The plumbing goes deep.

by Brian Shilhavy, Health Impact News: Returning to northern Gaza almost exactly 1 year from the start of the Hamas-Israel war on October 7, 2023, the IDF is again attacking Palestinians and forcing all the remaining Palestinians to leave northern Gaza. Israel’s military says it has encircled Jabalya, northern Gaza and launched a new ground […]

  In 1945, the Cold War began between the United States and the Soviet Union as World War II came to a close. In Europe, the Soviets controlled all territory east of central Germany and set up pro-Soviet communist regimes in those countries. In Asia, the Soviets were aiding the communists in the Chinese Civil War. Quickly, communist governments were popping up throughout Asia, alarming the West. Simultaneously, the Soviets revealed that they had built their own atomic bomb. Many Americans were terrified of both communism and the threat of nuclear war. How did this affect presidential elections between the late 1940s and the 1980s? Did presidential candidates campaign on Cold War issues?   1945-48: Soviet Eastern Europe and the Berlin Airlift A map showing the military situation between NATO (allied with the United States) and the Warsaw Pact (allied with the Soviet Union) during the Cold War. Source: University of Richmond   In May 1945, World War II in Europe ended days after the Soviet Red Army captured all of Berlin, the capital city of Nazi Germany. During the war, it had been assumed that the Soviets would allow free and fair elections in the countries they had liberated from Nazi occupation. Instead, Soviet premier Joseph Stalin set up pro-Soviet satellite states in eastern Europe that were loyal to the USSR. Despite this violation of wartime agreements, there was little the US and Britain could do. The Red Army was massive, and American and British citizens did not want another war.   US President Harry S. Truman became the first Cold War president and, in 1948, had to decide what to do when the Soviets blockaded West Berlin. Truman knew that trying to break through the blockade with military vehicles might provoke a war, so he authorized an airlift instead. The airlift was successful in resupplying West Berlin, and the Soviets ended the blockade when they realized they had been outmaneuvered. This victory likely aided Truman in his upset victory for re-election, which many political analysts considered unlikely.   Truman’s Second Term: The Arms Race Begins A newspaper headline revealing that the Soviet Union had just created its own nuclear weapon, setting up the possibility of nuclear war. Source: National Park Service   Truman won re-election in 1948, aided by his geopolitical victory in Berlin. Nine months later, however, he faced a new Cold War challenge: the Soviets got “the bomb.” This sparked an arms race that would become a political issue several times over the next four decades. As both superpowers increased their number of atomic bombs, debates were sparked over when and how such weapons could be used. Many people were terrified of a nuclear war, but some thought the US should strike quickly while it still had a distinct advantage in bombs.   During the Korean War, Truman faced his first nuclear test. General Douglas MacArthur, a hero from the Pacific Theater of World War II, was the UN/US commander, and wanted to use atomic bombs to win the war. Truman disagreed, believing that conditions were not optimal for such weaponry and that public opinion would condemn their use. MacArthur refused to quiet down and so was relieved of his command in April 1951 by Truman, who felt that MacArthur’s behavior undermined Truman’s authority as commander-in-chief. This hurt Truman’s popularity, as MacArthur was publicly beloved, and Truman chose not to run again for re-election in 1952.   1952-56: Eisenhower, Korea, and the Red Scare President Dwight Eisenhower confers with anti-communist Secretary of State John Dulles (left) and Ambassador Charles Bohlen (right). Source: American Foreign Service Association   With Truman not pursuing re-election, the field was wide open for new leadership. Another World War II hero, former Supreme Allied Commander in Europe Dwight D. Eisenhower, won the presidency as the Republican nominee. Eisenhower was a political moderate who had been courted by both major parties and was seen as the only man who could end the Korean War honorably—Americans would accept his decision to do so. However, the end of the Korean War did not soothe Cold War tensions much—the Second Red Scare was heating up at home.   A 2016 press release commemorating the 1956 law that made “In God We Trust” the national motto during the Cold War to contrast the US with the USSR. Source: Congressman Gary Palmer   This Red Scare, also known as McCarthyism, focused on allegations that communists and communist sympathizers were highly placed throughout the government and Hollywood—and were effectively aiding the Soviet Union. Eisenhower disliked US Senator Joseph McCarthy (R-WI) and the man’s outspoken crusades but was afraid of being considered “soft” on communism. At first, Eisenhower supported legislation that was focused on being tough on suspected communists but eventually ordered his administration to put pressure on McCarthy behind the scenes in 1954.   1960: Two Anti-Communists Battle It Out A Cold War map from when both Democrat John F. Kennedy and Republican Richard M. Nixon were in the US House of Representatives. Source: Science History Institute Museum & Library   After McCarthyism ended with the downfall of Sen. McCarthy, the West enjoyed the brief Khrushchev Thaw with the Soviet Union. This era even saw Vice President Richard Nixon travel to Moscow in 1959, where he famously debated Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev over quality-of-life issues in a mock-up of an American kitchen at an exhibition. The following year, as Nixon ran for president to replace Eisenhower, the Cold War re-froze due to the U-2 Spy Plane Incident and the communist Cuban nationalization of US property. Tensions soared again between the two superpowers.   These new tensions directly affected the presidential campaign, with both Nixon and his rival, US Senator John F. Kennedy (D-MA), arguing that they were the best choice for America to remain ahead of the USSR. Nixon had been a staunch anti-communist as a member of the US House of Representatives Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), with Kennedy voicing similar hostility to expanding communism as a Senate candidate. In 1960, both major political parties were relatively in agreement on the threat posed by the Soviet Union and the Cold War; the only question was which candidate would do a better job at beating the Russians.   1964: The Daisy Ad and Armageddon Screenshots from the Daisy ad during the presidential election of 1964, when President Lyndon Johnson accused his Republican rival of warmongering. Source: University of Texas at Austin   Voters narrowly chose Kennedy, perhaps due to his more telegenic presence in their famed debate. True to his campaigning, Kennedy proved to be a Cold Warrior with his actions toward Cuba. The Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 led to the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 after a frightened Cuba sought a military alliance with the USSR. Kennedy held firm on demanding the removal of Soviet missiles from Cuba, and the crisis was resolved with a geopolitical win for the young president. Khrushchev was later removed from power, in part for his perceived loss in Cuba. Tragically, Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, meaning his vice president, former Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson, was elevated to the Oval Office.   Johnson ran for his own term in 1964. Despite the American victory in the Cuban Missile Crisis, the threat of communist expansion was growing in Vietnam. Since the end of the Eisenhower administration, the US had been quietly sending increasing numbers of military advisors to aid South Vietnam against communist North Vietnam. In August 1964, the Gulf of Tonkin Incident allowed Johnson to drastically escalate US efforts in the Vietnam War. Ironically, despite Johnson’s escalation of a Cold War conflict, his campaign pinned the warmongering on his rival, US Senator Barry Goldwater (R-AZ). The Daisy ad, which ran a month after the Gulf of Tonkin Incident, implied that Goldwater would trigger a nuclear war. Goldwater lost in a landslide.   1976: Ford and Eastern Europe Democratic presidential nominee Jimmy Carter (left) debates Republican president Gerald Ford (right) during the 1976 election. Source: University of Virginia (UVA)   Johnson’s second term saw the start of détente, or relaxed tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. However, the benefits of detente were overshadowed by growing US casualties in the Vietnam War, hurting Johnson’s administration. Richard Nixon, returning from his 1960 loss, became the Republican presidential nominee again in 1968 and won the White House over Johnson’s vice president, Hubert Humphrey. As Nixon approached re-election, he began reducing the number of US troops in Vietnam and re-established diplomatic relations with communist China, scoring geopolitical (and campaign) wins.   In 1976, because of the Watergate scandal, it wasn’t Richard Nixon facing Democratic presidential nominee Jimmy Carter, but former Vice President Gerald Ford. Ford made an infamous gaffe in their televised debate, claiming that there was no Soviet domination of Eastern Europe. The blatant error made Carter the clear winner of the debate, and Ford lost his bid for his own presidential term. Critics felt that Ford was out of touch with the realities of the Cold War, which included continued Soviet control over eastern European “republics.”   1980: End of Détente Calls for a Defense Hawk Author Peter Robinson credits Republican president Ronald Reagan, elected in 1980, as being a Cold War icon. Source: Hoover Institution   Unfortunately for Carter, the realities of the Cold War would grow worse three years later during his own presidential term. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to prop up an ailing communist government. Coming on the heels of the Iran Hostage Crisis, while over fifty Americans were being held hostage by Iranian radicals, the Soviet invasion made President Carter look weak on foreign policy. That next year, Carter faced these foreign policy struggles in addition to a sputtering domestic economy as he ran for re-election.   Republican presidential nominee Ronald Reagan seized on Carter’s perceived weakness. Reagan argued that lack of defense spending had left America weak and a target for aggressors, such as Iranian revolutionaries and the Soviet Union. Famously, Reagan asked Americans during the debates whether they felt better about their lives and the world than four years ago. With the situation in Iran and Afghanistan making the world seem scarier, voters felt that things in 1980 were not better than in 1976…and put Reagan in the White House.   1984: Defense Spending Helps Save the Economy A graph showing the spike in defense spending in the 1980s under US President Ronald Reagan, who enjoyed economic growth as a result. Source: American Enterprise Institute   As a devout Cold Warrior, Reagan significantly increased defense spending and directly challenged the Soviet Union’s aggressive behavior. In March 1983, Reagan famously called the Soviet Union an “evil empire,” cementing his reputation as a defense hawk. That October, he sent US forces to invade the Caribbean island nation of Grenada and topple the regime of a radical communist leader. Operation Urgent Fury was a quick military victory for America and helped the nation overcome the sociocultural malaise from the unsatisfying end of the Vietnam War a decade earlier.   However, Reagan’s focus on growing the US military paid additional dividends in terms of economic growth. During much of Reagan’s first term, the economy still struggled with high inflation and unemployment. His 1981 tax cuts had been less successful than hoped, with taxes going back up over the next three years to restore federal revenue. However, by 1984, there was finally some economic improvement, which critics attributed to his aggressive military spending rather than supply-side growth. This spending-centered economic growth secured Reagan’s re-election by a landslide…but also greatly increased the national debt.   1988: Bush Rides Cold Warrior’s Coattails Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev (left), US President Ronald Reagan (center), and President George Bush Sr. (right) in New York City in 1988. Source: Foreign Affairs   Reagan’s second term saw warming tensions with the Soviet Union again as a new, younger Soviet premier—Mikhail Gorbachev—pursued reforms. Beginning in 1985, Gorbachev met with Reagan in a series of international summits that secured arms control agreements. By 1987, the Soviet economy was secretly starting to crumble, and the USSR pursued warmer relations with the West. Benefiting from Reagan’s continued Cold War victories, including his speech at the Berlin Wall in the summer of 1987, was Vice President George Bush Sr.   By 1988, it looked like the United States was winning the international struggle for public opinion against Gorbachev’s quietly struggling Soviet Union. Bush largely campaigned to continue the policies of his boss, Ronald Reagan. He successfully made Democratic challenger Michael Dukakis look soft on crime and mocked the appearance of a grinning Senator Dukakis atop a tank. The infamous tank ad made Dukakis appear unready to be commander-in-chief—still a necessity in 1988, as the Cold War continued—and helped Bush clinch the election.   Aftermath: Despite Win, Voters Look to Move On Quickly Presidential nominee Bill Clinton (left) and running mate Al Gore (right) won the 1992 election as the first post-Cold War Baby Boomer ticket. Source: American Academy of Achievement   Bush’s World War II experience, Cold War bona fides, and victory over Iraq in the 1990-91 Gulf War were not enough to carry him to re-election in 1992. Although Bush enjoyed popularity ratings as high as 90 percent shortly after his victory in the Middle East, the 1991 economic recession quickly cooled his support. Even the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991 did not secure Bush’s popularity; much Cold Warrior credit went to his predecessor, Ronald Reagan, instead.   Young political rival Bill Clinton, Democratic governor of Arkansas, campaigned skillfully for president in 1992 by focusing on the economy. He also suggested that he and running mate Al Gore, the youngest ticket in modern times, were the key to bringing the United States into the future. Voters agreed, and Bush’s political victories between 1991 and 1992, which included the end of the Cold War, did not carry the day. Clinton won the White House, though critics argued that Bush only lost due to the presence of strong independent candidate Ross Perot, who appealed to some conservatives and cost Republicans some votes.

  As a result of stock market speculation and easy credit, Wall Street crashed in October 1929, sending the American economy and society on a downward spiral of despair. Known as the Great Depression, the phenomenon plunged 1930s America into a dark period of scarcity, poverty, and hardship. As food supplies and purchasing power reduced dramatically, Americans found ingenious methods to prepare their meals, maximizing the ingredients while feeding their families. Learn more about the innovative creations that made their way onto the dining tables of American households in the 1930s.   The Great Depression: Of Hardship and Turmoil People gathering in front of the New York Stock Exchange during the Wall Street Crash, 1929. Source: Library of Congress   The roots of the Great Depression can be traced to the unsustainable stock market bubble in the 1920s. An exuberant era filled with optimism and widespread societal changes, the Roaring Twenties was characterized by a booming economy and a vibrant stock market. However, the fact that the economic boom was fuelled by speculation and the availability of easy credit created a precarious situation.   This bubble would burst in October 1929, sending shockwaves and panic across the United States with its effects soon spreading to other continents. As panic at the stock market escalated, millions of Americans withdrew their savings, resulting in bank runs and frozen credit. Businesses fell into financial limbo and unemployment skyrocketed. By 1933, unemployment rates in the United States reached a shocking 25% and millions were in poverty and destitution.   Everyone Was in the Hot Soup… Kitchens People queueing up outside a soup kitchen ran by Al Capone during the Great Depression, 1930s. Source: National Archives   To combat hunger, soup kitchens became popular in the Depression-era United States, offering a crucial lifeline to millions of Americans. Soups were hailed as fuss-free and cost-effective meal options that could provide some level of nourishment to the hungry and poor. With cheap ingredients, soups could be prepared in large quantities to serve more people. Many would queue up for a piping hot bowl of soup in soup kitchens that were run by churches, private charities, and local communities. Even the notorious mob boss Al Capone operated a soup kitchen in Chicago during the Great Depression to feed hungry Americans. Although it was a laudable charitable act, some believed that Al Capone did so to clean up his unsavory image.   Stretching the Dollar in Times of Scarcity Farm family in Bradford, Vermont, eating dinner, 1939. Source: Library of Congress   As food supplies were scarce, Americans had to be creative to stretch the dollar and provide sustenance for themselves and their families. Many often turned to starchy staples, such as potatoes, rice, and flour, which were more filling and could fight off the hunger pangs. The humble potato attained a reverent status as its versatility gifted the impoverished a huge variety of dishes. Potato soups provided a hearty meal with minimal ingredients, while potato pancakes made for a fuss-free savory dish adored by both adults and children alike.   A potato harvest in Powell Butte, Oregon, United States, 1930. Source: The Madras Pioneer   During the Great Depression, Americans also looked to canned goods such as sardines that were inexpensive and afforded longer storage. Beans and vegetables were popular as they were good sources of nutrients and could be used for large pots of stews. Cheaper cuts of meat were also preferred. For example, when it came to steaks, housewives would opt for chuck instead of sirloin or ribeye. Some would also cut down on red meats which were more expensive and replaced them with other forms of meat. Offal—mostly referring to entrails or animal organs—was also found on the dining tables as it was often cheap. This is a sharp contrast to the present day as the practice of consuming offal today in the American context is rather rare.   Ingenuity Fuelled by Hardship A Nucoa margarine advertisement in Life magazine that appeals to budget-conscious consumers, promising to help them save “up to 14 cents a pound,” 1937. Source: New York Historical Society Library   To make the most of these ingredients, Americans came up with several ingenious and economical methods. The first golden rule was that no wastage would be tolerated.  Housewives would often take leftover meat and make them into sandwiches or pot pies. Even breads that had gone stale could be used as breadcrumbs or made into bread puddings. In addition, to feed more mouths and maximize the ingredients, rice and pasta would be used to bulk up stews and soups. Even milk was often watered down to make for larger portions or for diverse uses. Creativity knew no bounds as Depression-era Americans were also known to use various cheaper substitutes for meat. For example, mushrooms were often used to replace meat as they were thought to have similar textures.   Sowing Into the Thrift Gardens of Hope A pamphlet with images of Detroit’s Thrift Gardens, 1931. Source: Detroit Public Library   To further ease the grocery bills, households would also choose to make their own staples such as bread and crackers. This was highly efficient as they could better control the ingredients used and reduce their reliance on commercial food. To be more self-sustainable, some even ventured into growing their own produce. Backyard gardens became a popular alternative to buying fruit and vegetables. Sometimes also called Thrift Gardens, these farming plots were created to meet the immediate food needs of the people. In some communities, these plots were highly planned to ensure that a variety of crops were grown, including corn, broccoli, carrots, peas, lettuce, and radishes. In this way, every household would be contributing to the common cause and be taken care of in return. On a wider scale, these gardens could also help to alleviate the burden on government relief programs designed to combat hunger.   Enjoying the Sweets During Bitter Moments Jell-O was a popular ingredient for desserts recipes during the Great Depression thanks to its versatility and low cost, 1930s. Source: Food52   Americans have always had a sweet tooth. Even in the toughest of times, a little sweet treat never killed anybody. Some of the most popular Depression-era recipes were desserts that offered a sugary moment of solace amidst hardship. Baked apples, rice puddings, peanut butter cookies, and oatmeal cookies became popular classics that accompanied millions of Americans through the economic downturn. These sweet treats were comfort foods that required inexpensive and easily obtainable ingredients such as flour, sugar, and baking soda. Even the more luxurious desserts such as a chocolate cake could be enjoyed if one improvised on the ingredients. Instead of using chocolate, which was considered a luxury, homemakers used cocoa powder and milk as substitutes. America’s favorite powdered gelatin dessert—more commonly known as Jell-O—also enjoyed much popularity thanks to its versatility and vibrant colors.   Wacky Food Creations That Actually Tasted Great A tomato soup cake recipe (right), 1941. Source: Atlas Obscura   With low food supplies and tightened purse strings, Americans found ways to use unconventional ingredients to create some of the most peculiar yet tasty dishes. Made using sugar, flour, eggs, and apple cider vinegar, the infamous Vinegar Pie was one of these creations. Apple cider vinegar was touted as a cheaper alternative to lemons, which were not readily available during the Great Depression. Despite the unsavory name, the Vinegar Pie was praised for its complex tangy taste profile. In the same vein, the Tomato Soup Cake surprised many when it soared in popularity during the Great Depression. It turned out that the cheap tinned tomato soup contained the perfect ingredients for a moist cake—gelatinized starch from thickeners and pectin from tomatoes.   Legacy of the Food Culture of the Great Depression Tomato Soup Cake made from Campbell’s Tomato Soup. Source: TODAY   The trying times of one of the most tumultuous periods of history witnessed the creation of many innovative recipes. Many of the food creations initially thought to be strange during the Great Depression have even made their way onto our modern-day dining tables. Oatmeal cookies, meatloaves, and lentil soups have remained popular favorites despite their very humble origins associated with a less peaceful time. More importantly, the endless creativity and resourcefulness of Americans in times of trouble was noteworthy and deserving of praise. It showcased the best of American ingenuity and lent testament to the resilience of a generation of Americans.   A family in Pennsylvania, United States eating a simple meal during the Great Depression, 1937. Source: Library of Congress   Interestingly, significant events of recent times such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdown have also inspired people to consider the historical parallels. The panic buying and tightened purse strings during the early days of the lockdown reminded many of what ensued during the Great Depression. Amateur bakers who picked up the hobby during quarantine also explored many Depression-era recipes, including the wacky cake that went viral on social media. The Wacky Cake—also known as the Depression Cake—did not require the usual suspects in baking, which were eggs, butter, and milk. Using just flour, sugar, and cocoa powder and finished with whipped cream, a simple and delectable cake was ready for consumption. This very timely throwback to the 1930s is a reminder that while history might not repeat itself, it most certainly almost always rhymes.

  On Christmas Day in the year 800, the Pope crowned Charlemagne as Emperor of the Romans. At Charles’ side were his daughters, Rotrude and Berta. His educated, liberated, and unmarried daughters went everywhere with their father. Why did they never marry? What role did they play in his reign?   Who Was Charlemagne Again? Coronation of Charlemagne, by Friedrich Kaulbach, 1863. Source: Time Toast   If you know of Charlemagne at all, you probably know him as the warrior king who forged an Empire that encompassed most of Western Europe. He spent almost every summer for 40 years at war and converted many to Christianity (sometimes by force). He also assembled the greatest scholars of Europe at his court.   Charles loved to collect things. Scholars. Old Greek and Roman manuscripts. The Lombard Crown. The vast Treasure of the Avars. A splinter of the True Cross, which he wore around his neck for protection. The Byzantine Empress, Irene, sent him the Sancte Chemise — the veil Mary supposedly wore when she gave birth to Jesus. The Caliph of Bagdad sent him a water clock and then an elephant which he took with him into battle.   The Father of Europe Portrait of Charlemagne, by Albrecht Durer c. 1515. Source: Britannica   Charles was the father of Europe in more ways than one. He had five wives, four named concubines, and many, many children, 19 of whom he acknowledged. Almost all people of Northern European descent have some of his DNA. His was the most successful of the barbarian empires that came after the fall of Rome.   Charles established his court in Aachen as a place of scholarship. He invited the greatest minds of his day to attend him. Together, they explored ideas, translated old texts for one another, and revived classical learning. They invented the Carolingian script—a combination of the Roman and Insular scripts—which is still a font today. They introduced the use of spaces between words, capitals at the beginnings of sentences, and periods at the end. While Italian, French, Romanian, and Spanish were emerging as true languages rather than regional dialects of Latin, court scholars regularized the spelling, grammar, and vocabulary of Latin, codifying not only the language of the Church but of scholarship for the next 900 years.   Most importantly, in a society that did not value literacy, Charles required monasteries to establish local schools. He established the Palace School at Aachen, where the children of the nobility would study the arts and sciences, and recruited the renowned scholar, Alcuin, to run it.   Charles was an unconventional man, who preferred the simple dress of a Frankish soldier to the pleated chlamys and formal wear of Rome. When it came to education at the palace school, he did not discriminate between those of his children born in wedlock or by concubines. His children by his concubines all had good careers as abbots and ministers. And further, he educated his daughters as if they were his sons.   The Daughters of Charlemagne Attend the Palace School Alcuin teaching, 9th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Rotrude and Berta and their younger sisters (Gisela, Rualhaid, Hiltrud, and Theodrada) only receive a few lines in history. Rotrude got three sentences in the Royal Frankish Annals, Berta had two, Gisela three, and the other three got nothing. The three older sisters also appear in the correspondence of the scholar Alcuin. Alcuin had come to Charlemagne’s court from the great Cathedral School of Durham. He was charged with founding the Palace School for the young nobles of Francia and teaching them the classical disciplines. One of his favorite pupils was Charles’s eldest daughter, Rotrude, whom he called, “Columba.” Berta was “Delia.” An older student, Angilbert, was called “Homer.” Alcuin named himself “Flaccus” and called King Charles, “David.”   Alcuin Taught Reading, Writing, and Problem Solving Alcuin’s puzzle, depicted in the Ormesby Psalter, 1300-1400. Source: The Bodleian Library, Oxford   Alcuin was a gifted teacher and taught his students the classic liberal arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, astronomy, music, and geometry. In his classroom, he also used a book of logic problems which he’d created called Problems to Sharpen the Young.     Consider the following: “A man had to take a wolf, a goat, and a bunch of cabbages across a river. The only boat he could find had room for himself and one other. How can he get them all across the river safely – without the wolf being left alone to eat the goose or the goose being left alone to eat the cabbages?”   So, the daughters of Charlemagne not only learned to read and write but how to reason.   Uncommon Princesses  Kings and Queens of Francia, from the Costumes of all Nations, by Albert Kretschmer, 1882. Source: Coronationstone   At first, the eldest daughters, Rotrude and Berta, shared the traditional destiny of all princesses: a political marriage that was good for their father’s kingdom.   At the age of seven, Rotrude was engaged to marry Constantine VI, the Roman Emperor in Constantinople. Berta was sought after by Offa, the King of Mercia, for his son, Egfrith, in trade for allowing Charles’ eldest son to marry his daughter.   Charles’s decision to ally the Franks with the Pope in Rome ended the first engagement, and when Offa, a mere king of part of England, came bargaining for his daughter, Charles was so insulted that he closed all the ports of Francia to English ships.   In the next few years, Charles formally announced that his daughters would never marry. He gave as his reason that he could not bear to part with their company.   Permanent Princesses  Map of Charlemagne’s domains. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Most scholars assume that Charles wanted to avoid the political complications that accompany sons-in-law and their offspring. The tradition of Carolingian inheritance was to divide the kingdom among male heirs. Charles made his plans early.   His eldest son, Charles, was to rule Francia proper with him. In 787, his second son, Carloman, was rechristened with Charles’s father’s name, Pepin, and crowned king of the Italian peninsula.  The youngest, Louis, was sent to the Aquitaine on the border with Muslim Spain.   Whatever the reason, the result was this: his five legitimate daughters who survived childhood remained at court. They were not shipped off to another country at the age of twelve.   The mother of Rotrude, Berta, and Gisela was Charlemagne’s first Christian wife, Hildegarde. He had had an informal Germanic liaison with the mother of his first son, Pippin Hunchback, and his second marriage with a Lombard Princess was arranged for him by his mother. He sent her back to her father when he fell in love with the 13-year-old Hildegarde.   Hildegarde bore nine children, six of whom survived before she died at the age of 25. Theodrada and Hildtrud, the half-sisters of Rotrude and Berta, were born to his fourth wife, Fastrada. His fifth wife, Liutgard, who was only a year older than Rotrude, had no children before dying in 799.   Hildegarde, wife of Charlemagne, 19th century. Source: The Royal Collection Trust   So, Charles’s children grew up together in their father’s court, along with the children of his concubines. As even the concubine’s children went on to careers in the Church as abbesses and abbots, they apparently all studied together at the Palace School as well.   Rotrude, Berta, and Gisela won praise as students and writers. They ate meals with their father and loved to discuss poetry with Liutgard. When she died, he did not remarry, so, for the last 15 years of his reign, his older daughters effectively operated as his Queens, which meant the administration of his court was in their hands.   Charlemagne was a very smart man, but he never learned to write. It is possible to imagine that his literate daughters were privately helpful in composing the many Capitularies he issued to govern his Empire. However, that is not all they were up to.   Confidants, Companions, and Independent Women Charlemagne receives Alcuin 780, by Jean Victor Schnetz, 19th century. Source: Meisterdrucke   Two of Charles’s sons left the court at an early age — Louis was sent to rule Aquitaine and Pepin to rule Italy, with the help of counselors before they were adolescents. Only the eldest, Charles, who was to succeed his father as Emperor and King of Francia, remained at court with his sisters, half-sisters, and the children of his father’s concubines. In 810, Carloman died and all six of his daughters were sent to Charlemagne’s court for their education. The court was awash with bold, unmarried women.   The Crowned Doves Frankish Bird Brooch, 500-600. Source: The MET, New York   Alcuin’s letters to Charlemagne’s daughters are full of fond wishes that they “fare well and prosper in the practice of every virtue.” Rotrude remained a scholar her whole life and commissioned Alcuin to write a commentary on the Gospel of St. John. When she retired to the nunnery at Chelles where her aunt was the Abbess, the two of them set up an important scriptorium for the copying of manuscripts.   However, Alcuin changes his tone when he writes about the princesses to a young cleric who was coming to court: “May the Crowned Doves that fly about the rooms of the Palace not come to your windows, nor wild horses break through the doors of your room.” “Think carefully to whom you speak.” (Letters of Alcuin of York, by Stephen Allott, 1974. William Sessions Ltd. York, England, Letters 92 and 125)   Forbidden to marry, but surrounded by babies, concubines and courtiers, Charles’s daughters apparently decided they were entitled to act like their father. They couldn’t have husbands, so they took lovers. Their children, when they came, were simply added to the court.   Charles Blushes  Einhardt monument, Germany. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Einhardt, Charles’s biographer, had a few choice words to say about the girls: “He was so careful of the training of his sons and daughters that he never took his meals without them when he was at home, and never made a journey without them; his sons would ride at his side, and his daughters follow him, while a number of his body-guard, detailed for their protection, brought up the rear. Strange to say, although they were very handsome women, and he loved them very dearly, he was never willing to marry any of them to a man of their own nation or to a foreigner, but kept them all at home until his death, saying that he could not dispense with their society. Hence, though otherwise happy, he experienced the malignity of fortune as far as they were concerned; yet he concealed his knowledge of the rumors current in regard to them, and of the suspicions entertained of their honor.” (The Life of Charlemagne, Einhardt, trans by Samuel Eps Turner, NY Harper & Bros, 1880.)   The Wanton Heats of the Palace Courtly love, depicted in the Codex Mannesse, 1310-1340. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Berta had a long-standing affair with Angilbert, a nobleman who had grown up at court and became one of Charles’s most trusted emissaries to other courts. They had three children: Nithard, who became a historian during Louis the Pious’s reign, Hartnid, who became an abbot, and Bertrude, who married a count.   Rotrude did not form an attachment, but had at least one son — probably with one Rorgo, the Count of Maine. Their son, Louis, became the abbot of St. Denis, the most powerful abbey in France, and served as Archchancellor of Francia. Most of the younger daughters followed in their older sister’s footsteps. To say that the girls broke all the rules is an understatement.   Charles didn’t—or wouldn’t—acknowledge his daughter’s adventures; but it was an open secret. One Courtier described the atmosphere as being full of “wanton heats…caresses of delights and blandishments of passion.” (Vita Aldalhardi, from King and Emperor, Janet K Nelson, 2019 pp. 443-444). The courts of Europe were scandalized, as was Rotrude’s and Berta’s brother, Louis.   In 810-811, there was a terrible cattle plague that spread all over Europe. In 811, Pepin of Italy, and then Rotrude died. Charles, Charlemagne’s oldest son, died the following year.   Charlemagne was crushed. He crowned his youngest son, Louis, as King and Emperor in the year before his own death in the winter of 813. He was worried enough about his daughters that he provided monasteries and nunneries for them to go to, should no man wish to marry them. He admonished his sons, asking that they not stand in the way of their sisters marrying.   Louis the Pious and the Enormous Troop of Women The Persephone Sarcophagus, Roman, Early 3rd Century CE, Aachen Cathedral Treasury. Source: Wikimedia Commons   When Charlemagne died, it took the new Emperor Louis a month to arrive at the court at Aachen. His sisters were tasked with dressing their father’s body and his burial. The day he died, they washed his body, wrapped it in a purple and gold silk shroud, and laid him in an antique Roman sarcophagus, carved with the story of the Rape of Persephone.   When Louis arrived and ascended to the throne, he spent one-third of his father’s vast treasure on a memorial celebration, and satisfying the bequests of his father’s will, divided the remainder between himself and “those of his sisters who had been born in lawful wedlock.”    Then Louis cleared his court of this “enormous troop of women.” He ordered all of his various sisters to “remove themselves instantly from court to their monasteries.”     Charles had provided monasteries or nunneries for most of them to retire to. Berta was not eager to leave court but Louis was not interested in her thoughts on the matter. So, Berta became Abbess of a nunnery. It was possibly the one associated with the monastery of St. Requier in Amiens, where Angilbert had retired from foreign affairs to be the lay Abbot.   Unlike his father’s reign, Louis’s reign was fraught with division; his sons repeatedly went to war with each other. It is said that Berta, who died in 826, was buried near her sister Rotrude in the Nunnery at Chelles but the nunnery was destroyed during the French Revolution, so it is impossible to say. Whether Louis consulted Berta in times of trouble, we will never know.  Charlemagne’s daughters pass out of history and are not mentioned again.   Bibliography   King and Emperor, A New Life of Charlemagne,  Janet L. Nelson. University of California Press, 2019 Carolingian Chronicles (Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard’s Histories), translated by Bernhard Walker Scholz with Barbara Rogers.  Ann Arbor Paperbacks, University of Michigan Press. 1972. Alcuin of York – His Life and Letters, Stephen Allot, William Sessions Ltd. The Ebor Press, York, England, 1974.

With Hurricane Milton projected to hit the Tampa Bay area, it’s worth digging into agendas planned for Florida’s third-largest city. Lo and behold, there are detailed initiatives to transform Tampa into a ‘Smart City.’ What is a Smart City? Here’s what Wikipedia states: A smart city is an urban area that uses digital technology to collect data and to operate/provide services. Data can be collected from citizens, devices, buildings, cameras. Applications include traffic and transportation systems, power plants, utilities, urban forestry, water supply networks, waste disposal, criminal investigations, information systems, schools, libraries, hospitals, and other community services. Smart cities are characterized by the ways in which their local governments monitor, analyze, plan, and govern the city. In a smart city, the sharing of data extends to businesses, citizens and other third parties who can derive benefit from using that data. The three largest sources of spending associated with smart cities as of 2022 were visual surveillance, public transit, and outdoor lighting. “What is a smart city? We’ve heard the term in contexts as diverse as urban planning and governance, transport, energy, the environment, health, and education. We’ve also noticed that the notion of smart cities relies on a range of technologies—including the internet of things (IoT), mobile solutions, big data, artificial intelligence (AI), and blockchain,” the World Economic Forum writes. “Because of this connection with technology, we’ve had concerns about how smart cities will address issues such as data privacy and social exclusion. We see a risk that urban areas with poor web connectivity could be left out of the smart-cities trend. We’d like to continue an open dialogue on this trend,” the globalist organization adds. That’s a lot of fancy language for enslavement in the digital surveillance state. Shyam Batra, candidate for Mayor of London, gives a more accurate description of Smart Cities. WATCH: Shyam Batra, candidate for Mayor of London, gives his take on C40 cities: 15-Minute cities is something that the WEF has created called C40…If you want food you will get a calorie controlled system sent to you by text saying 'this is what you can eat today…If you violate any… pic.twitter.com/yW1xicJBFo — Camus (@newstart_2024) March 26, 2024 Australian Senator Alex Antic has another breakdown: Senator Antic is right to raise the alarm over the WEF SMART cities initiative. The infrastructure is being set up under the guise of safety and convenience but the end goal is control, loss of privacy and the ability to implement a social credit system. Awareness is key. pic.twitter.com/RLbblNEORi — Kat A (@SaiKate108) December 7, 2022 Unsurprisingly, Tampa has plans to become a Smart City. They need to destroy cities and towns to Build Back Better as a smart city. Hello Tampa pic.twitter.com/ImYkLlK8N4 — JeLove (@LovesTheLight) October 8, 2024 Tampa, Florida is set to become one of the next "15-minute cities" under the ambitious M.O.V.E.S. plan—Mobility, Opportunity, Vision, Equity, and Safety. This billion-dollar project is a collaboration between Bill Gates and Tampa Bay Lightning owner Jeff Vinik pic.twitter.com/cT4tPtNZeU — Normanby -17 (@normanby_17) October 8, 2024 “Smart Cities of Tampa Bay seeks to move the region forward by deploying cutting edge technologies in multiple disciplines including transportation, energy infrastructure, health, and more,” Tampa Bay Smart Cities Alliance writes. From Tampa Bay Smart Cities Alliance: These are exciting times with new opportunities and challenges for integrating new technology in addressing the Tampa Bay area’s transportation needs. We also recognize that a true smart metropolitan area should embrace all aspects of life—we should not limit ourselves to a technology discussion but seek an inclusive and collaborative means for having a value conversation (health, education, transportation, and energy). Tampa Bay Smart Cities Alliance was initiated by the City of Tampa, Florida Department of Transportation District 7, and the Center for Urban Transportation Research at the University of South Florida. This core group is seeking a broader vision for a regional group that would focus on near-term operational goals in the Tampa Bay area that will to continue to move the region forward in deploying cutting edge technologies that cut across multiple disciplines, including transportation, energy infrastructure, health, and more. A central value is the bias towards action. Tampa also initiated the M.O.V.E.S. Plan. INTERESTING: Tampa, Florida had decided to become a 15-minute city through the MOVES Plan. Link: https://t.co/PCdazJFV6F pic.twitter.com/ueUzs50kdQ — Merissa Hansen (@merissahansen17) October 7, 2024 Per Tampa.gov: Tampa M.O.V.E.S. (Mobility, Opportunity, Vision, Equity, and Safety) is the City of Tampa’s new transportation plan to address these recommendations. The plan is based on extensive public input to define the City’s mobility goals. Tampa M.O.V.E.S outlines transportation objectives and initiatives for the next 30 years, with an emphasis on memorializing the City’s strategic vision. The plan provides a number of policy and program recommendations to prioritize capital transportation improvements to result in a healthier, safer, and more connected city. * Image from Tampa.gov * The U.S. Department of Transportation has more extensive details on the future plans for Tampa, publishing a 34-page document called ‘Beyond Traffic: The Smart Tampa Vision.’ Read the 34-page document at the U.S. Department of Transportation. Also, Tampa Electric bluntly states: “We’re leveraging technology to turn Tampa into a smart city.” From Tampa Electric: What is a smart city? It’s one that uses digital technology to connect, provide services and ultimately enhance the lives of all citizens. Here are examples of how we’re partnering with the community to enhance public safety today and plans we have for the near future. Security camera pilot We’re partnering with the Tampa Police Department (TPD) and the West Tampa Community Redevelopment Agency in support of their ongoing efforts to help make Tampa’s neighborhoods more attractive, safe, convenient, environmentally healthy and economically strong. As part of this security camera pilot program, we installed three cameras at the base of our new LED streetlights that TPD can access remotely and monitor activity in high-crime areas. The cameras are powered by the streetlight and allow TPD to view 360 degrees and zoom-in on objects. Potential future camera locations will be identified by TPD and the community for feasibility assessment and installation. Gunshot detection Violent crimes involving guns is at the highest in recent years. In an effort to help the Tampa Police Department (TPD) identify and locate gun shots, we’re working with a third-party technology company called Shot Spotter to install ultra-sensitive “acoustic sensors” to our LED streetlights. The partnership with TPD is showing results. Within the first year after installing sensors in June 2019, the TPD responded to more than 700-gun shots that were detected by the sensors. As of Oct. 2020, there were 18 arrests directly related to TPD officers responding to gun shots detected by the sensors. Today, there are more than 70 sensors installed in high-crime areas with plans to install additional sensors in the near future. This is just another example of how we’re leveraging technology to turn Tampa into a smart city. Other technologies we’re exploring We’re exploring other technology that can be integrated into our smart LED lights and wireless meter network. For example, we’re exploring streetlight-mounted sensors that can make drivers aware of vacant parking spaces, street closures and congestion. Other sensors can make drivers aware of street flooding and recommend alternative routes. Visit our smart LED upgrade video to learn more. Additionally, Bill Gates is involved with the plans to develop downtown Tampa into a “green walking city.” UPDATE: Hurricane Milton Well well well… Tampa, Florida is currently working on a downtown redevelopment project that aims to create a “green walking city.”… Sound familiar? The project is a joint venture between Bill Gates and Tampa Bay Lightning owner Jeff Vinik.Source… pic.twitter.com/dglnccS4CP — DailyNoah.com (@DailyNoahNews) October 8, 2024 Per USF Health: Tampa is a vibrant, progressive and multi-cultural city located on the west coast of Florida. Tampa is ranked among the top U.S. cities for healthiest lifestyle, economic growth, innovation, cost of living, education and craft breweries. We are also home to 3 major professional sports teams. Super Bowl LV is scheduled to be held here in February 2021 and we plan to have our quarterback Tom Brady leading the Tampa Bay Buccaneers to victory. Downtown Tampa (Tampa Water Street) is presently being renovated with a 3 billion dollar joint venture project with Tampa Bay Lightning owner Jeff Vinik and Microsoft founder Bill Gates. Their 50 acre development plan is to turn our downtown into a green walking city with a vibrant live-work-and-play environment with the USF Morsani Medical School building strategically placed along the development. Nearby Gulf beaches are just a short drive away, with Clearwater Beach consistently ranked #1 in the nation. Year-long festivities and sporting events abound along with the renowned Gasparilla invasion. The Florida Aquarium, Busch Gardens, Adventure Island, Straz Center for the Performing Arts, Riverwalk, Armature Works, multiple museums and scenic Bayshore Boulevard are among the many areas of entertainment and culture available in Tampa. Tampa International Airport (TIA) is consistently ranked as one of the top airports in the country and only a 15 minute drive from Tampa General Hospital. Tampa has everything a young physicians and families could want, with the exception of snow skiing!

The more time you spend with God, the more God will dispel any fear that tries to take hold of your heart. Remember, the Lord is your light and your salvation, so you never need to be afraid!

Paul Maurer was on the plane back from the Fourth Lausanne Congress in South Korea when he began getting texts from work and home: a category 4 hurricane named Helene was plowing across the eastern United States, heading right for his home and the college he leads in the Asheville area. By the time Maurer landed Friday evening in Charlotte, North Carolina, Helene’s 140 mph winds and heavy rain had killed hundreds of people, destroyed towns, and caused landslides in multiple states. At Montreat College, where Maurer is president, one of the small mountain streams that runs through campus had become a raging river. McAlister Gymnasium at Montreat College on Friday during the storm / Courtesy of Montreat College “The lower level of our gym became part of the river,” he said. “Over five feet of water was running through the fitness center, the offices, and the classrooms.” The students were safe in the dorms, but didn’t have electricity or running water. Faculty and staff were at home, but Maurer didn’t know if they were okay and he couldn’t ask—there was no cell service. “I grew up and lived in tornado areas, and I lived in California in earthquake areas, but I’ve never seen anything of this magnitude,” he said. “It is surreal.” TGC asked Maurer if his faculty and staff made it, what he did with the hundreds of students still on campus, and how he saw God at work through it all. Was anyone who worked at Montreat killed or injured? As far as we know, no one died, and I’m not aware of any serious injuries. We have employees who lost their homes and all their earthly possessions. That is devastation, and that is real. But God protected our people. I tried to drive home Friday evening, but was stopped 20 miles from home by an interstate closure and state troopers who said there were no open roads into western North Carolina. I drove two hours back to Charlotte, where there were only a few hotel rooms left. I spent Saturday morning on the phone, triaging with my cabinet and reaching out for help. I was in Charlotte, and my VP for administration/CFO happened to be in Michigan. My head of communications was in Greenville, South Carolina. It was helpful that we weren’t on campus, because we could at least communicate with each other. It was harder to communicate with those on campus, because the phone service was badly compromised. Did you have to evacuate the students? We never issued an evacuation order. Instead, because floodwaters on Friday were so dangerous, we issued a shelter-in-place order. The power lines were down, the bridges were collapsed, and the trees were down everywhere, so it wasn’t safe for students to leave. The roads leading onto Montreat’s campus / Courtesy of Montreat College On Saturday, I called Edward Graham, the COO at Samaritan’s Purse and one of our board members. I told him we had students on campus and were about to run out of drinking water. Ten minutes later, he called me back and said we’d have a truckload of bottled water in the morning. Sure enough, Sunday morning the Coca Cola bottler in Charlotte delivered a truck full of bottled water. Their CEO made the call. What a blessing from God. By then, students were beginning to leave on their own. By Sunday lunch, there were only about 40 students left. By noon on Monday, we’d worked to find everyone a place to stay. How badly are your buildings damaged? Only one is completely unusable—that’s the gym. Some of the equipment was washed into Lake Susan, and the offices and classrooms are filled with mud and debris. But it’s still structurally sound, and we can restore it. About 9 other buildings were also damaged. Most of that is minor—wet carpets, leaking roofs and windows. One of the residence halls had standing water on the first floor for several days. That one has a little more damage. Will you be able to replace all of that? We have really good insurance, by God’s grace. The insurance adjuster was on site last week, and he immediately called in a dozen people to start remediation. We’ll be able to resume classes online on October 14 and hope to be back in person by October 21. Montreat’s campus / Courtesy of Montreat College The town was also quick to respond. The administration called contractors even before the storm hit. They were working by Monday morning, and by Wednesday the two washed-out bridges were passable and a washed-out road was reclaimed. The electricity is back on and they’re working on the water systems. All these good things are God’s blessings. How else have you seen God at work? The reality of the magnitude of devastation is shocking. It is utter devastation. You can see all the pictures and videos online, but it is completely different to drive through it, to live in it. Words cannot describe how bad it is. But the response of the Christian community, of the church, has been a beacon of light. A very large portion, from what I can tell, of the relief work has come from private, mostly faith-based organizations. Day after day, I see helicopters coming in and out from places like Samaritan’s Purse. A lot of churches are now distribution centers, where you can go for food, water, and clothing. Yesterday I got a call from Steve Thomas in Charlotte. He started a men’s Bible study in 2002. He said to me, “I need a staging area because I’m bringing 40 to 50 guys and a semitruck loaded with supplies.” I estimate that conversation has been multiplied hundreds of times. It’s organic, spontaneous, and community oriented. We’ve got people coming in from all over the country with pickup trucks full of supplies. Who are these people? It’s the church.

In recent years, evangelical missions has seen a renewed emphasis on international churches. These churches are typically located in major urban centers and operate in a shared language, such as English. With the rise of globalization and migration, such churches have become strategic beachheads for faithful Christian ministry. When these international congregations embody biblical practices, they become healthy models for indigenous leaders and their churches. And as like-minded churches in America witness that happening in challenging places like the Arabian Gulf or Southeast Asia, they’re excited to join the work—or see it replicated elsewhere. As elders of international churches in global cities, we’ve experienced the good these ministries can do. However, we believe the spread of the gospel to all peoples in all places requires more than healthy English-speaking international churches. We still need missionaries who go deep in language and culture and who plant indigenous churches among unreached peoples. Local Language Matters A key factor in the explosive fruitfulness of international churches in the Middle East and beyond has been the widespread use of English as a trade language. This has enabled these churches to invest in members, interns, and staff from some of the hardest-to-reach parts of the world. We think of a brother from the North Caucasus, a volatile, Muslim-dominated region of Southern Russia. It’s an area virtually inaccessible to foreign workers. But this young man, an English speaker, went through an internship at a healthy international church and is now serving among an extremely unreached people group. We praise God for the training this brother received. But what about local church leaders who don’t speak English or who can’t access such training? Some English-language churches are situated in places where English isn’t widely used, so they engage and serve a narrow sector of the population. And if their pastors only speak English (or another trade language), their influence among local leaders will be limited. The members won’t be able to evangelize or disciple everyone they want to reach. Strong partnerships with missionaries who speak the local language will mitigate some of these limitations, but the issue remains. We still need missionaries who go deep in language and culture and who plant indigenous churches among unreached peoples. When we consider the challenges of reaching minority-language groups, the need for such missionaries becomes clearer. These groups are often two languages removed from English-speaking contexts. To reach them, missionaries likely need to learn two languages—the national language and the language of the minority group. This requires a depth of integration that international churches by definition find difficult to attain. While we rejoice in the immediate opportunities to invest in meaningful ministry that come via English-language churches in hard places, we must recognize most missionaries still need to do the grinding work of language learning and cultural acquisition if many of the peoples of the world are to be reached with the gospel. Contextualization Matters A vital role that good international churches often play is to model the elements of a healthy church, such as meaningful membership and expository preaching. In pioneering areas, indigenous churches tend to have no model to emulate, no pattern to follow. The believers in these churches are often all first-generation Christians. Seeing the biblical elements of church practiced by their English-speaking sister congregations can be revolutionary. We must acknowledge, however, that even the most intentional and faithful English-speaking churches will have large cultural and linguistic gaps with surrounding churches, especially minority-language churches. Missionaries, in partnership with their national brothers and sisters, are needed to help translate faithful practices into contextualized forms. We’ve often had the chance to help national pastors discern the difference between “foreign” forms and the biblical principles behind those forms. On one occasion, I (Eric) spoke with a pastor who rejected the “rigid and formal” practice of church membership at our English-speaking church. After I clarified how we were aiming for biblical accountability and fellowship and not “Western rigidity,” he rejoiced. In the work of modest contextualization, international churches and cross-cultural missionaries can complement one another even as they labor side by side with their national brothers and sisters. Roles Matter A growing trend among some supporters of international church work is the tendency to equate the roles of missionary and elder. We believe these are different, though related, roles. At the risk of oversimplifying, elders have two main tasks: shepherding the flock and preaching the Word. Missionaries, on the other hand, can advance the gospel cross-culturally in a myriad of ways. Both should be recognized, affirmed, and held accountable by local churches (Acts 13:1–3; Eph. 4:12; Col. 1:7; 4:12; 1 Tim. 3; 3 John 5–8). Both proclaim the gospel. Both burn to see God’s name honored in local churches. Both will give an account for their labors (1 Cor. 3:10–15; Heb. 13:17). But they aren’t the same. Missionaries typically possess a burden to preach the gospel where Christ isn’t known (Rom. 15:20). William Carey was “obligated” to take the gospel to the unreached. Andrew Fuller and others helped send him. Adoniram Judson was always a missionary and sometimes an elder. Faithful missionaries who serve among growing Christian populations of the Global South aim to eventually hand off that work, as they dialogue with national brothers and sisters about the best time. Pastors, regardless of the ethnic or linguistic makeup of their churches, aim to serve established works, usually for the long haul. They desire to see the gospel flourish among God’s (already) gathered people, then send them out. International churches and cross-cultural missionaries can complement one another even as they labor side by side with their national brothers and sisters. Missions requires more than just local church elders. This doesn’t mean missionaries shouldn’t be church-centered in their work or biblically qualified. They should be. But they play vital roles in starting and strengthening churches globally in ways other than pastoring. Not to mention that women make up a majority of the missionary force and serve in eternally significant ways outside pastoral ministry. Women and men help build “gospel infrastructures” to make sure that work keeps progressing. This includes Bible translation, church planting, publishing, theological education, equipping pastors, evangelism training, student ministry, hymn-writing, and mentoring new missionaries—and, yes, some men may even serve as elders. Conflating these roles can simultaneously blunt the instincts of pioneers and undervalue the faithful, steady shepherding of God’s people. We Need Each Other As we’ve served overseas in various capacities, we’ve experienced the benefits of both being members of international churches and going deep in local language and culture. International churches can give new missionaries a place to land as they begin to acquire language and culture. They can model for less established indigenous churches how faithful churches function. They can train more elders and evangelists. They can come alongside missionaries in the discipleship of English-speaking local believers and leaders. Likewise, traditional missionaries have much to offer international churches. They may be members and serve as elders in those churches. They can help translate the culture. They can be a bridge to indigenous churches in the same city. They can continually direct the international churches’ eyes to the least engaged parts of the harvest field. They can be sent out to plant indigenous churches. There’s no silver bullet in the work to get the gospel to the peoples and places where it’s not yet firmly established. We believe more work needs to be done both through international churches and among indigenous language groups. May God weave that work into a beautiful tapestry of his grace and glory. And may he give us all the wisdom to carry out our roles with humility.