. Dr. Chaix believes that in filing her lawsuit, Blackwell has unwittingly helped bring more of the truth to light. Blackwell has said Alpha News defamed her by using her sworn testimony during Derek Chauvin’s trial when she testified that she did not recognize what she called an “improvised position” that the Minneapolis Police Department (MPD) did not train. READ MORE DONATE to A.F. Branco Cartoons – Tips accepted and appreciated – $1.00 – $5.00 – $25.00 – $50.00 – it all helps to fund this website and keep the cartoons coming. Also Venmo @AFBranco – THANK YOU! A.F. Branco has taken his two greatest passions (art and politics) and translated them into cartoons that have been popular all over the country in various news outlets, including NewsMax, Fox News, MSNBC, CBS, ABC, and “The Washington Post.” He has been recognized by such personalities as Rep. Devin Nunes, Dinesh D’Souza, James Woods, Chris Salcedo, Sarah Palin, Larry Elder, Lars Larson, Rush Limbaugh, and President Trump.

This story is shocking to hear if the English father is correct in his portrayal to a GB News reporter. This father tried to rescue his child from an abuse den. A reporter asked what happened when the police came. The father said the following (rough transcript). Father: “I was arrested outside, put in a […] The post Police Came for An English Father As His Child Was Being Abused appeared first on www.independentsentinel.com.

Mark Zuckerberg announced on Friday that his company Meta, which owns Facebook and Instagram, had abandoned its DEI practices. And so go the male tampons. The company told facilities managers to remove the tampons from the men’s bathrooms. It came directly from Mark Zuckerberg. No More Tampons in Men’s Rooms “That same day at Meta’s […] The post Zuckerberg Ordered the Removal of Tampons from Men’s Rooms appeared first on www.independentsentinel.com.