The Arthurian legends introduce many fascinating characters, including the selfless King Arthur with his magical sword, the chivalrous Sir Lancelot with his scandalous love affair with Guinevere, and the magician Merlin, possibly a son of demons. As we focus on these lead characters and their fantastical lives, some more mundane characters fade into the background. But some of these background characters can be identified as real historical figures who lived in 6th-century post-Roman Britain. Which characters from the Arthurian legends can be identified as real historical figures in the sparse surviving sources for Dark Age Britain?   1. Sir Uriens of Gorre Map of Dark Age Britain showing Rheged, Urien’s kingdom. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sir Uriens is one of the most popular characters in the Arthurian legends. In the most traditional version of the story, he leads a group of rebel kings who fight against a young Arthur when he first becomes king. After his defeat, he becomes a valuable ally to Arthur as one of the most powerful Knights of the Round Table. His name is also often spelled “Urien,” without the “s” at the end.   In line with his role in the legends as one of the most powerful of Arthur’s knights, Sir Uriens was a historically powerful king. He was King Urien of Rheged. Uriens seems to have ruled over a portion of northern England and southern Scotland, although his exact territory is uncertain. He probably ruled more on the western side of Britain than the eastern side. He is accepted as historical because he is mentioned in several Welsh poems, which most scholars agree date to about the year 600.   According to a later source, the Historia Brittonum (c. 830 CE), Urien had a decisive victory over the Anglo-Saxons in the north of Britain while leading an alliance of three other kings:  Rhydderch Hen, Gwallog ap Llênog, and Morgan. Unfortunately, he was later betrayed and murdered by Morgan. 2. Sir Ywain The Lion Sprang Upon the Giant, from the book The Old Tales of Chivalry, 1877, Source: University of Rochester   Closely associated with Sir Uriens is Sir Ywain, his son. This name is spelled in several different ways, such as “Yvain” and “Owain.” Like his father, he was one of Arthur’s allies, a knight of the Round Table. He was a very popular character in the Arthurian legends and one of the earliest characters associated with Arthur. He has a prominent role in numerous stories about the adventures of Arthur’s knights and the intrigues of his court.   Ywain features in the story Yvain, the Knight of the Lion, a 12th-century French Arthurian romance. He sets out to avenge his cousin after he is defeated by an otherworldly knight. Ywain defeats the knight and then falls in love with his widow, Laudine, and they wed. He is then lured off on a chivalric mission with the promise that he will return within a year. When he fails to do so, he is rejected by Laudine and sent mad. To win her back, he completes a variety of feats, including saving a lion from a dragon, which then helps him defeat a giant, three fierce knights, and two demons. He then saves a witch, Lunete, from being burned at the stake, and she helps him win back Laudine, who welcomes both Ywain and his lion.   A depiction of Sir Yvain fighting a lion in a 15th-century manuscript, MSS BNF fr. 112. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Like his father, Ywain can be identified as a historical figure. He was simply Owain, the historical son of Urien of Rheged. Along with his father, he fought against the Angles near the border of England and Scotland in the late 6th century. It appears that he fought alongside his father before succeeding him as king for a few years. However, his independent kingship does not appear to have lasted long. Like Urien, Owain’s historicity is confirmed based on Welsh poetry that seems to go back to about the year 600.   3. Taliesin The Finding of Taliesin, by Henry Clarence Whaite, 1876. Source: Artuk.org   The Welsh poems that mention Urien and his son Owain are attributed to a bard named Taliesin. At least some of these poems do appear, based on linguistic evidence, to date to the era in which Taliesin was alleged to have lived. He is also mentioned in the Historia Brittonum, a document written around two centuries after his death. For this reason, most scholars accept that Taliesin was a real person. He was a professional bard, singing the praises of the kings whom he served. Urien and Owain were two of those kings, but he also served others.   According to the Arthurian legends, Taliesin served King Arthur at one point in his career. He was also said to have been one of the few people who accompanied Arthur on his journey to Avalon, to be healed of his wounds. Some Welsh traditions also refer to the close connection between Taliesin and Arthur. According to a 16th-century account of his life, Historia Taliesin, he was originally named Gwoin Bach ap Gwreang and was helping the enchantress Cerridwen make a potion of inspiration. He accidentally drank some of the potion when drops sprang from the cauldron and burned him, and he put his finger in his mouth to soothe the pain. In anger, Cerridwen turned him into a piece of grain and ate him. She ended up pregnant, had the baby, and cast him into the ocean. He was found and named Taliesin.   Legend has it that Taliesin’s grave is near the village of Tre Taliesin near Llangynfelyn, called Bedd Taliesin, but archaeology reveals that this is an earlier Bronze Age burial chamber.   4. Constantine of Dumnonia Saint Constantine’s Church, possibly named after King Constantine, Kerrier, Cornwall, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Constantine of Dumnonia is traditionally presented as the successor of Arthur in the Arthurian legends. After King Arthur is mortally wounded at the Battle of Camlann, he designates Constantine as his regent while he is taken away to be healed on the Isle of Avalon. Arthur never returns, and Constantine continues ruling as king until his own death. Not all versions of the tale of Arthur agree with that, but most versions do. In the earliest version of this story, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s 12th-century Historia Regum Britanniae, Constantine is called Arthur’s kinsman. Later tradition makes him Arthur’s cousin.   This legendary character can be identified with King Constantine of Dumnonia, a historical ruler in 6th-century Britain. He is known to have been historical because he was mentioned by Gildas, a contemporary writer. Gildas criticized Constantine for killing two royal youths in a church. This same event appears in the later Arthurian legends concerning Constantine, the successor of Arthur.   5. Gildas Statue of Gildas, Saint-Gildas-de-Rhuys, France. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Speaking of Gildas, he also appears in the Arthurian legends as an associate of Arthur. For example, he appears in Culhwch ac Olwen, a Welsh tale from perhaps the 11th century. In that, he appears as one of Arthur’s many allies who join him before he sets off on a dangerous task. More famously, Gildas appears in a legend about Arthur killing Hueil, Gildas’ rebellious brother. Hueil refused to submit to Arthur and fought against him, so Arthur defeated and killed him. Gildas was in Ireland at the time, but he returned to Britain and mourned the loss of his brother. Yet, he made peace with Arthur afterward.   Gildas was a real person. He wrote a document known as De Excidio, which is the only surviving record from 6th-century Britain. However, we do not know anything for sure about his family, such as whether he really did have a brother named Hueil. In his own writing, Gildas does not provide any information about his background or his family.   6. Iona, King of France Statue of Saint Judicael, great-grandson of King Ionas, Paimpont, France, Source: Wikimedia Commons   Iona of France is a very minor character in the Arthurian legends. He appears just once, in the aforementioned Culhwch ac Olwen. Like Gildas, he is mentioned as one of Arthur’s numerous allies in a particular adventure featured in that story. No information is provided about him beyond his name and his status as “king of France.” Some commentators have dismissed this character as fictional, especially since France did not, as such, exist in the 6th century. However, this is almost certainly an anachronistic description of the part of France that was in British hands, that is, Brittany in the northwest corner. The rest of the tale attests to Arthur’s connection with that region.   In the 6th century, there was a ruler in Britanny named Ionas. He can certainly be identified with the “Iona, king of France” from Culhwch ac Olwen. Scholar Peter Bartrum, in A Welsh Classical Dictionary, hinted at this identification, although he did not pursue it. Ionas appears in the Life of St Samson, an early and historically valuable hagiography. This king was killed by Childebert I.   7. Budic of Brittany Statue of Gregory of Tours, Jean Marcellin, 19th century. Source: Louvre   In the 6th century, Brittany was split up into multiple kingdoms, just like Britain itself. Therefore, it is no surprise that multiple kings of Brittany appear in the Arthurian legends. As well as “Iona, king of France,” there was also Budic of Brittany. He is mentioned by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the Historia Regum Britanniae. Geoffrey refers to the fact that Budic had married Arthur’s sister, and that his son, Hoel, had become one of Arthur’s allies.   Gregory of Tours, a Gallo-Roman historian of the 6th century, refers to a king of Brittany named Bodic. He appears to be identical to a king of Brittany named Budic mentioned in several later medieval records (none of which are explicitly Arthurian). Incidentally, there is reason to believe that this historical Bodic, or Budic, was the father-in-law of the aforementioned Ionas of Brittany. In any case, the Budic of Brittany who appears in the Arthurian legends is identical to the historical King Bodic of Brittany.   The Historical Figures in the Arthurian Legends Illustration of King Arthur fighting the Saxons from the Rochefoucauld Grail Manuscript, c. 14th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In summary, despite their embellished and exaggerated nature, the Arthurian legends are full of real figures that can be identified in the historical record. While not all contemporary, they all lived in roughly the same era, which pins the stories of the Arthurian legends to the 6th century. Their presence also suggests that the Arthurian legends are not pure fiction, but rather an exaggerated and fantasized version of events that had happened hundreds of years earlier. This means that there is value in the ongoing scholarly attempts to find the real King Arthur in the historical record. Popular candidates include Athrwys of Gwent, Riothamus, and Ambrosius Aurelianus.

  In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman palace kitchens were places where delicious and innovative foods emerged. A sultan’s personal tastes, whether leaning towards savory or sweet, influenced the culinary culture of the court. Some of the sultan’s favorite foods, like Baklava, also found their way into wider Turkish cuisine.   Medieval Manners Nomadic Turks at their encampment, painted by Siyah Kalem in the late 14th-early 15th century. Source: Creazilla   The Ottomans emerged in late 13th century Turkey as a frontier-dwelling nomadic clan. Like other Turkic tribes, their culinary culture was suited to the realities of a pastoralist lifestyle. Animal products like meat and dairy were the staples of their diet, though unleavened flatbreads were also eaten daily. Nomadic warriors—such as the feared horse archers—who had an exalted status in the clans were also expert hunters. They provided their tribespeople with meat from wild animals like deer.   Like in medieval Mongol culture, the nomadic Turks also survived on fermented milk products like yogurt. In fact, the word itself derives from the Turkish word yoğurt, which in turn is related to the verb yoğurmak, meaning to thicken or curdle. Nomads not only ate these foods but also traded them for other goods in markets around the growing Ottoman principality. Soon, agricultural products like bulghur wheat became an important part of their cuisine.   As the Ottoman chiefs (called beys) transitioned into sultans in the 14th century, they also began to adopt the culinary features of sedentary life. Cooked fruits and nuts were incorporated into cooked meats for the sultans to enjoy. In the late 15th century, the Ottoman sultans also began to eat with finer materials like porcelain and silver, as opposed to the bone or wood that their tableware was made of in earlier times.   Today’s Menu! Baklava, photo by Encal Media. Source: Unsplash   The Topkapi Palace had several areas reserved for cooking. These included the helvahane, the imperial dessert kitchen, and the Kushane, the special kitchen where the sultan’s meals were prepared. Meals were cooked meticulously and punctually, as the royal eating schedule was strict. In the 15th century, food was prepared twice a day; breakfast was eaten in the early hours of the morning, and dinner around four to five pm.   The palace kitchens had a colossal number of staff to accommodate the sultan, his family, and other inhabitants and visitors of the palace. Approximately 800 kitchen staff were employed to cook for 4,000 people! Cooks were required to rise in the early hours of the morning to have food ready by sunrise when the morning prayers were held.   A variety of ingredients were used to make interesting combinations for the sultan. Plums and pomegranates were brought specially from cities like Bursa to make a sour paste or marmalade called Nardenk.   Unlike the Turkish populace, the Ottoman sultan also had access to a variety of spices like cumin, saffron, and cinnamon, which were put into pilav (rice), et (meat) or tatli (sweet) dishes. Lamb and beef stew were cooked with fruits like plums, apricots, and pomegranates. This also differed from the cuisine of the common folk, who did not mix sweet and savory ingredients.   The Conqueror’s Seafood Interior of Topkapi Palace, by Etienne Dayer. Source: Unsplash   Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror (r. 1451-1481) was an avid seafood eater. Some historians speculate that this may have been introduced to his court after his conquest of Constantinople in 1453. Mehmed incorporated many aspects of Byzantine culture into his court and the increasingly sedentarized empire. Seafood like prawns—which were eaten by the Greeks of Constantinople—are a recurring dish in the palace menus of the late 15th century. This signaled a change from the nomadic pastoralist diet of mainly meat and dairy.   In 1460, the Topkapi Palace was built in the new imperial capital of Constantinople (Istanbul). The palace was modeled on the old palace in Edirne, which had housed almost 800 people. The sultan’s food was cooked in a separate area from the main kitchen. At the entrance of the harem was a small cookery called the Kushane, where the sultan and royal family’s food was prepared. While he initially ate with courtiers, later in his life, Mehmed preferred to eat alone.   Food products were brought from all around the empire to accommodate the sultan’s tastes. Mehmed II enjoyed fish, and so, freshwater fish was brought from Terkos Lake (modern-day Durusu), an occasional recreation and rest spot for the sultan.   While on campaigns, however, the sultan’s diet changed once again. Instead of heavier products like meat and dairy, Mehmed consumed more fruit, vegetables, and bread. Soup was also a popular campaign meal—it was probably easier on the sultan’s stomach during hours of traveling on horseback!   Gluttony and Gout Buttery Halva, photo by Ilanit Ohana. Source: Unsplash   Although the official court records show that the kitchens operated twice a day, the sultan could technically request a meal whenever his heart desired. After a three or four-course meal, the sultan would usually have a sweet treat. This could be halva, a dessert made of flour and butter, or baklava, a layered pastry filled with nuts and covered in syrup. Şerbet, a sweet, cordial-like drink made of flowers or fruits, was also a staple of the sultan’s dinner table. Full of sugar and honey, Şerbet was always served, be it an official meeting with a vizier, or during the sultan’s recreational time in the imperial gardens.   Foods with high caloric and saturated fat levels were commonly cooked in court. Contrary to the average Ottoman citizen, the sultan had a large daily intake of ingredients like sugar and butter. As a result, many experienced rapid weight gain, and suffered from related diseases like diabetes and gout. Gout, also called the “disease of kings,” affected other early-modern kings like Henry VIII. Foods high in the chemical compound purine, such as red meat and seafood, along with alcoholic drinks, were the main culprits of gout amongst the sultans.   Mehmed the Conqueror was one of the sultans known to suffer from gout and diabetes. These illnesses affected his fitness levels and toward the end of his life, he gained an excessive amount of weight, which is evident from his portraits. His premature death at age 49 was likely related to organ failure due to these illnesses.   For the Love of the Drink Wine-drinking was a (secret) Ottoman pastime, painted by Levni, ca. 1732. Source: LiteraTurk Catalogue   Due to Islamic legal restrictions, alcohol was a taboo in early modern Ottoman Turkey.   Yet, many sultans were known to enjoy drinking, some to an unhealthy extent. Sultan Bayezid “the Thunderbolt” was noted by historians like Ahmedi (d. 1413) to have been an avid drinker. In the Iskendername, Ahmedi wrote that Bayezid’s love of drink was influenced by the latter’s Christian wife, Despina, whom he claimed had introduced alcohol to Bayezid’s court.   Selim II was another ruler addicted to the drink. To this day, he is known as “Selim the Sot” due to his alcoholism. Selim’s drinking habits eventually led to his death at age 50. While intoxicated, he slipped on a wet tile in the bathroom and fatally hit his head.   Interestingly, the Topkapi Palace registries have no records of alcohol being bought by the palace. This reveals that alcohol was bought and imported discreetly, to not cause a scandal amongst the ulema, or religious class.   The taboo nature of alcohol in Ottoman society influenced the consumption of other beverages, such as coffee and boza, a drink made of fermented wheat. Likely first introduced to the palace through the 1519 Egyptian expedition of Selim I, coffee soon became a loved drink in court and amongst high society in Istanbul.   Feasting With the Sultan Janissaries participating in the çanak yagma, or “pot raid,” 1720. Source: University Wisconsin   Food was not only an important aspect of the sultan’s life but also of the political culture of the Ottoman court. Courtiers and soldiers expected banquets to be held by the monarch. This was a deep-rooted tradition that derived from the Ottomans’ nomadic and tribal history. In Turkic tribal culture, the mark of a good chieftain was his ability to provide food and sustenance for the tribespeople.   Eating alongside the sultan had its own rituals that courtiers had to abide by. They had to be formally invited to dine with the sultan and were often seated on his right or left side. This, however, could be the cause of drama in the imperial court. In 1472, two esteemed scholars, Molla Hüsrev and Molla Gürani, were invited to dine with Mehmed II. Molla Gürani was seated on Mehmed’s right side, while Molla Hüsrev was seated on his left. Believing that the left seat was assigned to less favored individuals, Molla Hüsrev was so offended that he relocated from Istanbul to the city of Bursa!   In the court of Selim the Grim and his son Suleyman, a ceremony called the çanak yagma, or “pot raid” was essential for keeping both ordinary subjects and janissary troops happy. A “pot raid” would often be organized during ceremonies like royal weddings and circumcisions. It consisted of ceramic pots, filled with food like pilav (rice) and meat, placed into an area where the groups would scramble to grab as much as they could. This, like many other ceremonies, was inspired by nomadic Turkic traditions.

  Many mythologies from around the world are based in a historical setting. For example, in the case of ancient Greek mythology, many scholars agree that much of it originates in some sense from Bronze Age Greece. What about Welsh mythology? Over the 20th century, many scholars attempted to argue that this ultimately originated from Iron Age Celtic mythology. While some connections cannot be ruled out, it would appear that the overwhelming majority of Welsh mythology actually originates from Dark Age Britain. What is the evidence for this conclusion?   What Is Welsh Mythology? Jesus College MS 111, showing the opening of the Four Branches of the Mabinogion in the right-hand column, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Libraries, Oxford   The expression ‘Welsh mythology’ primarily refers to a particular collection of medieval Welsh literature known as The Mabinogion. The most overtly mythological of The Mabinogion tales are four distinct but connected stories. Together, they are known as the Four Branches of the Mabinogion. However, other tales exist as well. Some of these are Arthurian tales, while others are set before the Arthurian period. The Four Branches are particularly interesting. The reason is that they present what is essentially an overarching story about a single figure, although he is not always the main character of the tale. Fanciful elements can be found in all The Mabinogion tales, but the Four Branches, in particular, can definitely be classed as Welsh mythology.   These stories are found in two manuscripts from medieval Wales. These are the White Book of Rhydderch and the Red Book of Hergest. Both of these date from the 14th century. However, scholars universally agree that the stories they contain date from many centuries before they were written down in those manuscripts.   The Story of the Four Branches of The Mabinogion Map showing the location of Dyfed, the territory of Pwyll and Pryderi. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Four Branches basically revolve around the figure of Pryderi, even though he does not play a central role in each one of the stories. He is presented as a prince from Dyfed. This was the medieval kingdom of southwest Wales, covering essentially modern Pembrokeshire and Carmarthenshire. His father was a king named Pwyll, and his mother was Rhiannon. In the First Branch, we learn the story of Pryderi’s birth. Pwyll, the king of Dyfed, after ruling over an otherworldly kingdom for a year and a day, meets a magical woman named Rhiannon. After some conflict with a rival lover, they get married and have a child. This child, Pryderi, eventually succeeds Pwyll to the throne of Dyfed.   The Second Branch is about the marriage of Matholwch, king of Ireland, to Branwen, princess of Britain. After another wedding conflict, to appease him, Matholwch is given a magic cauldron that can restore the dead to life. Later, Branwen is mistreated, and an army of Britons, including Pryderi, invades Ireland and attempts to retrieve her.   Panel of the Mabinogi, by George Sheringham, c. early 20th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Third Branch describes the adventures of Pryderi and his companions after arriving back in Britain. While they were away, a king named Caswallon usurped the throne of Britain and declared himself the high king. At some point after Pryderi’s arrival back in Britain, a terrible enchantment takes place. A mysterious mist falls upon the land and leaves it a wasteland, deprived of humans and animals. Eventually, being led inside a magical castle, Pryderi himself and his mother Rhiannon are consumed by the mist and disappear. By the end of the story, however, the enchantment is lifted, and Pryderi returns.   The Fourth Branch is about a king of Gwynedd named Math ap Mathonwy and a character named Gwydion. The latter conspires to start a war between the north and the south of Wales. This conspiracy is successful, leading to a direct conflict with Pryderi, king of Dyfed. Various other mythological events occur after the conclusion of this war, mostly concerning Math and his associates.   Identifying the Historical Period of the Stories Image depicting Lleu rising in the form of an eagle, from The Mabinogion, by Charlotte Guest, 1877. Source: Wikimedia Commons   These stories are obviously full of mythological elements. However, like other mythologies from around the world, this does not mean that they are not set in a particular period. In the case of these stories from Welsh mythology, is there any indication about when they are supposed to have been set?   One indication comes from a statement in the Second Branch. After describing the war against Ireland to recover Branwen, the text notes that there were only seven survivors. Among them was Taliesin. There is only one Taliesin known in Welsh tradition, and that is the historical bard of the 6th century. Based on this fact alone, the story of Pryderi appears to be set in the 6th century, Dark Age Britain. However, are there any other indications of this? In one of the medieval poems attributed to Taliesin, the bard himself specifically says that he “saw here” one of the sons of Lleu, a character in the Fourth Branch. Hence, this indicates that Taliesin lived at the same time as this character.   Jesus College MS 111, folio 202v, showing Gware Gwallt Eurin at the end of the third line and the beginning of the fourth, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Libraries, Oxford   Also supporting this is the fact that Pryderi himself seems to appear in Culhwch and Olwen, a tale set in King Arthur’s reign in the 6th century. According to the First Branch, Pryderi was also known as Gwri Wallt Eurin. In Culhwch and Olwen, one of King Arthur’s allies is a figure named Gware Gwallt Eurin. The two spellings are so similar that they are likely variations of the same name. Pryderi’s foster father, Teyrnon, the lord of Gwent, also appears as one of Arthur’s allies in Culhwch and Olwen.   Additionally, although Pwyll’s parentage is not given in The Mabinogion itself, he is made the son of a certain “Alyn frenin Dyfed” in medieval genealogies. This would appear to be Alun Dyfed, a figure known from Arthurian sources. One of his sons appears as Arthur’s associate in the Dream of Rhonabwy, another Mabinogion tale. Another son, unnamed, appears in Culhwch and Olwen. Hence, if Pwyll was also considered to be a son of this same Alun Dyfed, then, evidently, he likewise belonged to the Arthurian period.   Finding the Characters in Dark Age Britain Jesus College MS 111, folio 175r, showing Pwyll king of Dyfed, c. 1382-1425. Source: Bodleian Libraries, Oxford   This evidence makes it clear that the Four Branches of the Mabinogion are supposed to be set in the Arthurian period, in Dark Age Britain. This makes sense, since most other tales within Welsh mythology, such as the two aforementioned Arthurian tales, are set in that same period. However, can any of the figures actually be identified with historical individuals, or at least figures from outside overtly mythological contexts?   Pryderi and his father Pwyll seem to appear at the head of a genealogical record of a prince or patriarch of Dyfed. The date of the individual is unknown, but the names indicate that he lived well into the medieval period. At the end of the list, we find “Predri ap Pliws hen brenhin Dyved.” The name “Predri” appears to be a corruption of “Pryderi,” while “Pliws” appears to be a corruption of “Pwyll.” The words “brenhin Dyved” mean “King of Dyfed.” While this is not an early source, it is not mythological either.   The Church of St Eilian, recorded as being granted to Eilian by “Caswallon,” actually King Cadwallon of Gwynedd. Source: Geograph   What about the high king of Britain who had usurped the throne while the army of Britons was away in Ireland? His name was Caswallon. Can he be identified as a historical figure from this era? As the high king of Britain, he must have been an important figure. As it happens, there was a prominent king of a powerful kingdom of Britain in the 6th century whose name was sometimes written as “Caswallon.” His name was actually Cadwallon, and he was the king of Gwynedd, encompassing northwest Wales. In fact, he is called Caswallon in quite a variety of records, with this form even being preserved in place names. His stature as the king of the powerful kingdom of Gwynedd at exactly the time in which Caswallon was the high king of Britain, according to Welsh mythology, is significant. It seems reasonable to identify them as the same person.   Interestingly, Welsh tradition indicates that Cadwallon was not his father’s eldest son and that he had to take much of Gwynedd by force. This may relate to the claim in Welsh mythology that Caswallon was a usurper.   Welsh Mythology’s Historical Origin in Dark Age Britain An illustration from The Mabinogion, by Charlotte Guest, 1877. Source: Wikimedia Commons   In conclusion, we can see that The Mabinogion stories in Welsh mythology seem to be fundamentally rooted in Dark Age Britain. In this respect, they are no different from the Welsh tales that deal with King Arthur’s reign. In fact, there is considerable overlap between the Arthurian tales and the Four Branches of the Mabinogion. Several figures in the latter are presented as allies of Arthur in the former. This even includes Pryderi himself, the central character of the Four Branches. Pryderi and his father Pwyll may have been historical figures.   More certainly, the high king of Britain in the Third Branch, Caswallon, can most likely be identified as Cadwallon. He was the king of Gwynedd, one of the most powerful kingdoms in 6th-century Britain. A variety of records call him Caswallon, and he appears to have taken much of his territory by force, much like the Caswallon of Welsh mythology. Further research may well reveal historical precedents behind many of the other characters of the Four Branches.

Do you look forward to heaven? If I am being honest, my heart can be so focused on the now and building my “earthly kingdom” that I often miss the joy of focusing my thoughts and heart on eternal joys.

The new “Superman” movie isn’t an attack on Donald Trump’s immigration policies, but it shows how alienated from America many liberals in Hollywood and politics now feel. Every kid used to know Superman fights for “truth, justice, and the American way.” That slogan has been around since the “Superman” radio show of the early 1940s […]

Planting late-summer crops enables homesteaders to keep their gardens productive as the heat begins to fade. Warm soil and remaining daylight create ideal conditions for cool-season vegetables to grow during the fall. By adding a second planting window, you increase your harvest and fill your pantry later in the season. Get practical steps for selecting crops, building healthy beds, handling pests, and timing harvests when planting later in the season. Why Planting Late-Summer Crops Extends Your Growing Season When early-season crops complete their harvest in midsummer, garden beds often sit empty. Planting late-summer crops allows you to fully use this space, taking advantage of warm soil and cooler nights. Late-summer planting works because: Warm soil speeds seed germination. Cooler nights reduce plant stress. Many cool-season vegetables tolerate light frost. With careful timing, you gain several weeks of fresh harvests before the first hard freeze. Best Crops for Planting Late-Summer Crops Certain vegetables perform well when planted in midsummer and grown until fall. These crops tolerate shorter days and seasonal temperature changes without compromising quality. Kale Kale thrives as temperatures decline. Chilly evenings slow leaf growth but strengthen the flavor. Light frosts trigger changes that reduce bitterness and increase sweetness. Direct seeding works well, though transplanting young starts allows faster establishment in late summer beds. Carrots Carrots benefit from warm soil early in development. Loose soil allows roots to grow straight without obstruction. As fall approaches, cooler temperatures slow leaf growth while allowing roots to fill out. Even moisture prevents cracking and promotes uniform root growth. Beets Beets handle shifting day lengths and fluctuating temperatures without stalling growth. Both greens and roots stay tender late into fall. Direct seeding into refreshed beds provides enough space for roots to expand. Thinning helps prevent crowding and uneven growth. Radishes Radishes mature quickly, even in shortening days. Rapid growth supports multiple plantings through late summer. Moderate night temperatures reduce the risk of spongy roots or heat stress. Staggering plantings every few weeks extends the harvest. Turnips Turnips tolerate falling temperatures while maintaining leaf and root quality. Mild autumn nights help roots develop a firm texture and gentle flavor. Direct seeding is effective when soil stays loose and moist. Early thinning supports steady growth before frost arrives. For additional planting guides based on frost dates, Johnny’s Selected Seeds provides helpful regional charts. Preparing Beds Before Planting Late-Summer Crops After spring harvests, soil may need fresh nutrients and loosening. Proper preparation helps young plants establish quickly. Steps to prepare planting beds: Remove old plants, weeds, and leftover roots. Loosen compacted soil with a broadfork or hoe. Mix finished compost into the top few inches. Water deeply before sowing seeds or transplanting seedlings. Avoid using heavy nitrogen fertilizers for root crops, as they may encourage leafy growth over strong roots. Protecting Late-Summer Crops from Pests Insects remain active in late summer. Tender seedlings need protection from pests that thrive during warm conditions. Pest management steps: Use row covers to block cabbage worms, flea beetles, and other insects. Hand-pick visible pests during early morning checks. Remove nearby weeds that shelter insects. Encourage beneficial insects, such as ladybugs and lacewings. The University of Minnesota Extension provides straightforward guides for managing home garden pests. Watering and Caring for Late-Summer Crops Consistent moisture supports steady growth during hot late-summer days. As temperatures drop, adjust watering to match changing conditions. Watering tips: Water deeply in early morning hours. Apply mulch to help soil retain moisture. Monitor soil regularly for signs of dryness or excess moisture. Timing the Harvest for Late-Summer Crops Crops planted in late summer slow their growth as daylight hours shorten. Timed planting ensures harvests reach maturity before heavy frosts. Timing tips: Count backward from your first expected frost to schedule plantings. Harvest root crops before hard freezes to prevent damage. Use row covers or low tunnels to protect crops during light frosts. Cold protection helps extend harvests without sacrificing quality. Planting Late-Summer Crops: Keeping the Garden Active Into Fall Planting late-summer crops enables homesteaders to utilize their space fully, even as the season transitions. With simple bed preparation, steady watering, pest control, and well-timed planting, your garden stays productive well into autumn. Each year brings more experience and more substantial harvests for your local growing conditions. Choose one crop to start this season. As your skills build, expand your late-season plantings and enjoy steady fall harvests. Share your planting experiences or questions in the comments. FAQs When should I start planting late-summer crops? Begin planting 8 to 10 weeks before your average first frost to give crops enough time to mature. Can I reuse beds from spring and summer? Yes. Clear out spent crops, loosen soil, and add compost before replanting. Do late-summer crops need pest protection? Yes. Use row covers, monitor pests regularly, and remove garden debris to minimize damage. How often should I water? Water deeply during dry spells. As temperatures cool, adjust to prevent soggy soil. Can I harvest after frost arrives? Yes. Use row covers to protect many cool-season crops during light frosts.

Following recent media attention surrounding the UK UFO Disclosure Group, a senior figure within the British intelligence community has come forward with stunning revelations: contrary to public belief, the United Kingdom’s UFO investigation programme is not defunct—it’s active, covert, and now run by the private sector. According to the source, British defence contractor BAE Systems is at the heart of the operation, overseeing a modernised version of the UK’s UFO programme across several secure facilities within the country. In a revelation that echoes similar claims made in the United States, it’s alleged that three non-human craft have been retrieved and are currently being held in classified locations: one linked to the well-documented Pentyrch incident in Wales, one recovered from Scotland and one from the Irish Sea, near Blackpool. Perhaps even more astonishing is the claim that the UK has an active UFO crash retrieval team—a rapid-response unit capable of reaching any downed object within 20 minutes anywhere in the UK. “These revelations fundamentally change the landscape of our disclosure campaign,” said Mark Christopher Lee, founder of the UK UFO Disclosure Group. “The public deserves to know the truth about what’s happening on British soil, and the fact that private defence contractors may be controlling this information raises serious questions about oversight, accountability, and transparency.” The UK UFO Disclosure Group will be taking this new intelligence to contacts in the House of Lords, with the goal of pressing for urgent Parliamentary debate and official inquiry. “We’re not just chasing lights in the sky,” Mark Christopher Lee added. “We’re chasing the truth—and we believe the British public has a right to it.” The UK UFO Disclosure Group is a citizen-led initiative advocating for government transparency around unidentified aerial phenomena (UAPs). We work with political, media, and scientific stakeholders to bring facts to light in the public interest. The post British UFO Programme Still Active, Private Company Holding Recovered Craft appeared first on Anomalien.com.

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