Important moment... The post “I was kind of stunned”: when John Fogerty was starstruck by a former Beatle first appeared on Far Out Magazine.

Choosing the right steak seasoning can make or break your sear. Four steakhouse chefs share the store-bought brands they respect and the blends they avoid.

Banana bread is the perfect way to start your day with a little dessert-as-breakfast, but there's an extra component that makes it even more delicious.

by Jon Fleetwood, Jon Fleetwood: H.R. 7653 authorizes NATO to “research, develop, and deploy biotechnology,” establishes international controls over dual-use systems the bill says could enable bioweapons, and permits secrecy. Congress has introduced legislation that would place genetic engineering and synthetic biology technologies into NATO’s classified military planning structure, authorizing the alliance to “research, develop, […]

by George McClellan, America Outloud: Do we have any illusions remaining about how dangerous the Democrat Party has become? Let’s just accept that if you vote for Democrats, you’ll get what you voted for: stupid people in charge. During the President’s State of the Union speech, seventy Democrats simply didn’t even appear for the event, […]

from The Jimmy Dore Show: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

Just in time for St. Paddy’s Day! READ MORE...

  At the height of its power in 117 CE, the Roman Empire spanned from the south of Scotland all the way to Mesopotamia. However, Rome and its European colonies took center stage when it came to architectural marvels that are still left standing today. These are found all over the Old Continent and range from elaborate bathhouses to towering aqueducts and impressive multi-purpose amphitheaters. The following 10 sites and buildings are a living testimony to the longevity of Roman engineering.   1. Porta Nigra (Germany) Porta Nigra in Trier, Germany, photo by Thomas Wold, 2021. Source: Wikimedia Commons/© Thomas Wolf, www.foto-tw.de, (CC BY-SA 3.0 DE)   At the time of its construction in the late 2nd century CE, the Romans likely did not give much thought to the city gate depicted in the picture above. After all, it was just one of four gatehouses leading into Augusta Treverorum, or the present-day city of Trier in the west of Germany. However, Porta Nigra is the only gate standing today, some 1,850 years after its construction.   The original name was lost to history, while the current one means “A Black Gate,” indicating the darkened color of the gray sandstone that developed over the centuries. Although there is no traffic going through it today, the structure is still exposed to air pollution, since it sits next to a busy road.   During the Middle Ages, the UNESCO World Heritage Site served as a church (the round towers at the front formed the sides of the church) with a monastery next to it. Porta Nigra got its original form back during Napoleon’s reign and has not changed much since. The locals refer to it as de Pocht, or The Gate.   2. Pompeii (Italy) Aerial view of Pompeii with Mount Vesuvius in the background, by ElfQrin, 2015. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 4.0   Pompeii is more than a Roman site; it is an entire city frozen in time. In August 79 CE, Pompeii, together with nearby Herculaneum, was buried under a thick layer of volcanic ash and pumice after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The event was catastrophic to the extent that the location of the ancient town southeast of modern Naples was lost for centuries. When the site was rediscovered at the very end of the 16th century, Pompeii, once a port city, lay inland, as volcanic activity had reshaped the Campanian coastline.   Archaeological excavation did not begin until the mid-18th century, and the European public was enthralled with the classical city that emerged from the ashes. Visitors today get a chance to walk down streets paved with basalt stone blocks and laid out in a grid typical of Roman settlements. They can see various once-opulent villas, the majestic Forum against the backdrop of Mount Vesuvius, public bathhouses, frescos with vivid colors, the amphitheater, and more. Archaeologists are still unearthing parts of the city, as they have only excavated two-thirds of Pompeii so far.   3. The Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain) The 28.5m tall Roman aqueduct at Segovia. Source: The World Monuments Fund   When we think of ancient Roman sites, we often refer to ruins. However, the Aqueduct of Segovia was in active use until 1973. It is located in the city of Segovia, the capital of a province of the same name, just northwest of Madrid.   Near the end of the 1st century CE, Roman engineers constructed an imposing aqueduct to channel water from nearby mountains into the settlement. Today, the Old Town, together with the Aqueduct, has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site.   The most imposing section of the 15-kilometer-long aqueduct is the double-arched bridge that is twice as tall as the Hollywood sign. At Plaza del Azoguejo in the city center, the structure stands the highest at some 28 meters. The Romans constructed the entire aqueduct using unmortared granite blocks, which give it its distinct look today (pictured above). The 24,000 blocks have been conducting water to Segovia’s fountains for nearly two millennia, a testament to the skill of ancient engineers.   4. The Roman Baths (England) Roman Baths in Bath, photo by Diego Delso, 2014. Source: Smarthistory   The next site on our list gave the name to Bath, a city in Somerset, England. The Romans built it around 70 CE, and the baths, or thermae, had remained in use until the end of the empire’s rule over Britain in the 5th century CE.   The bathhouses’ location is over naturally occurring hot springs rich in several dozen minerals, which made them perfect not just for bathing but also for healing. The water’s temperature is around 46 °C. However, this water is not suitable for swimming today, as it flows through lead pipes and is not treated, rendering it unsafe for human use.   The Roman baths were largely unused during the Middle Ages, so most of the gaudy structures we see nowadays as part of the complex are originally from the 1700s. The terraces on classical colonnades and statues date back to the time when Bath was a popular spa city. This architectural style is how Georgians imagined classical architecture. However, the bases of pools and the aforementioned plumbing are authentically Roman.   5. Fort City of Viminacium (Serbia) Viminacium, photographed in 2019. Source: Poportal, Požarevac   Historians estimate that as many as 18 Roman emperors were born in what is today Serbia, the single region outside of the Italian peninsula with the most emperors. The most famous of them, arguably, is Constantine the Great.   Other notable sites in the Balkan country include the imperial city of Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), imperial residences and villas, such as Mediana (Niš) and Felix Romuliana (Gamzigrad), as well as the remnants of Trajan’s Bridge over the Danube (near Kladovo), the longest permanent bridge in Antiquity.   However, the most interesting site is Viminacium, near the town of Kostolac in Eastern Serbia. The capital of the Roman province of Moesia Prima was both a major city, with an estimated population of 40,000 at its peak, and a military camp (castrum). Around the 1st century CE, a city developed around the camp, which sat on the Via Militaris, an ancient Roman road that started in present-day Belgrade and continued to Singidunum. The Huns pillaged Viminacium in the 5th century CE, only for it to finally disappear after the arrival of Slavs a century later.   6. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus (Türkiye) Library of Celsus in Ephesus. Source: Turkish Archaeological News, Knurów   The Library of Celsus was the third most famous library in classical Antiquity, right behind the Great Library of Alexandria and the Library of Pergamum. It is located on the Ionian coast of modern-day Türkiye, near the town of Selçuk. It was part of the ancient Greek city of Ephesus, which is today a popular tourist destination and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2015.   The library bears the name of the former Roman proconsul of Asia, commissioned by his son at the beginning of the 2nd century CE. The structure doubled as a mausoleum for the aforementioned proconsul.   The picturesque two-storied façade features 16 columns, decorated with mythological figures and floral motifs. Between the columns, four female statues in niches adorn the front side of the library. They symbolize the moral traits a high Roman official was expected to possess, such as Wisdom, Insight, Virtue, and Knowledge. The statues are modern reproductions (c. 1910), while the originals are on display at the Ephesus Museum, part of the Museum of Art History in Vienna.   7. Pont du Gard (France) Pont du Gard, photograph by Benh Lieu Song, 2014. Source: Wikimedia Commons/CC BY-SA 3.0   The second aqueduct on our list is not in an urban environment but in a natural one, further stressing its grandeur. Pont du Gard, translated as “The Bridge on the Gardon river,” is the highest Roman aqueduct in the world, standing at 49 meters above the river (at low water).   The Romans constructed it in the mid-1st century CE, during the reign of Claudius or maybe even Nero, to bring water to the colony of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes), some 50 kilometers away. This part of southern France is rich in examples of ancient architecture, as Nîmes is known as “The French Rome.”   The aqueduct bridge features three rows of arches constructed using shelly limestone and weighing 50,000 tons in total. However, the most impressive fact about the structure is the gradient, that is, the tiny downward slope of the water channel. On Pont du Gard, the gradient is just 25 centimeters per kilometer, one of the lowest values of the period.   8. The Colosseum in Rome (Italy) Colosseum, Rome, built 80 CE. Source: Smithsonian   The Colosseum in the Italian capital is the building most people associate with the Roman Empire. Its official name is Amphitheatrum Flavium, or the Flavian Amphitheatre, in honor of the three emperors from the Flavian dynasty that took part in its construction during the 1st century CE. The amphitheater is a type of open-air public structure that is most similar to a stadium today.   The Colosseum in Rome is the largest amphitheater from Antiquity still standing, with an original capacity of up to 80,000 spectators. Other sizable amphitheaters exist(ed) in Capua near Naples, El Jem in Tunisia, and in Pula, Croatia.   The elliptical amphitheater hosted all sorts of spectacles, such as gladiator fights, battle reenactments, dramas, executions, animal hunts, and even mock sea battles in its early years. During Roman times, the Colosseum was primarily an entertainment venue.   After the 6th century, the structure gradually fell into disuse, as the Roman Empire weakened and earthquakes caused the collapse of some segments. It served partly as a cemetery, a castle, a Christian holy site, and it eventually became an archaeological site, which is now a tourist destination, drawing an average of seven million visitors annually.   8. Odeon of Herodes Atticus (Greece) The Odeon of Herodes Atticus on the Acropolis in Athens. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Just under the famous Parthenon, on the southwestern slope of the Acropolis of Athens, sits a stone theater from Roman times. Herodes Atticus, a native of Marathon and a Roman senator, ordered its construction in memory of his wife. The year of completion was 161 CE.   The tiered stone stands have the shape of a horseshoe, and there is a three-story wall behind the stage. When the Odeon was still in use, it also boasted a wooden roof made from cedar from Lebanon. The theater could hold around 5,000 spectators, despite appearing small due to the steep incline of the auditorium.   The structure was Roman in form but Greek in its use as a stage for music and oratory. This was symbolic of the new Roman Athens that Hadrian and other rulers envisioned as an imperial city built upon, quite literally, its Greek heritage.   The Odeon served this purpose until the mid-3rd century, when the Germanic tribe of Heruli destroyed it. The structure fell into disrepair, and by the 19th century, only the arches were visible above the ground, as most of the theater was buried in the hillside. Greek architects reconstructed the ancient venue during the 1950s, and today, the Odeon of Herodes Atticus once again hosts musical events.   10. Hadrian’s Wall (England) Hadrian’s Wall, 122 CE. Source: English Heritage   Emperor Hadrian ruled the Roman Empire for 21 years and left a significant architectural legacy, most notably, finalizing the reconstruction of the Pantheon in Rome. However, he is most famous today for a structure outside of the capital that bears his name: Hadrian’s Wall.   The construction of this defensive fortification began in 122 CE in the north of present-day England. The wall stretched for some 117 kilometers from the island’s Irish Sea coast in the west to the eastern coast and the North Sea. It was essentially a massive stone wall with ditches on both sides, turrets, gatehouses, and small fortresses that ran its length.   The structure’s subsequent name, the Picts’ Wall, reveals the reasons behind its construction. It was a defensive frontier to separate the province of Britannica, which the Romans deemed civilized, from the northern tribes, most notably, the Caledonians (and later, the Picts), whom the Romans designated as “barbarians.” The wall was a statement of Roman power, serving as both a military installation and a customs house to regulate the flow of people and goods.   The original height of the wall was four and a half meters, although there are no preserved sections of this height. In the centuries after the Romans left Britain (410 CE), the locals largely dismantled Hadrian’s Wall and repurposed its stones for roads, churches, and farmhouses.

  Childhood in ancient Rome was a stage of life both familiar and somewhat foreign to us today. It was filled with amusement and curiosity, yet shaped by a society that viewed children as future citizens rather than as individuals in their own right. Roman families placed great importance on raising children who would uphold the values of their household, whether they were destined to become farmers, senators, artists, or soldiers. Despite these expectations, Roman children were more than miniature adults. They shaped their own world within the bustling streets, quiet courtyards, and sprawling countryside of the empire. And here is what they played with.   Surviving Toys: Dolls, Miniatures & Everyday Objects Roman ivory dolls, Emona (Slovenia), c. 3rd century CE. Source: Narodni muzej Slovenije   Toys in Rome were diverse, typically made from wood, clay, bone, ivory, cloth, metal, or any material that could be easily shaped. Archaeology has given us a good understanding of Roman toys because many have survived for almost two millennia. These toys are usually found in tombs, the ruins of houses, and sanctuaries.   Dolls (pupae or pupae fictiles) are among the most frequently recovered Roman toys. The simplest examples were made from coarse clay, molded in a single piece, and often with minimal features. However, more elegant dolls with various decorations and features have also been found, belonging to wealthier social classes. What characterized both the inexpensive and the luxurious versions is that Roman girls customarily dedicated their favorite dolls to Venus during their coming-of-age ceremony, symbolizing the end of their childhood.   Roman children often played with miniature objects, such as replicas of houses, furniture, people, and animals, made from clay, wood, and even bone. Through these toys, children could create and manage an entire imaginary household. Workshops for the mass production of such miniatures have been discovered in Gaul and North Africa. Particularly popular in urban areas were miniature soldiers and gladiators, reflecting boys’ dreams of becoming brave warriors.   There were also more complex toys, such as whistles that doubled as tools for calling animals. Archaeologists have also uncovered wooden carts with functioning wheels, complete with iron or bone axles. Children frequently improvised with household objects that were not originally intended to be toys, including tiny pots, cups, jugs, and ladles, as evidenced by wear patterns that clearly point to children’s play. They often imitated kitchen work, food preparation, and other domestic activities.   Toys of the Wealthy vs Toys of the Poor Rag-doll made from linen stuffed with rags and papyrus, Roman Egypt, 1st-5th century CE. Source: British Museum   Although many types of toys were the same, there were clear differences in detail between the toys of the wealthy and those of the poor. For richer children, toys were not only playthings but also symbols of status, education, and refinement. Girls possessed finer dolls carved from ivory, with articulated limbs, movable joints, and more elaborate hairstyles. Sometimes their dolls even included luxurious clothing and expensive jewelry. The dolls of poorer girls, by contrast, were static and generally undecorated.   Elite families sometimes purchased toys imported from the provinces, such as painted figurines from Gaul. Instead of clay or wooden figures, the miniatures owned by wealthy children were often made of metal and were costly to produce. Toys belonging to poorer children were frequently improvised, everyday objects transformed into playthings.   Wealthier children also had toys that served educational purposes, such as tablets, styluses, abacus counters, and miniature writing tools. Toy carts and chariots found in affluent households often featured iron or bronze axles, finely carved wooden bodies, and realistic decorative elements that mirrored actual Roman vehicles. More archaeological remains of high-quality toys have survived simply because their construction was more durable, whereas cheaper toys had a much shorter lifespan.   Games of Skill and Chance: Knucklebones, Dice & Board Games Marble figure of a young girl playing knucklebones, Rome, c. 1st-2nd century CE. Source: British Museum   Games of skill and chance were central to Roman leisure, and children were no exception. Many of these games were adopted from earlier Greek traditions, but the Romans developed their own rules and variations. The most popular of these games was knucklebones, known as astragali. The pieces were originally the ankle bones of sheep or goats, since their natural shape made them ideal for such games. Later, wealthier families began using pieces made of bronze, ivory, stone, or glass. Children played knucklebones either by tossing the pieces into the air and trying to catch as many as possible, or by playing point-based versions of the game.   Dice were widespread across the Roman world and came in two main types. The first type is the familiar six-sided dice, known as tesserae. The second type is the four-sided dice called tali. Dice were commonly used for gambling games, but children played non-gambling versions centered on luck, counting, and simple competition. Dice were made from bone, metal, clay, amber, or ivory, with wealthier households owning beautifully carved sets or imported pieces.   Board games were also very popular in ancient Rome. The most well-known was Ludus Latrunculorum, played with black and white pieces. Although the exact rules are not fully known, it was likely a mix of checkers, chess, and modern strategy games, with the goal of capturing the opponent’s piece. Another well-known game was Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum, similar to modern backgammon. Children rolled dice or knucklebones to determine movement.   Hoops, Balls & Physical Play Marble sarcophagus relief of Roman children playing ball games, Rome, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Louvre   Games that encouraged physical activity were very popular in ancient Rome, and ball games were the most popular. There were several types of balls. The most common was the simple ball (pila), then the heavier, stuffed leather ball used in more intense throwing games (pila paganica). They also used a lighter, air-filled ball, often made from an animal bladder, that could be struck with the hands or played like an early form of volleyball (follis). Wealthy children often had balls with decorative stitching, while poorer children typically played with worn-out ones. The most common ball games were catch-and-throw, various forms of dodgeball, handball, and various coordination games.   Another extremely popular toy among Roman children was the hoop, known as a trochus. The hoop was typically made of metal or wood, and children rolled it along the ground using a hooked stick called a clavus. The goal was to keep the hoop rolling for as long as possible. Wealthier children sometimes had hoops fitted with small bells that produced sound as they rolled.   Other physical games Roman children enjoyed included racing, chasing games, jumping and leaping competitions, balancing, and wrestling. Some Roman children owned hobby horses, sticks topped with a carved horse head or decorated cloth, allowing them to reenact cavalry scenes or heroic adventures. This was especially popular among boys who dreamed of becoming great warriors.   Imitating Adults: Role-Play, Make-Believe & Future Training Child’s lidded sarcophagus of Lucius Aemilius Daphnus made of marble showing boys play with nuts, Rome, c. 3rd century CE. Source: British Museum   Roman children often mirrored the adult world, which aligned with Rome’s goal of shaping children into proper citizens as early as possible. Girls were encouraged to imitate their mothers and matrons, using pots, cups, jugs, ladles, and pieces of fabric as if managing their own kitchens or storerooms. Both boys and girls created pretend banquets and served “guests,” imitating the structure of the Roman household. Children most frequently imitated the environment closest to them. If they lived in a craft-oriented setting, they pretended to make various handmade goods. If they grew up around merchants, they pretended to trade. In this way, they moved more easily from play into real work.   As expected, boys often imitated soldiers and gladiators, staging mock battles. They used wooden swords, shields, or sticks as spears. When playing in groups, they sometimes reenacted specific famous battles. Less commonly, they acted out scenes from religious life, setting up miniature altars and offering pretend sacrifices. All of this had a dual purpose: through play, children absorbed the norms, expectations, and skills of Roman society.   Pets & Animal Companions as Playmates Las Damas Romanas, by Juan Luna, 1882. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Pets were common in ancient Rome, and dogs were the most popular. In addition to guarding households and livestock in rural areas, dogs served as playmates and valued companions for children. Unlike toys, pets appear much more frequently in Roman drawings, writings, and inscriptions. The most well-known dog types in Rome included the Molosser dogs from Epirus, the Laconian and Cretan hunting dogs, the Maltese dog, and similar small companion breeds.   Interestingly, birds were more popular pets than cats, and they were especially beloved by young girls. The famous poet Catullus even wrote a poem about a girl mourning her pet sparrow.   “Mourn, O you Loves and Cupids and such of you as love beauty: my girl’s sparrow is dead, sparrow, the girl’s delight, whom she loved more than her eyes.” (Catullus 3: Death Of Lesbia’s Sparrow)   In rural areas, children played with farm animals such as lambs, calves, poultry, and others. Cats arrived in Rome relatively late, coming from Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean. They were loved by the Romans, but their role was more practical than sentimental, primarily serving to control rats and other pests. A charming and occasionally surprising part of Roman childhood was the affection some children showed for small animals like mice, beetles, and insects, as well as tortoises and frogs.

  Vitruvius was a military engineer in Julius Caesar’s army, both in Gaul and during the civil war. When peace was restored, he spent his retirement writing De Architectura under the patronage of the imperial family. Despite Vitruvius himself referencing a broader literature on the topic, especially in Greek, his is the only treatise on architecture to survive from antiquity. It seems to have been a bit of a “best seller,” with dozens of manuscripts surviving into the Middle Ages. Vitruvius discusses technical elements of architecture, which is invaluable to modern researchers, but what sets his work apart is that he developed a philosophy of architecture. This meant that his work appealed to a larger audience and remained relevant as architectural techniques changed.   Who Was Virtruvius? Portrait of Vitruvius, engraved by Jacopo Bernardi after a painting by Vincenzo Raggio, c. 1823-1847. Source: Staatliche Graphische Sammlung, Munich   We know very little about Vitruvius the man. He tells us a little about himself in the preface to his work, and modern scholars have theorized about other aspects of his life based on internal references, but this is highly speculative. Even his full name is not certain.   He is often referred to as Vitruvius Pollio because a later epitome by Faventius, written in the 4th century CE, refers to “Vitruvius Pollio and other authors.” However, this may be a case of a missing comma between the two names, with Pollio referring to Gaius Asinius Pollio, a Roman soldier, politician, and historian active around the same time.   Vitruvius tells us that he was a military engineer in Julius Caesar’s army, modestly stating that he was “known” to Caesar. The observations he makes about local architecture and historical events give us a good idea of where he traveled. He is our only source for a Siege at Larignum in 56 BCE, which Caesar does not mention in his Gallic Wars. He verifies other events that Caesar does mention, including the massacre of 40,000 residents of Avaricum, the Siege of Gervonia, the Battle of Alesia, and the Siege of Uxellodunum.   Roman carroballista, a mounted weapon, depicted on Trajan’s Column, Rome, c. 2nd century CE. Source: Wikimedia Commons   During the civil war, Vitruvius seems to have been present at the Siege of Massilia in 49 BCE in Gaul, the Battle of Dyrrhachium in 48 BCE on the other side of the empire in Albania, the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE in Greece, the Battle of Zela in 47 BCE in Asia Minor, and the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BCE in Africa.   Some scholars have suggested that Vitruvius might have been a native of North Africa, but he was almost certainly Italian. He shows a deep love for the Italian landscape, commenting on the Apennine sands, Amiternum stone, and the curative waters of Ardea and Velia. He praises Italian wines and discusses Roman engineering techniques. He does not show the same familiarity with any other parts of the world, though he was clearly a student and admirer of Greek architectural techniques.   As a military engineer, Vitruvius probably directed the building of camps and fortifications by the soldiers. This is supported by his discussions of camp construction, including an interesting discussion of miasma and how unhealthy air from swamp waters can adversely affect the army’s health. He probably also worked on siege engines. For the Romans, the term architect had a much broader definition, including all types of construction and the use of machinery. We know of only one building that Vitruvius worked on: the basilica (public building) at Fanum Fortunae, completed in 19 BCE. Unfortunately, no traces of the building survive.   When Was De Architectura Published? Vitruvius manuscript attributed to Francesco Marcolini, 1556. Source: Morgan Library and Museum   Vitruvius dedicates his book to Imperator Caesar, who acquired the “right to command the world.” This was almost certainly Augustus, suggesting that he was writing during Augustus’ long reign. He says he is responding to the emperor’s building projects that express the greatness of Rome, funded by the wealth gained from the expanding provinces.   He says that he was known to this Caesar’s father, who was now among the gods, probably referring to Caesar posthumously deified as Divus Julius. However, this Caesar could also potentially be Tiberius, with Augustus as the defied father, Divus Augustus. But Vitruvius also says he is writing in his older age and with financial stability, thanks to the patronage of Caesar’s sister. It is unclear who this would be in the case of Tiberius, but it could be Augustus’s sister Octavia, who died in 11 BCE.   He was probably writing early in Augustus’s reign, as he refers to two contemporaries, Faberius, a forger for Mark Antony whom he mocks for his garish taste, and Vestorius, who was a friend of Cicero. Both disappear from the historic record around 40 BCE. Vitruvius also refers to Imperator Caesar and never uses the title Augustus, suggesting he may have written at least the first books before 27 BCE, when Augustus adopted the title.   De Architectura comprises ten books and was likely published in serial form, with each book issued as an installment, as was common at the time. This is how Livy published his Ab Urbe Condita, also written under Augustus.   De Architectura Contents Temple floorplan illustration from a manuscript of Vitruvius attributed to Bastiano da Sangallo, c. 1530-1545. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Vitruvius’s De Architectura is the only treatise on architecture that survives from antiquity. This seems to be because, as well as exploring the practical side of architecture, it also offers a philosophical perspective, giving it broader appeal.   A wide range of literature on architecture existed in Vitruvius’s own time, especially on Greek architecture, which he draws on. He seems to set out to write the quintessential Roman guide on the topic, creating a new Latin vocabulary for architecture.   Divided into ten books, De Architectura covers everything from what someone should study to become an architect to the historical development of certain architectural materials and methods, including public architecture (including sacred architecture), private architecture, military architecture, water supply, and machines and technology used in construction.   Book One Discussion of the disciplines architects should study to master both theory and practice, and general discussions of town planning and civil engineering Book Two The historical development of the materials and techniques used in architecture from primitive origins to Greek temple architecture Book Three Discussion of Greek temple design, orientation, and columnar orders. A discussion of human proportions and how they should be reflected in architectural proportions Book Four The use of geometric ratios and symmetries across all aspects of sacred architecture Book Five Proportional and ornamentation guidelines for public, private, and theatrical buildings Book Six Recommendations for urban planning, including site selection, street grids, and the healthy orientation of cities Book Seven Ideal home layouts, decoration, and furnishing for both wealthy and modest houses Book Eight Designing water supply infrastructure, drainage systems, and decorative water features Book Nine Technical instruction on timekeeping equipment, like sundials and water clocks Book Ten The use of simple machines and complex mechanical devices in construction   Many people comment on the quality of Vitruvius’s Latin. This is because it is very unlike the “high Latin” used by the likes of Cicero and reflects everyday Latin, with similarities to graffiti found in places like Pompeii. Nevertheless, Vitruvius was clearly well-educated, as he had the capacity to draw on Greek sources.   Key Ideas From De Architectura Temple illustration from a manuscript of Vitruvius attributed to Bastiano da Sangallo, c. 1530-1545. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Vitruvius covers many important themes, but some have had a greater impact than others. Vitruvius was a Renaissance man in his own time, celebrating classic Hellenistic approaches to architecture over more modern techniques. This meant that the work would have quickly become dated as the Romans adopted new architectural techniques as they expanded their empire, had it not been for the philosophical elements.   He suggests that good architecture combines three elements: Firmitas (strength), Utilitas (functionality), and Venustas (beauty). This is derived in part from Latin rhetoric, as are his terms for order, arrangement, proportion, and fitness for purpose that appear throughout the work. He also relates his work to many philosophical ideas, for example, Socratic theories of matter when considering materials, such as cement, concrete, and lime, Plato’s abstract geometry, and astronomy.   Vitruvius was adamant that buildings should be fit for purpose and that the quality of a design depends on its social relevance above its workmanship. Thus, in his discussion of central heating systems for public baths and villas, he is preoccupied with fuel efficiency over aesthetics.   His work is incredibly important to historians today because it describes many of the machines used in Roman engineering, such as cranes, as well as military machines, such as siege engines. He also explains essential infrastructure, such as street grids and aqueducts. He notes that lead should not be used in water pipes, citing the observation that laborers working in lead foundries often became ill, demonstrating awareness of the risks of lead poisoning.   The Vitruvian Man Vitruvian Man, by Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1490. Source: Gallerie dell’Accademia, Venice   Vitruvius relates architecture to nature, noting that, as birds and bees build their nests, humans construct housing from natural materials to shelter themselves against the elements. But for him, the most perfect manifestation of nature was the human body, the proportions of which should be reflected in the proportions of temples.   In book three, he explains the symmetry of the body and the symmetrical proportion of everything, from the height and arm span to the length of the face and the size of the palm. He suggests that temples should be built with the same harmony and symmetry.   “… in the human body, the central point is naturally the navel. For if a man be placed flat on his back, with his hands and feet extended, and a pair of compasses centered on his navel, the fingers and the toes of his two hands and feet will touch the circumference of a circle described therefrom. And just as the human body yields a circular outline, so too a square figure may be found from it. For if we measure the distance of the soles of the feet to the top of the head, and then apply that measure to the outstretched arms, the breadth will be found to be the same as the height…” (3.1.3).   It was Vitruvius’s descriptions of the harmony of the human body that inspired Leonardo da Vinci’s drawing of the Vitruvian Man during the Renaissance, around 1490 CE.   Vitruvius in the Renaissance Italian manuscript of Vitruvius, 1521. Source: Metropolitan Museum of Art   Vitruvius’s De Architectura largely survived thanks to Charlemagne’s palace scriptorium (where manuscripts were copied). It seems that the manuscript was not just copied but also read at Charlemagne’s court, as there is a record of a bishop asking a visiting English churchman for clarification of some of the technical terms in the book. It is also referenced by several authors in the Middle Ages.   Nevertheless, Poggio Bracciolini, a Florentine humanist, is often credited with “rediscovering” Vitruvius in 1416 in the Library of the Monastery of St Gall in Switzerland. He was certainly influential in popularizing the work, and it became highly influential among Renaissance architects.   Vitruvius appealed to Renaissance architects because it helped elevate architecture beyond simple mechanical art and tied it to the humanist movement of the day. First, like the architects of the Renaissance, Vitruvius advocated the revival of the classical Greek style in a rapidly modernizing world. Second, architects had to master the ancient Latin text, thereby entering the broader tradition of humanist scholarship. Finally, Vitruvius based his understanding of architecture on mathematics, which was highly prized as a liberal art at the time.   On this basis, Renaissance architects like Niccoli, Brunelleschi, and Leon Battista Alberti used Vitruvius to characterize their architectural knowledge as a scientific discipline.