The renowned Silk Road was a network of trade routes that spanned the Asian, North African, and European continents between 130 BCE and 1453 CE. For a long time, the network was considered to be one of the primary nerve-centers of the early global economy. In the era in which it existed, the world was much more difficult to traverse compared to modern times due to limited travel modes, and so it remained as a prime trade route for traders for centuries. The network was largely made up of land-based pathways and sea-routes. It stretched from China to Korea and Japan in the east, and connected China and India in the south. It also linked with modern-day Italy and Turkey in the west.   Which Religions Spread Along the Silk Road? A statue of Buddha. Source: TheConversation.com   For over a millennium, highly sought-after commodities such as silk, gold, wool, glass, silver, and spices were traded along the Silk Road. However, artistic and architectural styles, as well as philosophical and religious concepts, were also spread and exchanged along the trade network.   Buddhism and Islam were among the major religions that spread along the Silk Road. Other religions that spread along the routes included Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Naturally, some of the religions were warped due to constant interactions with new cultures that challenged their religious doctrines.   The Syrian Christian religion which started in Syria and Mesopotamia, for example, began to change as its people moved east along the Central Asian trade routes. This is because they interacted with different religions and ideologies along the way that included Zoroastrianism. At the time, the Zoroastrian religion was the main religion in the Persian Empire. The empire was controlled by the Sasanian leaders who ruled between 224 CE and 651 CE. Some of the influences came about as infighting caused breakaway denominations that adapted new religious practices such as  liturgical protocols.   What Major Religions Clashed Along the Silk Road? Sasanian era silver plate with gold coating. Source: Azerbaijan Museum, Tabriz, Iran   Because Syrian Christians had lived in Sasanian lands since the third century, they were in constant conflict with Zoroastrian rulers who tried to impose their religion on them. At some point, Christianity became the main religion of the Roman Empire. The situation caused Sasanian rulers to view Syrian Christians as a threat. This was because of the frequent conflicts between the Roman and Sasanian rulers.   There were opposing views as well. Some Christians discredited Zoroastrianism principles of dual forces which split the world into good and evil. Also, Zoroastrian ways, such as the veneration of natural phenomena such as earth, fire, water, and air in worship caused a section of Christians to label the religion’s adherents as idol worshippers. They accused them of worshipping superficial things instead of the one true maker.   Eventually, conflicts between Syrian Christians and the Zoroastrian Sasanian Empire as well as the Byzantine Empire weakened the groups allowing for an easy takeover of the region by the Muslim Rashidun Caliphate. Subsequently, the Sasanian Empire fell in the 7th century to the caliphate.    Which Ideological Influences Were Spread Along the Silk Road? Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk. Source: Wikimedia   Besides religion, unique information and ideologies flowed along the Silk Road as well. Silkworm eggs from China were, for example, sometimes concealed in walking sticks as they were smuggled to other regions. The ploys were used because the Chinese administration made it punishable to share silk-making secrets to outsiders due to the lucrative nature of the silk trade at the time. China had monopolized silk farming and weaving during that era and so the trade was critical to its economy.    However, the smuggling of silkworms and silk-making methods enabled the craft to get out. Silk-making techniques began leaking out of China from 550 AD, first reaching Khotan and then spreading to Central Asia, Iran, and the Byzantine region in the 6th century. At the same time, the craft of glassmaking moved from Mediterranean lands to Iran and Central Asia, reaching China in the 5th century. There are stories of Chinese workers sharing their secret paper-making methods in regions where they settled. The techniques allowed silk farming and papermaking to grow in places such as Central Asia.   Hemp paper, Western Han period of China, circa 100 BCE.   Additionally, skilled builders swapped design ideas along the Silk Road. The results of such exchanges were observable in architectural designs in regions such as Central Asia through Timurid buildings in Samarkand, and the Ak-Serai palace in Shahrisabz. Building styles from distant regions were also shared among architects from places such as Azerbaijan, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and India.   People from different regions also exchanged musical styles and dance moves. For example, music from regions such as East Turkestan and Central Asia was popular in China. Moreover, Iranian, Sogdian, and Turkic musicians contributed significantly to the diversity of musical styles in places such as Sogdiana and China. Besides musicians, actors from the East often performed in Constantinople where they also shared their skills.

  For Mesoamerican civilizations, time held a special value as it was considered a divine energy and a sacred cycle, a gift from the gods. It served as the central axis of their worldview, guiding daily life, rituals, personal destinies, and the future of society. Calendars were not just tools for measuring the passage of time; they were also essential for historical memory, social control, and synchronizing human life with the rhythms of nature, the influence of the gods, and the dynamics of the cosmos.   The Mesoamerican Worldview Tonindeye (Nuttall) Codex, a Mixtec pictorial manuscript that narrates stories of rulers and historical events, 14th century CE. Source: The British Museum   The term Mesoamerica refers to the region that stretches from the southern half of present-day Mexico through Guatemala, El Salvador, Belize, and parts of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. While it is difficult to generalize such a large region over millennia when it was never integrated under a single power, thanks to significant commercial and technological exchange, cultural mixing, and military campaigns, common elements can be found. These include agriculture as the foundation of the economy, the domestication of cacao and corn, a vigesimal numbering system, the so-called Mesoamerican ballgame, the practice of sacrifices, polytheistic beliefs, and the use of two calendars: one ritual and another for everyday use.   Importantly, many of these shared characteristics reflected a similar way of interpreting the world, with the result that Mesoamerican peoples often shared beliefs, imagery, deities, and concepts. As most of the civilizations in the region were agricultural and warrior peoples, they had common survival needs, which were reflected in common gods, such as those dedicated to fertility and water. The observation of daily life and its dualities—life and death, day and night, man and woman, rainy season and droughts—led to the construction of a vision of binary oppositions of complementary elements.   Time in Mesoamerica: Both Natural and Divine A page from the Codex Borgia depicting Tonatiuh, a sun deity, with the canine features of Xolotl, 900-1521 CE. Source: FAMSI   The way each culture perceives and values time offers a key to understanding its worldview. In many ancient cultures, including in Mesoamerica, time was conceived as cyclical. This notion was tied to nature and the observation of physical states and processes: the sun rising and then setting when the moon appeared or rains bringing plants and animals to life, followed by a dry season where everything seemed to die. Observing such cycles was very important; being dependent on the environment for survival, it was necessary to anticipate the arrival of rainy cycles to manage food reserves and organize community survival means.   Their conception of time was not merely a mechanism for survival; it was influenced by human thought and action in order to create societal frameworks for understanding. It was a way of building a common vision by imbuing time with layers of meaning, enabling people to connect with their peers and ancestors, and giving sense and meaning to human activity.   In many pre-Hispanic cultures, time was considered a sacred element. It was not just a simple measure; as a creation of the gods, it was a vital force, a divine energy that permeated everything. It flowed through the human world with regulated rhythms and was essential for the creation and maintenance of the cosmos.   Mesoamerican Calendars: Tools of Empire An Aztec pictorial calendar wheel, commonly known as the Boban calendar wheel, is printed on amatl (fig bark) paper, 1545-46 CE. Source: The John Carter Brown Library   The need to connect events from the past, present, and future led these pre-Columbian peoples to systematically organize this information along natural cycles. The calendar, created from meticulous observations of the sky and mathematical calculations, provided a reference framework for both daily life and rituals. Calendars were an expression of the worldview, religion, science, and power of these civilizations.   Calendars reveal several layers of meaning. On one level, they were guided by natural phenomena, as the Mesoamericans viewed humans as an integral part of nature. This allowed them to align with natural rhythms and live in harmony with their environment. On a cosmic level, they sought to understand their place in the universe and establish a connection with the divine. Hidden and intertwined were other, more subtle aspects, such as tracking sacred dates related to deities and rituals essential for ensuring the fertility of the land, rains, health, and divine favor.   Calendars also became a tool for the powerful, as linking historical and dynastic events with cosmic cycles and divine myths allowed rulers to legitimize themselves as intermediaries between the divine and humans. They served as a mechanism to maintain social order by setting dates for religious ceremonies, dynastic events, agricultural work, commercial activities, and civic events. Additionally, they constituted the collective memory of the civilization, a means of passing down myths from generation to generation, strengthening shared identity and community bonds.   The Civil Calendar: 365 Days The Sun Stone, or Aztec Calendar, is a basalt disc believed to represent Mexica cosmogony. Source: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Mexico   In Mesoamerica, there were various versions of the calendar with different names, meanings of days, important dates, and starting days. However, many common features can be found among the calendars of different cultures. Most had a 365-day cycle related to the movement of the sun and the tropical year. In Nahuatl (the language spoken by the Aztecs), this cycle is called xiuhpohualli or “count of the year,” while the Maya used the word Haab’. This was the civil calendar and consisted of 18 “months” of 20 days each, plus five additional days at the end of the year.   In the Aztec calendar, each of the 20-day periods was dedicated to a different deity, as each was believed to influence human life, nature, and the cosmos. These periods were marked by the preparation of a festival that culminated at the end of the period. For example, the fifteenth month of their calendar was called Pānquetzaliztli, near the winter solstice, celebrating the birth of Huitzilopochtli, the sun god, symbolizing the victory of light over darkness. During this ceremony, the merchants who owned the slave victims observed a fast while captives were sacrificed. A figure of the god made from amaranth dough and toasted maize mixed with maguey honey was consumed after the sacrifices.   Aztec ritual human sacrifice portrayed in the Codex Magliabechiano, 16th century. Source: FAMSI   Within the sequence of twenty-day periods, there was a subdivision into groups of five days, with every fifth day serving as a market day, providing daily life with a constant rhythm. This was not only relevant for economic activities but also held social and ritual significance as times for gathering, exchange, and celebration.   The five additional days at the end of the year were called nemontemi in Nahuatl and uayeb in Maya. The term nemontemi can be translated as “they fill up in vain” or “wasted days.” Although their full significance has not been deciphered, these days were considered unlucky and even dangerous, leading to the suspension of many activities, such as trading or cooking, to avoid attracting unfavorable spirits. However, they also represented an opportunity to connect with the sacred and initiate a new cycle. They could be used as a time of transition and reflection, for reconciling with oneself or others.   These days were crucial as they marked the end of one cycle and the beginning of a new one. For example, Tenochtitlan was designed so that during these days, the sun would rise between the Twin Temples of the Templo Mayor; once this alignment was completed, maize planting would commence, and the new year would begin.   The 260-Day Ritual Calendar Example of a trecena in the Codex Borbonicus, 1562 CE. Source: FAMSI   The second calendar was used as a ritual and divinatory almanac. Known as tzolk’in by the Maya and tonalámatl by the Mexica, this calendar spans 260 days. It does not have an obvious relationship with astronomical or geophysical cycles, so it is believed to be based on symbolic and ritual meanings, although the exact origins remain unclear. The tzolk’in is still used in some indigenous communities in the Guatemalan highlands and southern Mexico.   The foundation of this system is the combination of the twenty day signs, each associated with a specific deity, with the numbers one to thirteen, which are also imbued with deep symbolism. This system creates a complex network of days, each combination having its own representation and influence on daily and ritual life.   In the Maya calendar, the twenty deities are connected to aspects of daily life, nature, and the universe. For example, Ok means “dog” and is associated with guiding the sun through the underworld at night, symbolizing guidance, loyalty, protection, and justice. Kawak means “storm” and is linked to purification and electrical energy, representing the power of thunder and renewal.   The numbers from one to thirteen also carry symbolic weight. For instance, the number four, Kan, represents stability, order, and structure, closely tied to the four cardinal points. The number six, Wak, symbolizes balance and harmony, especially in interactions with others.   Representation of the 52-year period in the Codex Tovar, 16th century CE. Source: The John Carter Brown Library   The tzolk’in is not just used to count time; by combining both days and numbers, which form 260 different combinations, it exerted a special influence in guiding the community’s actions and spirituality. It served as a guide for making important decisions and holding ceremonial events, determining when to plant, harvest, celebrate marriages, and conduct military campaigns. The day on which one was born dictated their destiny and had implications for the rest of their life.   Additionally, the tzolk’in formed the basis for other astronomical time measurements with profound religious meanings. For example, the larger cycle of both calendars—when they converge and the count restarts—was fifty-two years. This was equivalent to the concept of a century in modern times and, for Mesoamerican cultures, represented not just a complete time cycle but also a cosmic reset.

New York City Democratic voters -- especially Jewish New York City Democrat voters, a not-insignificant part of that city's electorate -- were supposed to be the bread and butter of Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer's demographic. He is one of them, after all -- a Jewish man born in New York...

House also featured in early prog bands High Tide and Third Ear Band before joining Hawkwind in 1974

In America, we set aside an entire day to remember every single soldier who has raised their hand or volunteered to serve their country and fallen in the line of duty. Here are 3 incredible truths and 3 powerful prayers in honor of Memorial Day.

7 Reasons Why the Silent Treatment Isn’t a Godly Response to Conflict

“Those who have long enjoyed such privileges as we enjoy forget in time that men have died to win them.” ~ Franklin D. Roosevelt Memorial Day is the fifth of 12 federal holidays. The holiday’s origins can be traced to the American Civil War, which killed more than 600,000 service members — both Union and […] The post Remember the Fallen on This Memorial Day appeared first on www.independentsentinel.com.

'The left turns against a nation'

Two amateur English archeologists made a major find at a famous site in Britain when they turned up a carved relief of the winged goddess of victory. Believed to have been part of a much larger ornament, the pair found it during their 21st year of volunteer excavations. Vindolanda was the site of a Roman […] The post Amateur Archaeologists Unearth a Winged Goddess Right at Hadrian’s Wall appeared first on Good News Network.