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  While we tend to tell the history of imperial Rome through the Roman emperors, imperial women—wives and mothers—can often be seen in the background influencing and steering events. The archetype for the Roman empress was Livia, the wife of Augustus and mother of the emperor Tiberius. In Augustan propaganda, she was represented as the ideal wife and mother. But later Roman historians suggested she was ruthless and power-hungry, willing to do anything, even kill, to ensure power for her son and, by extension, herself. But what do we know about the real Livia?   Civil War and Livia’s Turbulent Youth Portrait bust of Livia, Sicily, c. 20-50 CE. Source: British Museum   Livia Drusilla was born on January 30, between 57 and 59 BCE. She was the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, from the well-established Claudian senatorial family, and Alfidia, whose father was a famous tribune of the plebs in 61 BCE.   She married a respected senator, and cousin, Tiberius Claudius Nero in 43 BCE when she was 15 or 16; probably the standard age for aristocratic girls. Her husband must have been considerably older as he served as praetor in 42 BCE, for which the minimum age was 40. He must have been almost that age when he married the youthful Livia. She became pregnant quickly, giving birth to their first son, Tiberius, in 42 BCE.   Both Livia’s father and husband sided with the assassins of Julius Caesar against Octavian and Mark Antony. Her father committed suicide alongside the lead conspirators, Brutus and Cassius, following their loss at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. Her husband then threw his lot in with Mark Antony, Julius Caesar’s military second in command, against Octavian, the dictator’s adopted nephew. He abandoned Antony after his loss at the siege of Perusia and joined Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, again against Octavian, before fleeing to Greece. Livia, her young son in arms, accompanied her husband.   It was only in 39 BCE when new peace talks saw Octavian grant a general amnesty to those who had opposed him that Livia was able to return to Rome with her husband.   Livia and Octavian: An Unlikely Match Print with portraits of Augustus and Livia, unknown artist, England, c. 18th century. Source: British Museum   According to the surviving sources, Octavian met Livia on Rome’s social scene and immediately fell for her. He therefore divorced his second wife, Scribonia (he had previously been married to Mark Antony’s stepdaughter Claudia Pulchra), on the day she gave birth to his daughter, Julia, his only biological child. Tiberius Claudius Nero was then convinced to divorce Livia, even though she was pregnant with his second child.   Livia gave birth to baby Drusus on January 14 and married Octavian on January 17, 38 BCE. There seems to be no reason for such a hasty postpartum union, which broke social protocols, except for genuine affection. Nevertheless, history points to other reasons for the marriage.   Octavian was trying to rebuild stability among the aristocracy following years of civil war. Livia was well-connected to prominent families from the opposing side. The marriage allowed Octavian to build bridges and Livia’s family to show their loyalty. This is probably why Tiberius Claudius Nero agreed to give Livia away at the wedding, “like a father.” This worked out well for him, as the Claudii Nerones became one of the empire’s most prominent families.   Gem engraved with a Portrait of Livia, Roman, c. 40-11 BCE. Source: British Museum   It may also be noteworthy that Octavian divorced Scribonia on the day she gave birth to a girl. Octavian already knew that he needed to secure his position with an heir. The fertile Livia had already given birth to two sons. Apparently, during the wedding, Octavian received an omen of an eagle dropping a white hen with a laurel branch in its mouth in Livia’s lap, which was considered a sign of fertility.   Livia does not seem to have objected to being forced to divorce her much older husband for Octavian, who was only around five years her senior and was the most powerful man in Rome. This involved giving her children up to their father, though he died not long after, allowing her children to be restored to her and grow up in Augustus’s household. But the promised sons of Augustus would never come. Livia’s first pregnancy by Augustus resulted in a stillbirth and complications meant that she could not have any more children. Nevertheless, the pair remained married, and seemingly relatively happy, for 51 years.   Whatever the true story of their romance—love match, political alliance, or both—it would make for a fascinating season of Bridgerton.   The Model Matron Portrait bust of Livia, Roman, c. 25-1 BCE. Source: British Museum   As Octavian—who became known as Augustus in 27 BCE—established himself as pater patriae (father of his country), Livia was presented to the public as the ideal mother. She became the matronly head of the imperial family and represented the feminine ideal that Augustus promoted with his moral legislation.   The contemporary politician and historian Velleius Paterculus, who wrote under the patronage of Augustus and Tiberius, praised Livia for her maternal nature, even when describing her life before her marriage to Augustus. He made certain to note her important familial bonds, her beauty, her piety to family, and her maternal instincts in protecting her children:   “She, the daughter of the brave and noble Drusus Claudianus, most eminent of Roman women in birth, in sincerity, and in beauty, she, whom we later saw as the wife of Augustus, and as his priestess and daughter after his deification, was then a fugitive before the arms and forces of the very Caesar who was soon to be her husband, carrying in her bosom her infant of two years, the present emperor Tiberius Caesar, destined to be the defender of the Roman empire and the son​ of this same Caesar (2.75).”   Remains of the Palatine Hill in Rome. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As the wife of Caesar, she was the ideal matronly head of household, living modestly in their house on the Palatine Hill, which was a far cry from the Domus Aurea that would be built by Livia’s great-great-grandson Nero. She was known to dress well but not excessively, without elaborate jewelry. She also reportedly made Augustus’s clothing with her own hands, as was the traditional custom.   However, Livia’s life was not one of complete humility. The sources also describe her as receiving exceptional honors to mark her position as First Lady of Rome. Unlike most women, she was given control of her own finances and property, which included international holdings such as copper mines in Gaul and palm groves in Judea. This enabled her to be a philanthropist in her own right, providing assistance after devastating fires, which were common in the tightly packed Roman capital, and providing dowries for poor girls from good families. She also received the right to have statues of her dedicated in public spaces and had her own clients whom she supported, including the grandfathers of the future emperors Galba and Otho.   Pax relief on the Ara Pacis, Rome, 9 BCE. Source: Reed College   She also seems to have enjoyed exercising the power she received due to her closeness to Augustus. It was apparently common for ambassadors to approach Livia to intercede with her husband on their behalf, and she also used her influence to help some of her friends out of difficult situations. Philo describes her as having a masculine intellect that Augustus respected:   “But she, as she surpassed all her sex in other particulars, so also was she superior to them in this, by reason of the pure learning and wisdom which had been implanted in her, both by nature and by study; so that, having a masculine intellect, she was so sharp-sighted and profound, that she comprehended what is appreciable only by the intellect, even more than those things which are perceptible by the outward senses, and looked upon the latter as only shadows of the former (XL.320).”   The most visible recognition of Livia as the ideal mother of the Roman state probably came in 9 BCE with the dedication of the Ara Pacis, the altar of Augustan peace, on Livia’s birthday. The dates of religious dedications were important in ancient Rome and this clearly associated the altar with her person. The altar depicts Augustus’s extended family as the family of Rome, and Livia is the key female figure in the center of the familial procession. It is also apparent that the fertile female nursing two young boys is clearly meant to be a goddess (perhaps Pax) which also alludes to Livia and her maternal role in the Roman state.   The Murderous Mother Onyx cameo of Livia, Roman, c. 1st-2nd century CE. Source: British Museum   However, while contemporary sources patronized by the imperial family present Livia in this idealized way, later sources give the empress a darker side. They suggest that she was an ambitious and pushy mother determined to make her son Tiberius emperor, suggesting she would stop at nothing, even murder.   First, Livia is accused of being behind the death of Augustus’s first chosen heir, his nephew Marcellus, who died from illness in 23 BCE. While contemporary sources are silent, the 3rd-century historian Cassius Dio said she killed him, “ … because he had been preferred before her sons (53.33).”   Livia’s eldest son, a 17-year-old Tiberius, officially entered politics as a quaestor in 24 BCE. Augustus also secured permission for him to stand for praetor and consul five years before the usual age. However, following Marcellus’s death in 23 BCE, Augustus was concerned about his health and apparently considered Tiberius too young to be his heir. Instead, he chose his friend Agrippa, whom he married to his daughter and Marcellus’s widow Julia, and gave command of the empire’s eastern provinces. Livia was not implicated in Agrippa’s death while on campaign in 12 BCE, but Tiberius was elevated as his replacement. He was married to Julia and given important commands in Pannonia and Germania.   But while Augustus favored his 30-year-old stepson, who proved himself a capable general, he also had his eye on his grandsons, the sons of Julia and Agrippa, Gaius and Lucius Caesar. He adopted the infant boys as his sons and personal heirs in 17 BCE and set them on the path to power. In 6 BCE, the 14-year-old Gaius was made consul elect for the year he would be 20. The same year, Augustus intended to send Tiberius to the east, accompanied by Gaius as a military apprentice. But for unclear reasons, Tiberius quit public service and retired to Rhodes.   Coin featuring Tiberius on the obverse and Livia on the reverse, Thessaloniki, c. 14-37 CE. Source: British Museum   Surprisingly, Livia’s response to her son essentially giving up any imperial ambitions is not preserved. We are told that when her younger son Drusus fell from his horse and died in 9 BCE, she mourned him, but not so excessively as to be unseemly. She is, of course, not implicated in her son’s death, but she is accused of killing Gaius and Lucius, who died under similar circumstances. Lucius died in 2 CE, falling from a horse during military training in Gaul. Gaius died in 4 CE from injuries sustained while campaigning in the east. The 2nd-century historian Tacitus says:   “When Agrippa gave up the ghost, untimely fate, or the treachery of their stepmother Livia, cut off both Lucius and Gaius Caesar, Lucius on his road to the Spanish armies, Gaius—wounded and sick—on his return from Armenia. Drusus had long been dead, and of the stepsons Nero (Tiberius) survived alone (1.3.2).”   Cassius Dio notes that Livia was suspected because Gaius’s death coincided with Tiberius’s return to Rome. But before his death, Gaius had told Augustus that he planned to retire from public life due to physical and mental weakness caused by his injury. This is why Tiberius was recalled.   Livia is further accused of plotting to have her husband banish his daughter Julia from Rome in 2 BCE due to personal dislike and her poor treatment of Tiberius during their marriage. However, there is ample evidence of Julia’s adultery and promiscuity, which made a mockery of Augustus’s moral laws. Moreover, she was probably involved in a political conspiracy against her father. Augustus’s anger at his daughter was also widely recorded. If Livia favored her exile, Augustus seems to have needed little convincing.   Lamp with a portrait of Livia, Italy, c. 40-80 CE. Source: British Museum   Finally, both Tacitus and Cassius Dio suggest that Livia played a role in the death of the elderly Augustus, reportedly smearing poison on fresh figs on the branch to avoid detection. Considering Augustus’s advanced age and ailing health in 14 BCE, and the fact Tiberius was now his clear successor, Livia did not have a good reason to kill her husband of 50 years.   The only murder in which she is potentially convincingly implicated is that of Agrippa Posthumous, the final son of Julia and Agrippa and a potential rival to Tiberius for power. The 26-year-old was killed after Augustus died but before the old emperor’s death was announced to the public, suggesting he was killed to make way for a clear succession. The young Agrippa had been adopted in 4 CE, but exiled in 6 CE, apparently under Livia’s influence, for his unsavory character. While Tiberius or Livia may have had him killed, some historians suggest they were acting on Augustus’s dying wishes, to protect the empire against potential civil war.   Therefore, the murderous accusations against Livia seem unfounded. Moreover, the accusations only appear in sources written after the fall of Nero, whose mother Agrippina was ruthless in the promotion of her son Nero, and probably her husband Claudius. Agrippina created the stereotype of an ambitious and murderous imperial woman, which seems to have been retrospectively applied to Livia.   Dowager Empress Statues of Livia and Tiberius, Paestum, Italy, c. 14-19 CE. Source: National Archaeological Museum of Spain   When Augustus died in 14 BCE, Livia did not fade into the background. If anything, she became a more prominent figure in Roman politics. This seems to have been a challenge for Tiberius, who was determined to follow Augustus’s advice to keep the honors that he and his mother received in check, and who must have struggled with a mother who seems to have considered herself his equal in power.   In his will, Augustus adopted Livia into the Julian family, which was an honor for her and would have strengthened Tiberius’s claim to power. The Senate also voted Livia many honors both directly after Augustus’s death and in subsequent years. Her wedding anniversary to Augustus and her birthday became public holidays and she was given permission to sit among the Vestal Virgins in the theater. Tiberius also rejected many honors for both himself and his mother as excessive. For example, he rejected the titles mater patriae for his mother and pater patriae for himself.   Tiberius ensured that Augustus, like Julius Caesar before him, was deified as Divus Augustus, and Livia became his first priestess. The Senate voted that she should be accompanied by a lictor, a symbol of political power associated with Roman magistrates. Livia received the title Augusta, as Tiberius himself became Augustus, which seems to put them on an equal footing, or at least that seems to have been Livia’s interpretation.   Livia, now officially Livia Julia Augusta, seems to have enjoyed exercising power in her own right. She held formal audiences with ambassadors and signed agreements with vassal states alongside her son. Her soft power in Roman politics was also far-reaching. Tacitus and Cassius Dio suggest Livia’s overbearing actions led Tiberius to retire to Capri in 26 CE, following the deaths of his nephew and adopted son Germanicus and his biological son Drusus.   Livia represented as the goddess Ops, holding symbols of fertility, Roman, c. 1st century CE. Source: Digital Maps of the Ancient World   Whether Livia was the cause is unclear, as Tiberius had already shown his reclusive nature when he retired to Rhodes in 6 BCE. It is equally possible that Tiberius was happy to leave his mother in charge of certain things in Rome alongside his praetorian prefect, Sejanus. It seems to have been Livia’s influence that kept Sejanus in check since it was only after her death that Sejanus overreached, and Tiberius had him killed.   However, under Tiberius, the sources yet again accuse Livia of murder, this time of Germanicus. He was her grandson, the son of Tiberius’s brother Drusus, whom Tiberius adopted as his heir following Augustus’s instructions. While Germanicus was popular, he was not an overly effective general. Therefore, when Tiberius granted him power over the eastern provinces, he also sent his trusted ally Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso to babysit. The sources suggest that this was Livia’s idea and that Piso was her creature.   Germanicus, and even more so his wife Agrippina, another daughter of Julia and Agrippa, seem to have been unhappy with this oversight. When Germanicus fell ill and died, Agrippina accused Piso of killing her husband. Piso was tried, and while not convicted of murder, committed suicide. Nevertheless, this is another unlikely accusation. Germanicus was a beloved grandson and his eldest sons, Drusus and Nero, were recommended to the Senate as potential successors in the years following his death. But Agrippina was unable to accept the situation and may have conspired against Tiberius, leading to her exile, and later that of her two eldest sons. Agrippina’s remaining children were left in Livia’s care. She ensured excellent marriages for the girls, and Gaius Caligula lived with her until her death, after which he went to live with Tiberius in Capri and was groomed as his successor.   Diva Augusta Coin minted under Claudius showing Divus Augustus on the obverse and Diva Augusta on the reverse, Rome, c. 41-50 CE. Source: British Museum   When Livia fell ill in 22 CE, Tiberius rushed back to Rome to be by her side as she recovered. When she fell ill again in 29 CE, he did not return to Rome, and he did not return for her funeral when she died at 86 years old. It was left to the young Gaius Caligula to give her funeral oration. It is unclear whether this means that their relations had soured, or if Tiberius simply no longer had the stomach to return to Rome.   The Senate suggested divine honors for Livia, which Tiberius blocked, professing to be following her wishes. It is very likely that they had discussed her posthumous honors and agreed on what was appropriate.   When Gaius Caligula became emperor, he claimed to execute Livia’s will, which he said Tiberius had neglected to do. This did not include deification for his great-grandmother, lending support to the idea that she accepted that her posthumous honors would be mortal. The mortal nature of her posthumous treatment is reinforced by the fact that public mourning was declared among women. Tiberius had specifically prohibited public mourning following Augustus’s death, as the gods should not be mourned.   Caligula, 37-41 CE, photo by Sergey Sosnovskiy. Source: Flickr   Nevertheless, Livia was eventually deified when Claudius unexpectedly came to power in 41 CE. Unlike Tiberius, who had been adopted into the Julian gens, and Gaius Caligula, who was a great-grandson of Augustus via his mother Agrippina, Claudius, another son of Tiberius’s brother Drusus, had no ties to the Julian gens. Consequently, he had to promote the Claudian side of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty, which meant his grandmother Livia. He had her deified and included her alongside Divus Augustus in his temple as Diva Augusta. From that day, she received sacrifices for the good of the imperial family and the state alongside Divus Augustus, and the Vestal Virgins were charged with maintaining proper sacrifices in her name.   Relief showing, probably, from left to right Germanicus, Divus Julius, Livia as Venus Genetrix, the goddess the Julian family claimed as their progenitor, and Augustus in the guise of Mars Ultor, Ravenna, c. 37-41 CE. Source: National Archaeological Museum in Ravenna   But long before her official deification, like many other members of the imperial family, Livia was a semi-divine figure. It was not uncommon in Greco-Roman culture for very powerful figures to be venerated in a similar fashion to the gods, so it is not surprising to see evidence of Livia’s worship in domestic household cults and across Italy and the provinces. In household cults, it was common to worship the genius (a kind of guardian spirit) of the paterfamilias of the household, and the genius of the emperor. There is evidence of worship of Augustus’s genius and the juno of Livia, which was the female equivalent. Ovid describes how he had silver figures of Divus Julius, Augustus, and Livia in his household shrine, and he prayed to them daily for his return from exile (he was banished to the Black Sea in 8 CE).   Many of Rome’s provinces also had cult centers dedicated to the imperial family. In 29 BCE, the province of Asia set up a temple to Augustus and Roma at Pergamum. Later, a statue of Livia was included in the temple. An inscription also records that her birthday was celebrated, not on her own birthday, but with Augustus on his birthday. After the death of Augustus, Tiberius allowed the province to dedicate a temple to himself, Livia, and the Roman Senate.   The Julio-Claudian Empress Gemma Tiberiana showing Germanicus taking his leave from Tiberius and Livia to ascend to heaven after his death, Roman, c. 1st century CE. Source: The British Museum   Livia was the first Roman empress and set the standard for future imperial women. They had the power to persuade, but they always stood behind the emperor and were vilified when they overstepped the mark. They were also important when it came to establishing imperial bloodlines, especially Livia’s, who was the only person to hold the title Augustus, or Augusta in her case, to be related to every Julio-Claudian emperor. She was the wife of Augustus, the mother of Tiberius, the great-grandmother of Gaius Caligula, the grandmother of Claudius, and the great-great-grandmother of Nero. She was the backbone of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.   Selected References   Deckman, A. (1925) “Livia Augusta,” Classical Weekly 19.3, pp 21-25   Grether, G. (1946) “Livia and the Roman Imperial Cult,” American Journal of Philology 67.3, pp 222-252.

  Marriage in most historical eras was not necessarily for love but for economic advancement, political alliance, and royal lineage. This was particularly true of the upper classes. In some cultures, a consequence of this was marriages between brothers and sisters. In Ancient Egypt, the union of brother and sister within the royal family was promoted to maintain stability in the dynasty. It guaranteed the continuation of the divinity of the pharaoh and divine balance, Ma’at. In certain cases, the pharaoh even married other relatives, including daughters, to maintain the purity of the family.   Taboo Marriages Sarah Michelle Gellar and Ryan Philippe played step-siblings in the film Cruel Intentions, 1999. Source: Colombia Pictures   In contemporary society, there is still the so-called “incest taboo.” While other types of relationships previously shunned have become more acceptable, the taboo has grown in recent generations, with people less tolerant today than in previous eras. Before the Civil War, marriage between first cousins was legal in all states in the United States. It is now only legal in 18 states, with seven other states requiring certain conditions be met. Sibling unions are universally considered illegal, immoral, and unnatural by Western countries.   Brother-sister marriages, also known as consanguinity or adelphogamy, have nevertheless appeared among cultures throughout the world, including Hawaii up until the 19th century, Japan, Ancient Greece, and perhaps most infamously, the European Habsburgs. These were all cases of extenuating circumstances. In Greece, it was permitted in certain city-states but was still considered an “unholy union.” The Habsburgs practiced it to enact a web of dynastic rule across Europe; as Christians, however, it was still considered fundamentally immoral. Yet the concept of an incest taboo does not seem to have existed at all in the minds of ancient Egyptians, who indeed acknowledged it as a cornerstone of their entire cosmos.   Sacred Marriage Among the Egyptian Gods Osiris and Isis (with Nephthys) in an image from the Book of the Dead of Hunefer, Egypt New Kingdom, c. 1275 BCE. Source: British Museum   Brother-sister marriage was customary in many ancient mythologies. Often called the Hieros Gamos, or sacred marriage, it symbolized the necessary union between cosmic forces, such as Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) or Geb (earth) and Nut (heaven) in Egyptian religion, or Gaia (earth) and Ouranos (heaven) in Greek religion. In most mythologies, this was simply a logical necessity considering the limited available partners in heaven.   Religion in Egypt, despite the shared reality of limited mates, viewed the brother-sister relationship more intimately. Descriptions display love and intimacy and act as inspiration for earthly couplings. The best example is the brother-sister pairing of Osiris and Isis. As the god of the Nile and fertility, Osiris reflected the wealth of Egyptian farms and the food they produced. His sister-wife, Isis, was the goddess of magic and fertility, who joined her powers with her husband to help Egypt prosper. When Osiris was killed by his jealous brother Set (himself often paired with their other sister, Nephthys) and his body parts spread throughout Egypt, Isis journeyed across the land to retrieve them. She then used her powers to return him to life, mating with him and birthing their son, Horus, the divine essence of the pharaoh. To honor these gods, pharaohs would often follow Osiris’ example of marrying their sister.   Old Kingdom Origins Statue of Queen Ankhnes-Meryre II and Her Son, Pepy II, Egypt Old Kingdom, c. 2288-2224 BCE. Source: Brooklyn Museum   The Old Kingdom was the age of pyramid building. It also saw the earliest conclusive evidence of the practice among royalty. However, the earlier 1st dynasty pharaoh Djet’s wife, Merneith, was also very likely his sister.   The 6th dynasty pharaoh Pepi II was legendary for his 94-year reign (though many historians believe it was closer to 67 years). He was less famously known for marriages to various relatives, including his sister, Ankhesenpepi III, and to Neith and Iput II, half-sisters or aunts, depending on which earlier pharaoh was their father. Whatever her relation to Pepi II, Neith gave birth to his son and successor, Merenre Nemtyemsaf II.   The 4th dynasty pharaoh, Khufu, builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, may have married his half-sister, Meritites I, who was possibly a daughter of Khufu’s father, Sneferu. Khufu’s son, Khafre, builder of the second pyramid and the Great Sphinx, married a niece, Meresankh III, who had multiple sons and daughters with her uncle-husband. Another of Khafre’s wives, Khamerernebty I, may have been a half-sister and was the mother of Menkaure, the builder of the smallest pyramid at Giza. Menkaure then married his full sister, Khamerernebty II. She produced a son with her brother who apparently died during his father’s reign.   The 4th dynasty included the most powerful kings of the Old Kingdom. During this era, pharaohs consolidated power to ensure their success as rulers. Consanguinity played a role in ensuring the continuity of power. As the gods in heaven mingled amongst each other, so too did the royal family.   Middle Kingdom Mingling Relief of the wives of Mentuhotep II (though neither depicted here are sister-wives), Egypt Middle Kingdom, c. 2030-2000 BCE. Source: Musée d’Art et d’Histoire, Switzerland   Pharaohs in the Middle Kingdom, an often-overlooked period in Egyptian history, also practiced consanguinity. One of the chief consorts of Mentuhotep II, the founder of the era, was his sister, Neferu. However, there was no indication she bore him children. Yet some 150 years later, Senusret II married at least two (possibly all four) of his sisters, one of whom, Khenemetneferhedjet I, gave birth to his son and successor, Senusret III, one of the greatest pharaohs of the era. Finally, the first definitively known female pharaoh, Sobekneferu, the last ruler of the 12th dynasty, was possibly married to her brother, Amenemhat IV, as she succeeded him following his death.   There also seem to be several examples of brother-sister marriages among commoners during the Middle Kingdom. However, they were still among the higher class. One was a vizier, a chief advisor to the pharaoh, and another was a priest. Such close connections to royalty may have afforded them the practice, or it may have been socially acceptable across the board and simply recorded more frequently among the upper class, as with anything else. Then again, many Egyptologists do not agree that these are legitimate cases. The consensus is still that it was a royal practice not extended to the general populace.   New Kingdom Climax Ceremonial throne of Tutankhamun with his sister-wife Ankhesenamun, Egypt New Kingdom, c. 1327-1318 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Cairo   The majority of brother-sister unions among royalty appear later in Egyptian history, where it seems to have been more customary than in earlier eras. The New Kingdom is universally considered the pinnacle of Egyptian history, with culture, art, and both domestic and foreign power at its peak. It is also the peak of consanguinity. Nearly all pharaohs throughout the 250-year-long 18th dynasty married sisters or half-sisters, including Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, and all the Thutmoses (I-IV). Most famous in this case was the union of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut, both of whom became pharaohs. Their marriage produced a daughter, Neferure. While some scholars suggest she married her half-brother, Thutmose III, in keeping with tradition, the evidence remains unclear.   The difficulty in fully establishing the specifics of familial connections among Egyptian royalty is never more evident than at the end of the dynasty with the family of Akhenaten. Married to Nefertiti, historically seen as a foreigner (her name meaning “the beautiful one has come”), she was almost certainly native Egyptian, and consanguinity may continue here as well. Some scholars suggest a possible brother-sister union, but Aidan Dodson argues Akhenaten and Nefertiti were first cousins, Nefertiti’s father, Ay, being the brother of Akhenaten’s mother, Queen Tiye.   Statue of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, Egypt New Kingdom, c. 1353-1336 BCE. Source: Louvre   The enigma of the Amarna Age continues with Meritaten, Akhenaten’s daughter by Nefertiti, who was married to the shadowy pharaoh Smenkhkare, Akhenaten’s co-regent. He was possibly Meritaten’s brother if he was Akhenaten’s son. But more likely, he was Akhenaten’s younger brother, making Meritaten his niece. However, Zahi Hawass suggests that Smenkhkare was Nefertiti in the form of the pharaoh. If this is the case, Nefertiti then raised her daughter to the status of wife once she ascended to kingship. Still others suggest Meritaten herself was Smenkhkare, meaning the princess could have been married to her brother, her uncle, her mother, or herself!   This does not even consider the equally shadowy pharaoh Neferneferuaten, almost certainly a female and likely Nefertiti herself, who ruled in her own right following her husband’s death. The confusion is extensive, as whether Smenkhkare and Neferneferutaten were the same person, Neferneferuaten and Nefertiti were the same person, or who Meritaten was married to remains a mystery. Regardless of the specifics, it is quite evident the princess was married to some close relative in her family.   Detail of Akhenaten giving an earring to his daughter, Meritaten, Egypt New Kingdom, c. 1353-1336 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Cairo   The brother-sister marriage continued with the most famous pharaoh of the age, Tutankhamun, who married his sister, Ankhesenamun. Both children of Akhenaten, recent genetic evidence suggests Nefertiti, who was certainly Ankhesenamun’s mother, may also be the mother of Tutankhamun, making them full siblings. Once married, they tried to continue the line, but nature decided otherwise. Ankhesenamun suffered two miscarriages, effectively ending the 18th dynasty lineage of royal blood.   Brother-sister unions were therefore the norm in the 18th dynasty. Again, the intent was to keep the bloodline pure, but with nearly three centuries of inbreeding, carrying a child to term became less and less likely, culminating in Tut’s failure to procreate. Additionally, there is a strong probability that he suffered from genetic abnormalities resulting from the continuous consanguinity.   Whether these unions always led to offspring, or were intended to, is debated. However, still more shocking to modern audiences would be the union of Amenhotep III and his daughters, Sitamun and Iset. Father-daughter marriage was not common, but evidently acceptable, perhaps in instances where the sister or another close female relative had died. In the case of Rameses II, the most powerful of pharaohs, he married three daughters, Bintanath, Meritamun, and Nebettawy, the first of whom had a daughter by her father.   Statue of Meritamun, daughter (and later wife) of Rameses II, Egypt New Kingdom, c. 1279-1213 BCE. Source: Hurghada Museum (Red Sea)   Consanguinity persisted into the later dynasties but did not always work to the pharaoh’s benefit, as in the case of Rameses III of the 20th dynasty. Considered the “last great pharaoh” of Egypt, Rameses III was a victim of jealous rivalry between wives. Tiye, a lesser wife, was envious of Tyti, Rameses’ sister-wife and the mother to his successor, Rameses IV. Tiye orchestrated an assassination plot to push her son, Pentaweret, to the throne. The plan succeeded in killing the pharaoh, but Pentawaret (and presumably Tiye) were executed or forced to commit suicide.   Silver coffin of Psusennes I, Egypt Third Intermediate Period, c. 1047-1001 BCE. Source: Egyptian Museum, Cairo   A later union was more successful and appropriate. Psusennes I of the 21st dynasty married his half-sister, Mutnedjmet, which created a bond of legitimacy for the new pharaoh. Both were children of Pinedjem, a high priest who had previously (and perhaps unlawfully) declared himself pharaoh. Munedjmet’s mother was the daughter of Rameses XI from the preceding dynasty. By marrying her, Psusennes declared his right to rule through the lineage of the Ramesside dynasties.   Ptolemaic Pairings Head of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, Egypt, Ptolemaic Period, c. 280 BCE. Source: Walters Art Museum, Baltimore   With the conquests of Alexander the Great, Egypt fell under the control of the Greeks. This era became known as the Ptolemaic Period after one of Alexander’s generals, Ptolemy I, took control following the conqueror’s death. Ptolemy immediately elected to adopt many Egyptian customs. One of these was adelphogamy, the Greek word for marriage between siblings. Yet the brother-sister unions among the Greek pharaohs were far more outrageous than their Egyptian predecessors. Contemporary and later critics pointed to this intermarriage and inbreeding as a factor in why the practice was so fundamentally wrong. To keep up with the family drama, one has to remember the repetitive nature of the male name in Ptolemy and the female names as Cleopatra and Arsinoe.   Beginning with Ptolemy II Philadelphos (meaning “sibling-lover”), most Greek pharaohs married their full sister, in his case, Arsinoe II. No evidence suggests they had children, but two generations later, Arsinoe III bore Ptolemy V to her full brother, Ptolemy IV.   Head of Cleopatra II or Cleopatra III, Egypt Ptolemaic Era, c. 140-120 BCE. Source: Walters Art Museum, Baltimore   Ptolemy V’s daughter, Cleopatra II, married two brothers, Ptolemy VI, giving him four children, and (after VI’s death) Ptolemy VIII, who then later married his niece and stepdaughter, Cleopatra III, though her mother was still reigning. Thus, Ptolemy had two queens, both called Cleopatra, and both immediate family members.   After giving him five children, Cleopatra III succeeded Ptolemy VIII as ruler in her own right, though her reign was marked by a scandalous power struggle among the family. For one, she fought with her mother for power, and ultimately won, Cleopatra II disappearing from the historical record. Later, she raised her elder son, Ptolemy IX, to power as co-regent, though she preferred her younger son, Ptolemy X. The Egyptian army disagreed and forced her to choose the elder. She then fought against him, defeating him in battle in 102 BCE before being ousted and murdered by her “favorite” son, Ptolemy X, who was then defeated in turn by his older brother.   Ptolemy IX might be the consanguinity champion of the era. After serving as co-regent and uniting with his mother, he married his sister, Cleopatra IV, with whom he was in love, and they had several children. Ptolemy then divorced her for another sister, Cleopatra V Selene, though this was forced by their mother, Cleopatra III, who hated her eldest daughter (the IV). Finally, Ptolemy IX possibly married his daughter, Berenice III, though to be fair, it was not a true marriage. Rather, her father raised her to co-regency to ensure succession. Berenice might be the one to compete with him, as she “married” her father (Ptolemy IX), her uncle (Ptolemy X) and, to top it off, her son, (Ptolemy XI).   Ptolemaic Family Tree. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The end of the convoluted dynasty came with the infamous Cleopatra VII, daughter of the brother-sister union of Ptolemy XII and Cleopatra VI (who may have been the same as Cleopatra V). The last Cleopatra married both her younger brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, though not simultaneously. Cleopatra was ultimately responsible for both their deaths to solidify her own rule with the help of Julius Caesar. Following her reign, Augustus brought what Romans considered to be a merciful end to the disturbing machinations of the Ptolemaic dynasty.   Why Was Brother-Sister Marriage Important in Ancient Egypt? King Menkaura (Mycerinus) and sister-wife Queen Khamerernebty II, Egypt Old Kingdom, c. 2490-2472 BCE. Source: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston   As previously noted, brother-sister marriages in Egyptian society seem to have been reserved for royalty, or at least the upper echelons. Few examples among the general population are evident, and those that are recorded are debated. They may be cases of different individuals with common names (like a contemporary couple who both have a father named Michael). Certainly, cousin marriage existed in smaller villages, but sibling unions were likely restricted to the realm of the pharaoh and his family to reflect their divine heritage.   A further explanation for consanguinity is another matter debated among Egyptologists. Some interpret that the bloodline, while passing from father to son, also passed through the daughter. At least, divine “power” was channeled through women in the sense that they were vessels of magical authority, seen in Isis as the goddess incarnate. Thus, for the son to succeed his father, he must marry his sister to attain the bloodline and divine status. As a god, any child the pharaoh has would be divine, but one with his sister would be doubly divine.   The importance of female authority can also explain many statues that depict wives, as seen with the Menkaure and his sister-queen, Khamerernebty, holding onto the husband’s arm. She is seen as his guide, transferring her “power” (as Isis did to Osiris) to allow him to rule. He is the ruler; she is the vessel. As many cultures in the world still attest, the man is seen as the head while the woman is the neck, guiding (and even controlling) the movements.   Statue of Isis and Osiris, Egypt Late Period, c. 664-525 BCE. Source: Egypt Museum, Cairo   Unfortunately, these theories cannot explain why pharaohs had children with non-relatives, including foreign princesses, concubines, and slaves. If the heir to the throne was supposed to be pure royal blood, why was it acceptable and even customary to elevate “half-common” heirs to pharaonic status? Suggestions have been offered that, since pharaohs had multiple wives, a sister could serve as the ceremonial wife while others were meant to be those with which the pharaoh mated. However, this theory also fails due to the clear evidence of offspring from these pairings. It seems to be a personal preference of the pharaoh (a living god that nobody would dare question).   Finally, a more practical theory is the reality that by marrying into the family, property is not split amongst outsiders. In Egypt, daughters could inherit, so by marrying one’s sister, the pharaoh, noble, or even commoner, keeps his father’s estate intact. While vast studies have focused on the mystical and religious natures of these unions, it could have been a simple case of men wanting to keep their property.   Regardless of the reasoning, consanguinity or adelphogamy was a common practice among Egyptian royalty. While the incest taboo is greater than ever today, it did not exist to them. It should be remembered that the Egyptians would not have understood the genetic issues that arise from sibling marriages. Such knowledge was beyond them, and even if offspring did exhibit abnormalities, it would have been downplayed or outright ignored by the Egyptians themselves. Living gods were meant to be perfect physical specimens.

  The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World were a series of remarkable architectural achievements famous among ancient Greek travelers. The list of the original seven wonders (the Lighthouse of Alexandria later replaced the walls of Babylon) was compiled by Antipater of Sidon in a poem written in the 1st or 2nd century BCE:   “I have set eyes on the wall of lofty Babylon on which is a road for chariots, and the statue of Zeus by the Alpheus, and the hanging gardens, and the colossus of the Sun, and the huge labour of the high pyramids, and the vast tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the house of Artemis that mounted to the clouds, those other marvels lost their brilliancy, and I said, “Lo, apart from Olympus, the Sun never looked on aught so grand.” Antipater of Sidon, Greek Anthology, 9.58   Overview of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Wonder Location Built Status Overview Great Pyramid of Giza Egypt 2500 BCE  Still Standing The oldest and only surviving wonder, built for Pharaoh Khufu, stands 146.5 meters tall. Hanging Gardens of Babylon Iraq (Babylon) Uncertain  Lost Allegedly built by King Nebuchadnezzar II for his wife, featuring self-watering terraces. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus Turkey 550 BCE (rebuilt) Destroyed A grand temple dedicated to Artemis, rebuilt multiple times, and famously burned by Herostratus in 356 BCE. Statue of Zeus at Olympia Greece 435 BCE Destroyed A 12.5-meter-tall gold and ivory statue by Phidias, housed in the Temple of Zeus. It was destroyed in a fire in the 5th century CE. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus Turkey  c. 353-351 BCE Destroyed A 45-meter-tall tomb built for Mausolus and Artemisia II, adorned with sculptural reliefs. It was destroyed by earthquakes in the 15th century. Colossus of Rhodes Greece  294–280 BCE Destroyed A 32-meter-tall statue of Helios, standing for only 54 years before being toppled by an earthquake. Lighthouse of Alexandria Egypt c. 280 BCE Destroyed A 110-meter-tall lighthouse on Pharos Island, one of the tallest ancient structures. It collapsed by the 14th century.     1. Great Pyramid of Giza: The Only Surviving Ancient Wonder   The Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt is the only ancient wonder still standing today. The pyramid, 145.6 meters tall, is a monumental tomb built around 2500 BCE for Pharaoh Khufu. We are still not entirely sure how the 4,500-year-old structure, comprised of 2.6 million blocks of stone quarried from different locations, was built. In its heyday, the pyramid would have looked quite different, covered in white limestone and surmounted by a capstone in gold of electrum.   The Pyramids of Giza, by August Albert Zimmermann, c. 19th century. Source: Bradford Museums and Galleries.   Khufu was a trendsetter with his pyramids, and his son Khafre and grandson Menkaure built their own pyramid tombs alongside the Great Pyramid. The tombs of the three kings have been attracting crowds of tourists since ancient times, from the Greek historian Herodotus in the 4th century BCE to the Caliph Al-Ma’mun in the 9th century CE, who discovered the Great Pyramid’s ascending passage and its chambers.   The three pyramids of Giza today   The Great Pyramid features two mortuary temples adjacent to the chambers where the Pharaoh and his wife were interred. Together, the pyramids and the Egyptian Sphinx attracted 15 million visitors in 2024.   2. Hanging Gardens of Babylon: The Unconfirmed Wonder   According to ancient sources, the Hanging Gardens were constructed by King Nebuchadnezzar II between 605 and 562 BCE in the ancient city of Babylon, located in Mesopotamia. There was also an ancient legend that the mythical Queen Semiramis built the Gardens. As a result, they were also called the Gardens of Semiramis. The Gardens were a series of terraces containing fauna and flora. The most impressive thing about them, except for their size, was that they were self-watering, though it is not known for certain how this worked.   Hanging Gardens of Semiramis, by H. Waldeck, c. 1900. Source: Dorotheum   According to one legend, the Hanging Gardens were a gift from Nebuchadnezzar II to his wife Amytis of Media, who missed the green mountains of her homeland. The king ordered the construction of large artificial mountains filled with plants and trees to make the queen feel at home.   The Hanging Gardens, by Felix Gardon, c. 1930s. Source: The Garden Trust   The existence of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon is disputed by historians because there is no archaeological evidence for the gardens, and they are not mentioned by other key historians, such as Herodotus. One theory by Oxford University Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley is that the gardens were actually built by Sennacherib at Nineveh. Dalley argues that earlier Akkadian inscriptions were misunderstood, confusing Nebuchadnezzar’s Babylon with Sennacherib’s Nineveh, because after the Assyrians took Babylon in the 7th century BCE, Nineveh was referred to as the New Babylon. In contrast to Babylon, Sennacherib’s gardens were well-documented and are supported by archaeological finds.   3. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus: Destruction and Renewal   The Temple of Artemis or Artemiseion at Ephesus was a temple devoted to the cult of the Goddess Artemis, known as Diana among the Romans, and should not be confused with the Temple of Artemis in Corfu. The first temple was destroyed in a flood at some point in the 7th century and was rebuilt in the 6th century BCE. It is said that King Croesus of Lydia funded a great part of the temple’s reconstruction, which reached 115 meters in length and 55 meters in width.   The Temple of Diana at Ephesus, by Salvador Dali, c. 1954. Source: Fundació Gala-Salvador Dalí.   The second temple was burned in 356 BCE by Herostratus, a man seeking fame through its destruction. His action triggered a damnatio memoriae (an official erasure of his memory from all records), but he still earned his spot in the history books.   Imaginary depiction of the Temple of Artemis as a three-story building visited by a king, print after an engraving by Maarten de Vos, 1660. Source: British Museum   After Herostratus’ arson, the temple was rebuilt on an even more grandiose scale. It was this new version of the temple that was commemorated as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. This temple was badly damaged again by Gothic raiders in 262 CE, but was finally destroyed by a Christian mob led by John Chrysostom in 401 CE.   4. Statue of Zeus at Olympia: A Divine Monument   Phidias, one of antiquity’s greatest sculptors, created the statue of Zeus at Olympia around 435 BCE. The statue, made of gold and ivory, depicted the father of the gods, Zeus, enthroned, holding the sculpture of the victory goddess Nike and a scepter topped with an eagle. The statue was placed inside the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Standing almost 12.5 meters tall, people joked that if Zeus wanted to stand up, he would hit his head on the ceiling. In front of the statue was a reservoir filled with oil. It helped preserve the statue by balancing the humidity levels inside the room.   The statue of Zeus at Olympia, by Quatremère de Quincy, 1815. Source: Royal Academy   Allegedly, the Roman emperor Caligula wanted to transport the statue to Rome and have Zeus’ head replaced with his own. Caligula’s death in 41 CE was a twist of luck that allowed the statue to survive a bit longer. Eventually, it was moved to Constantinople, where it was destroyed in a fire in the 5th century CE. Hypothetical reconstructions are based on ancient descriptions.   5. Mausoleum at Halicarnassus: A Posthumous Legacy   Just like the pharaohs of Egypt built monumental pyramids as their tombs, a Persian satrap of Caria named Mausolus decided to construct a lavish tomb for himself, his sister, and his wife, Artemisia II. The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was built between 353 and 351 BCE, and it would have been around 45 meters in height. It was the work of the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene. Four famous Greek sculptors, Leochares, Bryaxis, Scopas, and Timotheus, decorated the four sides of the massive structure with sculptural reliefs.   Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, by Salvador Dali, 1955. Source: Christie’s.   Artemisia continued the work after Mausolus’ passing, but also died before the monument was finished. In the end, the architects and sculptors agreed to finish the work, thinking that this was not simply a tomb for the rulers of Caria but also a monument to their own art. The Mausoleum was the second-longest surviving ancient wonder, destroyed after a series of earthquakes in the 15th century.   6. Colossus of Rhodes: The Shortest-Lived Wonder   As the name suggests, the Colossus of Rhodes was a colossal statue of the god Helios (Sun) on the island of Rhodes. The sculptor Chares of Lindus created this 32-meter-tall monument over 12 years between 294 and 282 BCE to celebrate Rhodes’ successful survival of a siege by Demetrius Poliorcetes.   The Colossus of Rhodes, by Philip Galle, after Maerten van Heemskerck, 1572. Source: British Museum   The Colossus was so large that it was soon toppled by an earthquake around 225/226 BCE. The ruins were left in place until the Arab invasion of 654 CE. The invaders used the statue’s remnants as a source of bronze, which took 900 camels to transport. The statue was the tallest sculpture in the ancient world and a common theme in the Rhodians’ coinage.   7. Lighthouse of Alexandria: A Beacon of Progress   The Lighthouse of Alexandria was built at some point around 280 BCE in the newly founded Egyptian city of Alexandria, named for the conqueror Alexander the Great, which became the capital of Hellenistic Ptolemaic Egypt. The building was the work of Sostrates of Cnidus. Standing on the island of Pharos (which means lighthouse in Greek), if estimates are correct, it surpassed 110 meters, making it the second-tallest building of its time after the Great Pyramid of Giza.   Lighthouse of Alexandria, Philip Galle, 1572. Source: Rijksmuseum.   The Lighthouse was built in three stages, with a fire burning on the top. It is also quite possible that there was a colossal statue of Alexander the Great, Ptolemy I Soter, or the god Helios standing on top of the building. The lighthouse was still in place in the 12th century CE. It is said that Ahmad ibn Toulon replaced the beacon with a mosque. However, the monumental building collapsed by the 14th century, and around 1480, its ruins were used in the construction of the Citadel of Qaitbay.   Why Were They Called Wonders? Infographic about the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. Source: TheCollector   During the Hellenistic period, the known world (the Mediterranean and the Middle East) was opened to Greek travelers. Greek travelers began recording their journeys and compiling lists of impressive monuments they encountered. These must-see destinations were initially known as “theamata” (sights) and eventually as “thaumata” (wonders).   With time, the lists were limited to seven wonders, as the number seven represented perfection and completeness. Each traveler had their own individual list based on the places they visited, so some alternative lists exist. For instance, some included the walls of Babylon, while others replaced them with the Lighthouse of Alexandria or, later, even the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.   Who Wrote the List of the Seven Wonders? Map of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Source: TheCollector   Herodotus (5th century BCE) and Callimachus of Cyrene (3rd century BCE) were the first to compile lists of Seven Wonders. However, their lists were not preserved. As a result, the list of monuments that we now recognize as the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World belongs to Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BCE) and Antipater of Sidon (around 2nd century BCE).   Was It Ever Possible to See All the 7 Wonders of the Ancient World? Alexander the Great before the tomb of Achilles, by Giovanni Paolo Pannini, c. 1719. Source: Walters Art Museum   Assuming the gardens in Babylon really existed, would it ever have been possible for an ancient traveler to see all seven wonders of the ancient world in their lifetime? Yes. While the Colossus of Rhodes only stood for 54 years, ancient travelers were happy to visit the ruins of the monumental statue. That means that all seven wonders could have been visited between when the Colossus of Rhodes was erected in 280 BCE and the final destruction of the Temple of Artemis in 262 CE.   Legacy of the Wonders of the Ancient World   The idea of the seven wonders proved influential, and many subsequent writers compiled their own lists based on their respective culture, education, and geographic location. For example, in the 2nd century CE, when Rome was the center of the known world, the Roman poet Martial added the Colosseum of Rome to his list. Christian writers, notably Gregory of Tours in the 6th century CE, added the temple of Solomon in Jerusalem and Noah’s Ark, and made lists of natural wonders.   Multiple lists appeared during the 19th and 20th centuries. Monuments like the Kom-El-Shoqafa in Alexandria, the Hagia Sofia in Istanbul, and the Great Wall of China were listed as the Seven Wonders of the Medieval World, while Mount Everest and the Grand Canyon were featured in lists of the Seven Wonders of the Natural World.   The New Seven Wonders of the World Map of the New Seven Wonders of the World. Source: TheCollector   In 2001, the Swiss NewWonders Foundation compiled a list of the New Wonders of the World through an online vote. The only ancient wonder that made it into this new list was the Pyramid of Khufu. Interestingly, the Pyramid was not voted in but was added as an honorary entry. The list included the following seven wonders of the modern world:   The Colosseum, Italy The Great Wall of China The Taj Mahal, India Christ the Redeemer, Brazil Machu Picchu, Peru Chichén Itzá, Mexico Petra, Jordan   The same foundation has also compiled a list of the New Seven Wonders of the Natural World, and multiple lists focus on different areas, such as the wonders of modern engineering and the solar system.   We extend our sincere gratitude to archaeologist T. Matanis for his invaluable contribution to the (AI) reconstruction videos, which offer a captivating glimpse into the lost grandeur of the seven ancient wonders of the world.

  From the mysterious depths of prehistory, humans spent much time documenting their presence on the walls of caves, creating art that is captivating and enigmatic in both simplicity and complexity. These artworks are a window into the primeval prehistory of our species, and offer us glimpses of their lives in a very different and fascinating world.   From diverse sites around the world, what do these paintings tell us, and how do they help us understand what it is to be human?   Cave Painting in the Prehistoric World Cave art from Lascaux in France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Before the Neolithic Revolution brought farming and the beginnings of civilization, all human beings, including our cousins, the Neanderthals and the Denisovans, lived a lifestyle of hunting and gathering. It was a harsh existence with challenges very different from the ones we face today.   Going back so far in time, it is incredibly difficult to determine when our imaginations took over and led us to leave our art on our surroundings. It is likely that the earliest examples no longer exist and have been eroded by the steady march of time. To date, the oldest cave painting that has been discovered so far dates to around 65,000 years ago, and is attributed not to Homo sapiens, but to Neanderthals. This controversial evidence suggests that our (sub)species wasn’t the only one to put imagination to artistic use. Painting, of course, isn’t the only form of art, and creations such as crosshatched scratch marks and other forms of abstract thinking have been discovered that predate paintings by tens of thousands of years.   Evidence for artistic creativity goes back even further, and it is possible that art was being made hundreds of thousands of years ago, and possibly even before Homo sapiens evolved! The oldest cave paintings attributed to Homo sapiens can be found on Sulawesi Island in Indonesia. Many cave paintings there were made over 40,000 years ago.   Materials and Techniques (Left) Manganese dioxide. Source: Wikimedia Commons; (Right) Limonite. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As expected, pigments for painting were sourced naturally, and were mostly red and black, with yellow and white being added to the color palette later. Charcoal and manganese dioxide were the sources for black pigments, and iron oxides formed the basis for red pigments. Yellow was created from limonite, while white pigments could be derived from a number of sources, including powdered gypsum, kaolin clay, calcite, burnt shells, or powdered gypsum.   There was a fair amount of work that went into extracting the colors. Removing impurities from ground pigments required processes like sieving and levigation, and it is reasonable to assume prehistoric artists were capable of discovering and using such methods. Water would have been added to the ground powder. While impurities like quartz crystals sank, the fine dust would have remained near the surface. The water containing the fine dust was then removed, and the water evaporated, leaving an extremely fine powder.   The fine pigment dust was then mixed with natural binding agents such as plant sap, animal fat, bone marrow, blood, urine, or albumen. Paint was mixed in whatever containers could be sourced. Evidence from South Africa shows abalone shells being used tens of thousands of years ago.   Third-year archaeology student Dominic Coe attempts the application of black pigment on a replication of a rhino from France’s Grotte Chauvet. Source: The Conversation, January 4, 2017   Preparing and accessing certain surfaces could also be challenging. Cave walls were cleaned before paint was applied, and evidence of holes drilled into the walls suggests wooden beams were inserted to create scaffolding to reach certain areas. Many sites were also pitch black without the aid of fire, and lamps had to be used to provide light for the artist to work.   Applying the paint was another matter, as there were many methods. Initially, pigments were made into lumps and applied like chalk or crayons. Fingers and hands were also used to apply and manipulate the paint. Paint applicators such as twigs and moss were later used, along with feathers, which were used to blend color areas. Eventually, brushes were invented, and a wide variety of animal hair was used. Of particular note is the invention of early airbrush techniques. Paint was blown through hollow reeds or thin bones, producing a fine distribution of paint. Artists even applied paint by blowing it in a repetitive spitting motion from their mouths directly onto their stony canvas.   Reason and Meaning Cave painting in Tanzoumaitak in Tassili n’Ajjer park in Djanet in Algeria. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Archaeology can only go so far in interpreting the thought processes and motives that went into cave art. Educated assumptions on why prehistoric people decorated the walls of their caves include a variety of suppositions.   For many artists, the intent was just to leave their mark. Palaeolithic sites across the world have much in common, and hand stencils seem to have been a common way for anybody, even non-artists, to leave their mark. These marks were made by placing the hand on the wall and blowing the paint mixture over it, leaving a handprint as a negative image.   Along with the desire to simply leave a mark, many paintings indicate a deeper meaning behind their creation. There are many examples that suggest a spiritual or shamanic purpose. There are figures which show people in trancelike states, and depictions of people with animal heads, which are argued to represent shamanic practices. Of course, the interpretation of cave art follows the same logic as interpretation of art does today, and it is impossible to know exactly what the artists were thinking, and in many cases, depicting. Cave art is subject to a wide variety of interpretations by experts, and many pictures are also abstract, making these interpretations even more difficult.   Images in Magura Cave in Bulgaria. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Animals feature prominently in cave art. Such examples of art are a window into the world that existed at the time of their creation. A vast plethora of animals have been depicted in the regions in which they lived, from rhinos and aurochs to mammoths, deer, bison, and pigs, among many others. Predators such as lions, wolves, and bears have also been depicted. Some ethnographers have theorized that many paintings represent some kind of “hunting magic” and that the shamanistic act of painting animals on walls summons them and provides spiritual support for a successful hunt.   Given the human propensity for communication and narrative, it is also very likely that cave art functioned as a visual storytelling technique, as the art represents the prehistoric animals, and the hunting scenes that accompanied survival in the Palaeolithic. Of course, the art was likely to have multiple functions. They could have been shamanic devices, storytelling aids, the desire to express human creativity, or simply art for art’s sake.   A Global Gallery Hand stencils from Pettakere Cave on Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Cave paintings and rock art can be found all over the world, from the deserts of Australia to caves of Europe and Asia, as well as Africa, and the Americas. Wherever humans went, they left their mark on the walls of their homes. In fact, the only continent where cave paintings have not been discovered is Antarctica.   Undoubtedly one of the most famous sites for cave art, Lascaux Cave, is located in southwest France and contains an immense treasure trove of prehistoric art. The walls of Lascaux were decorated with art created between 19,000 and 17,000 years ago, during the Upper Palaeolithic period. There are hundreds of paintings and engravings in this cave, and much of the art shows a high level of skill and understanding of perspective, color, and shading.   Sulawesi Island in Indonesia is famed for the age of its paintings, and several caves on the island hold the distinction of being home to the oldest paintings so far discovered that were made by Homo sapiens. In Leang Tedongnge cave, there is a painting of a Celebes warty pig that has been dated to at least 45,500 years old, making it the oldest depiction of an animal that has ever been discovered.   Paintings of bison on raised surfaces from Altamira cave. Source: iStock   Often referred to as the “Sistine Chapel of Palaeolithic Art,” Altamira Cave in Spain has garnered widespread attention for its beautiful renditions of local fauna. Of particular note are the images of animals that cover raised areas of the cave surface, creating a 3D effect.   Some rock art can even tell us stories about the changes in climate. In North Africa, where the Sahara desert makes life extremely inhospitable, there is art depicting a wide array of flora and fauna, including hippos! Art in Nubia (modern day Sudan) depicting boats in an otherwise arid region, is dated to a little more than 5,000 years ago, indicating a relatively recent shift when the Sahara transitioned from a lush and green place, to a dry and dusty desert with dried up rivers and severely reduced ability to support human life.   Spiritualism has been an important pillar of human thought for as long as the species has been around. In the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa, there are a number of important sites depicting shamanistic rituals and altered states of consciousness. Shamanic themes are not, however, uncommon around the world. They speak to a universal trend of human Palaeolithic experience.   Everywhere human beings settled, they left their mark with similar themes, indicating a common thread of humanity apparent throughout the species.   Insights Revealed Cave art from Western Australia. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Cave art reveals an enormous amount of information about prehistoric life. It tells us what animals existed and which ones were hunted. They can also reveal how these hunts were conducted and what equipment was used.   Prehistoric art reveals communal practice and spiritual beliefs. Many scenes depict a sense of community and of the social practices they engaged in, leaving clues for archaeologists to extrapolate and create theories about human life in the Palaeolithic. Animistic depictions, combined with spiritual aspects, as well as the local fauna, show a world where our ancestors held a deep connection to nature around them.   Ultimately, what the paintings show is that human beings have a deep-seated desire to create and engage their imagination through art, a defining feature of the human species.

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