UTL COMMENT:- Good video. Don't know who made it but it's good. How come those overseas get our products vastly cheaper than we do? And WHO owns most of our producers in this age of GloBULLism? Multiple incompetent governments sold Australia out. Outsourced everything, sold off resources, closed down local production for cheap inferior imports. No vision for the future just today's budget and getting reelected ?

Pretty cool.

Take our 'M*A*S*H' quiz and find out how well you remember the show.

Dr. Vernon Coleman argues that vaccination is promoted by those with a vested interest, including doctors, nurses and politicians, while those who oppose it do so out of concern for the dangers […] The post How drug companies bribed doctors to vaccinate, vaccinate and vaccinate first appeared on The Expose.

Hot dogs may seem quintessentially American, but depending on which ones you choose, your dogs might have international roots, like this famous brand.

from The Jimmy Dore Show: TRUTH LIVES on at https://sgtreport.tv/

  Evolving from the Roman Republic, Rome became an empire in 27 BCE and seemed to be off to a good start with Augustus, who had a posthumous reputation for a high moral character and effective rule. Some Roman emperors seem to have followed in his footsteps, such as the “five good emperors” of the Antonine period. But just as many were characterized as “bad” or “mad”: absolute power corrupts absolutely, and they reportedly became insane megalomaniacs. How much of the stories about these emperors are true and how much was posthumous character assassination motivated by politics is unclear, but let’s meet four of Rome’s most notorious mad emperors: Caligula, Nero, Commodus, and Elegabalus.   1. Caligula (r. 37 CE-41 CE) Bust of Caligula, Italy, c. 16th-19th century CE. Source: Walters Art Museum   One of the earliest emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, better known as Caligula, is the subject of intense academic debate. Most of the sources about him were written by Roman aristocrats after his death, and they may have had reasons to exaggerate some of his more unusual behavior.   Caligula was the son of Roman general Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, Augustus’ granddaughter. His father died in Antioch in 19 CE, allegedly from being poisoned, but nothing was ever proven. In Rome, Agrippina became entangled in political intrigue, making herself an enemy of Emperor Tiberius, another emperor to whom history has not been kind.   Malcolm McDowell in Caligula (1979). Source: IMDb   Political and palace intrigue was rife during Tiberius’s reign, and soon, Agrippina and her family were exiled and killed, leaving Caligula as the only surviving male heir of Germanicus, who had been Tiberius’ adopted son. From then on, Tiberius kept close tabs on Caligula. The two lived on the Isle of Capri, where Tiberius instructed Caligula.   In 37 CE, Tiberius died, and Caligula took the reins of power. Initially, Caligula was well-liked, especially when compared to the old emperor. He granted reprieve to many who had been accused of treason or exiled under Tiberius. He put an end to certain taxes and gained popularity through his charisma and gregarious nature.   But after a life-threatening illness took hold of him later that same year, Caligula’s nature changed, and he became paranoid and unstable. His popularity also began to wane as he incurred massive expenses. He initiated building projects, enlarging the imperial palace and ordering the construction of huge floating barges for his personal use.   Caligula’s Madness Movie poster for Caligula (1979). Source: Heritage Auctions   Following his illness, stories abound of random executions, erratic behavior, massive orgies, and Caligula’s dark and oblique sense of humor.   It is widely reported that Caligula made his horse Incitatus consul of Rome. While this is likely an exaggeration, one of many written by Roman historian Suetonius, it probably holds a grain of truth. It has been suggested that Caligula threatened to make the horse a consul to convey the message that he thought a horse could do a better job than any of the senators.   Caligula was also reportedly in an incestuous relationship with his sister, although this is almost certainly a fabrication, as ancient historians often used this criticism to denigrate past rulers. Caligula, however, was fond of sex, and he likely used it for political advantage.   He would hold banquets for senators and their wives and have the women parade in front of him while he evaluated aspects of their physique. He would allegedly then have sex with the one that pleased him the most. After the act was done, he would critique their performance in front of their husband. In one case, he ordered the married couple to be divorced and then sent the ex-husband the bill.   A Roman Emperor: 41 AD, by Lawrence Alma Tadema, 1871. Source: Walters Art Museum   One of the most enduring tales about Caligula’s life was that he declared war on and victory over the sea. The biographer Suetonius describes the event in which the emperor marched his army to the shores of the English Channel and ordered them to gather seashells. After declaring victory, he had a lighthouse built.   Caligula’s end came from the hands of a handful of conspirators. The exact reason for the assassination is a subject of debate. One of the conspirators was a Praetorian officer named Chaerea, whom Caligula had insulted, mocking his high-pitched voice and effeminate movements. According to contemporary historian Flavius Josephus, Chaerea was a “noble idealist” with a belief in “republican liberties.” Whatever the case may have been, Chaerea was among those who plunged a knife into Caligula on January 24, 41 CE.   By the time Caligula’s guards responded, the emperor was dead. His personal guards entered the fray, killing innocent bystanders before the Praetorian Guard arrived and managed to restore order. Caligula was 28 at the time. There was little question of restoring the Republic. Instead, the Praetorians selected Caligula’s uncle Claudius as the new Augustus.   2. Nero (r. 54 CE-68 CE) Peter Ustinov as Emperor Nero in the stage play Quo Vadis (1951). Source: British Museum   Synonymous with cruelty, extravagance, and debauchery, Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ruled Rome from 54 CE to 68 CE. Much of what we know about Nero comes from the writings of the contemporary historian Tacitus, imperial biographer Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who wrote around 150 years after Nero’s death. They do much to vilify the last Julio-Claudian emperor.   He was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (not to be confused with three other consuls who had this name) and had a strong claim to the throne as his parents were both blood relatives of Augustus. His turbulent life began in infancy. His mother, Agrippina, the sister of Caligula, was exiled when he was two, and his father died when he was three.   When Claudius became emperor in 41 CE, he restored Lucius’ status and recalled the boy’s mother from exile. His fortunes continued on an upward trajectory. In 49 CE, Claudius married Agrippina and adopted Lucius, taking the name Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus.   Although Claudius had a natural son, Britannicus, he seemed to favor Nero and named him his heir. In 54 CE, Claudius died, and Nero, aged 16, became the emperor.   The most infamous event in Nero’s story is the great fire of Rome in 66 CE. It started near the Colosseum, and reportedly, music lover Nero played his fiddle (or lyre) while much of the great city was reduced to cinders and ash. Suetonius and Cassius Dio perpetuated this fiction. Tacitus, who was eight at the time of the fire, states that Nero was not in Rome, and upon his return, he led the relief efforts.   Contrary to this image of a compassionate emperor was the fact that Nero spent the following years exhausting Rome’s coffers by building one of the biggest palaces in history. This did nothing to discourage the idea that Nero started the fire himself in order to rebuild Rome in his own image, a myth that is perpetuated to this day.   Family Murders The Remorse of Nero, by John William Waterhouse, 1878. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio all claim that by the time Nero was 21, he had grown weary of his mother’s political interference and had her murdered. Other family members were also in grave danger.   Britannicus is said to have been poisoned. Tacitus’ account of this was that it happened at a dinner party. Britannicus was given a hot beverage, and when he asked for it to be cooled, it was taken away and brought back, this time with poison in it.   Nero’s marriage to Claudius’ daughter, Octavia, happened when Nero was in his early teens and was arranged in order to solidify his claim on the throne. Once he was emperor, Nero found little use for her. He fell in love with a woman named Poppaea Sabina, who allegedly convinced her lover to have Octavia dispatched. Nero exiled his wife in 62 CE on charges of adultery and then had her murdered. She was just 22 at the time.   In 65 CE, Poppaea Sabina died at the age of 35. The circumstances of her death are uncertain. According to Suetonius, Nero kicked her in the abdomen while she was pregnant, causing her death. Tacitus confirms this story, while Cassius Dio states that the event may have been accidental. Modern historians tend to err on the side of these accounts being exaggerations, and Poppaea likely died in childbirth. An ancient Greek poem written on a piece of papyrus claims that Poppaea’s last words were a loving farewell to her husband. Poppaea’s funeral was a lavish affair, and she was deified.   Fall From Grace Death of Nero, by V.S. Smirnov, 1888. Source: Virtual Russian Museum   Nero wasn’t universally disliked. He had gained favor in Greece for an enormous tax break he gave the province. He was also popular with many sectors of Rome’s society. He sponsored public works, hosted frequent games, gave cash handouts, and spent time with the poorer people.   Critically, however, he lost the support of many nobles and the army. The instigator of Nero’s downfall was the governor of Gaul, Gaius Julius Vindex. Although Vindex was defeated in battle, a key ally of his cut the grain supply from Egypt to Rome. Rome began to starve, and Nero lost the people’s support.   With enemies closing in, Nero committed suicide on June 9, 68 CE. He was 30 at the time. Despite his ignominious end, he was given a lavish funeral before his memory was tarnished by historians who vilified him after his death.   3. Commodus (r. 177 CE-192 CE) Bust of Commodus. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Regarded as one of the best emperors, Marcus Aurelius was succeeded by his son, Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus, who proved to be one of the worst emperors, whose misrule plunged the empire into civil strife.   Three years before Marcus Aurelius died in 180 CE, Commodus had been made co-ruler with his father, beginning when he was just 15. By the age of 18, he was the sole ruler. One of the first things Commodus did after his father died was devalue the Roman currency by reducing the weight and the purity of the silver used in the denarius. This was a poor start to his reign, but no one could have predicted what was to come.   Commodus proved to be violent and cruel. He was not interested in administering the empire, a task that was delegated to others. When he got tired of his functionaries, Commodus simply had them murdered. He seems to have had a passion for violence. He took part in gladiatorial events in which he dispatched vast numbers of opponents. These games were likely rigged; there was little chance of the emperor ever being killed.   Joaquin Phoenix as Commodus in Gladiator (2000). Source: Dreamworks Pictures   The 2nd-century historian Cassius Dio claimed Commodus also had a penchant for killing animals, dispatching five hippopotamuses and two elephants in the space of two days. On one occasion, he is said to have killed 100 bears, spearing them from the safety of the arena balcony.   In another story of cruelty, he assembled a number of men who had lost their feet, dressed them up as serpents, and made them throw sponges at him, with Commodus pretending these were rocks. Commodus took great joy in shooting arrows at these hapless souls.   Statue of Commodus dressed as Hercules. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Commodus claimed to have achieved 12,000 victories in the arena and is said to have appeared in the arena as a gladiator 735 times. What made these appearances problematic was that he charged 25,000 pieces of silver for each appearance, payable from the Roman treasury. As expected, this drew a lot of concern.   From a political perspective, killing people was a quick and easy political tool to achieve desired results. In order to appease the army, he had his chief minister killed. And in 190 CE, when his chamberlain, Cleander, was blamed for a food shortage, Commodus showed no mercy. A rioting mob demanded Cleander’s head, and he fled to Commodus for protection. The emperor reacted by having Cleander decapitated, along with the man’s son.   Commodus reportedly also used his position to fulfill his sexual desires. He had a harem of 300 women, along with a similar number of young boys, who he kept for sexual purposes. Ironically, he had his wife, Crispina, exiled to the Isle of Capri in 188 on charges of adultery. She was executed in 191 CE.   Commodus: From Cruelty to Madness Roman Gladiators, by Howard Pyle, 1911. Source: Wikimedia Commons   As his reign continued, Commodus is said to have broken completely with reality. He became convinced that he was the reincarnation of Hercules and spent vast amounts of money trying to convince the entire empire that this was indeed the case. He removed the head of a 100-foot-tall statue of Nero and replaced it with a likeness of his own head, changing other aspects of the statue in the process to make it reference Hercules.   Commodus then decided to rename everything in Rome in honor of himself. He even wanted to rename Rome Colonia Commodiana (Colony of Commodus). Romans would thenceforth be known as Commodiani. He also renamed the Senate to the Commodian Fortunate Senate.   He renamed all the months of the year after himself. August was renamed Commodus, and the rest of the months were renamed after one of his other names or titles.   The Death of Commodus The Death of Commodus, by Fernand Pelez, 1879. Source: Wikimedia Commons   All of this was too much for the Roman elite. They wished Commodus dead, and a series of assassination attempts marked his reign. There was no shortage of opportunities.   His end finally came at the hands of his concubine, Marcia, and the wrestler Narcissus.   According to the story, in celebration of the Roman New Year in 192, Commodus told Marcia, a servant named Electus, and Praetorian prefect Aemilius Laetus his plans to appear in front of the people by emerging from the gladiator’s barracks along with other gladiators. As an emperor, he was expected to appear from the palace dressed in purple robes. All three tried to dissuade Commodus from doing so, as it would have brought unnecessary scandal to the imperial household. Commodus responded by putting their names on an execution list.   By happenstance, Marcia discovered the list and informed Eclectus and Aemilius Laetus of the fate Commodus had prepared for them. They decided to act quickly. While Commodus was taking a bath, Marcia slipped poison into his wine. The emperor fell ill and suffered a lengthy bout of vomiting. But his death was taking too long, and fearing that he would recover, Marcia employed the help of Narcissus, who promptly strangled the emperor to death.   4. Elagabalus (r. 218 CE-222 CE) Bust of Elagabalus. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Sextus Varius Avitus Bassianus, better known as Elagabalus, ruled from 218 CE to 222 CE. His family had powerful connections in Rome. His grandmother’s sister was the wife of Emperor Septimius Severus, and his grandmother was also an aunt to Emperor Caracalla.   Elagabalus was just 14 when he became emperor. He was elevated to this position with the help of his grandmother, Julia Maesa, who organized a revolt against Emperor Macrinus, defeating the emperor’s forces at the Battle of Antioch in 218. Macrinus, along with his son, were hunted down and beheaded.   According to the sources, this change in power caused confusion and ire from many sectors of Roman life as Elagabalus began his eccentric reign. In particular, Elagabalus replaced Jupiter as the head god of the Roman pantheon with Elagabal, a Roman-Arab sun god of whom Elagabalus had been a priest.   Modern historians consider the historical sources for Elagabalus exaggerative. They include histories from the second and third centuries written by Cassius Dio and Herodian, as well as a collection of biographies, the Historia Augusta, which was published around the 4th century.   The stories of Elagabalus are sordid and paint a picture of a boy with unusual sexual proclivities who was drunk on power and had little conscience. He used this power to get whatever he wanted. He was said to have married five times, one of his wives being a Vestal Virgin, which greatly angered the priesthood of Rome as this was a major taboo in Roman society. One of the women he wanted to marry was already married when Elagabalus set eyes on her. So he simply had her husband killed and took her as a wife.   Elagabalus’ Sexuality The Roses of Heliogabalus, by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1888. Source: Wikimedia Commons   By modern definitions, Elagabalus would probably be classified as pansexual or bisexual, or possibly even transgender. He liked to wear women’s clothing in public and dress in wildly extravagant costumes to the point of being utterly ridiculous. While this is not particularly unusual by today’s standards, his libido drove him to enact his sexual fantasies in strange ways. He hired men for political office based on their penis size, likely intending to use these men for more than just political functions.   He slept with men and women in such numbers that it is said he never slept with the same woman twice. He also threw massive orgies covered in rose petals. He is even said to have prostituted himself on the streets of Rome.   By modern standards, if the accounts are accurate, Elagabalus would likely have been classified as experiencing gender dysphoria. He offered vast sums of money to any doctor who could give him a vagina. He preferred to be called the feminine domina rather than the masculine dominus. He even married a man, Hierocles, a charioteer. In their relationship, he dressed and acted the part of a woman.   In fact, North Hertfordshire Museum now officially refers to Elagabalus as “she/her” in its displays.   Elagabalus: Cruelty, Hatred, and Death A scene from the film Elagabalus (2020). Source: Berlin Student Film Festival   Elagabalus’ gender identity and his sexual escapades, which flouted societal norms, were not the only source of the hatred he garnered. He was a cruel emperor whose perverse desires and humor gained him enemies. The stories of cruelty are legion. It is said he made women pull him around in a chariot while he whipped them. He drowned dinner guests and released venomous snakes into the stands at gladiatorial events.   When an advisor suggested to the emperor that he temper his excesses to avoid a revolt, Elagabalus stabbed the man to death.   His reign was marked by instability and chaos. He garnered suspicion and distrust and was accused of being nothing more than a puppet of his ambitious family members. While danger grew on the empire’s borders, economic difficulties spread far and wide. Plots began to emerge within the senate, and members of the Praetorian Guard decided to have Elagabalus murdered.   Sensing the danger, Julia Maesa urged her grandson to adopt his cousin Alexander as an heir, hoping this action would appease the rebellious factions. Alexander was seen as far more acceptable than Elagabalus.   Instead of appeasing the situation, this move only provided more incentive. Now that there was an acceptable heir, there would be no power struggles if Elagabalus were to die. Elagabalus ordered his cousin to be assassinated, but the Praetorian Guard refused the order.   In March 222 CE, they arrested Elagabalus and his mother, Julia Soaemias, while the two were visiting a Praetorian camp.   The two were brutally murdered, their bodies dragged through the streets and dumped in the Tiber River. This signaled a quick and unceremonious end to the short reign of Elagabalus. He was 18 when he died and had reigned for only four years.   A silver denarius bearing the image of Elagabalus. Source: The Royal Mint   Today, Rome can seem like an exotic world, and its social practices, beliefs, and strange happenings are subjects of fascination. The emperors of Rome are particularly intriguing as ancient celebrities whose lives offer some of the juiciest stories. However, the truth about the lives of these masters or Rome is an enigmatic and evasive target for any professional historian.   Many of these emperors were ill-served by their biographers. While there is no doubt these emperors had their criminal flaws, it is only in the recent past that attempts have been made to actually understand these rulers so maligned in the annals of history. Elagabalus, for instance, has garnered some reprieve, as his sexuality is no longer considered something to be despised.

  The fall of Rome may be seen as irreversible in hindsight. However, several significant Roman leaders of the 5th century were able to bring the empire to the brink of salvation. It was a betrayal that prevented the general Flavius Aetius from being able to complete the restoration of Rome’s former glory.   The Decline of Rome The Sack of Rome, original painting at the Musée de l’hôtel Sandelin, 1863. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The 4th and 5th centuries CE are commonly known for the decline and eventual fall of the Roman Empire. A series of economic problems, social decay, cultural changes, and foreign migrations helped lead to the stagnation and fall of the nation’s authority.   However, the empire in many ways was resilient to the changes of the period of Late Antiquity, even until its final decades. The invasion of such dangerous “barbarian” groups such as the Huns was not enough to cause the direct collapse of the empire, even if a combination of factors eventually left it mortally wounded.   Historians commonly debate whether or not the movement of non-Roman people into the territory of the Western Roman Empire represented a hostile invasion or a series of migrations that resulted in a changed, but not destroyed society. From the backdrop of these changes, we can get a clearer picture of the last of several major efforts to save the empire while it was still alive. Both came close to succeeding.   A Terrible 5th Century Attila, by Ulpiano Checa, 1894. Source: Wikimedia Commons   There are many points where we could start the discussion about the decline of Rome. A series of societal and governmental changes stemming from the end of the Crisis of the Third Century helped to shape the next several centuries. However, there is one element that most historians would agree shows the extent of the issues facing Rome and the existential threat of disaster: the rise of Attila and the Huns.   Attila became the leader of the Huns, a nomadic people who entered Europe in the late 4th century. The exact origin of the Huns is unknown but there is significant scholarship tying them to the Xiongnu people who invaded China in the preceding centuries. The language of the Huns has been lost to time and it appears that they were not directly related to the other “barbarian” peoples who entered into Roman territory in the 3rd and 4th centuries. The entry of the Huns into Europe helped to push a series of other tribes deeper into Roman territory, including the Gothic peoples, deepening the instability facing the Western Roman Empire.   The Huns were a significant threat to the Romans at the start of the 5th century CE until the elevation of Attila around 434 CE, who soon became an existential threat.   Attila’s Threat to Rome Athila flagellum Dei, by Claude Vignon, 1610-47. Source: The British Museum   The ascension of Attila led to the Huns becoming the chief threat to the survival of the Western Roman Empire. Attila came to the throne ruling with his brother Bleda. The two were able to score a series of impressive victories over the Eastern Roman Empire, the stronger of the two halves of the Roman world. The Huns had received territory near Hungary to settle and were allowed to trade with the Romans.   Under Attila and Bleda, the Huns were able to extract tribute from the Eastern Roman Empire. When the money was halted, the Huns destroyed a series of Eastern Roman cities and forced a new series of payments. The Huns arrived as far as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, Constantinople, where they extracted even more tribute.   The issues for the Western Roman Empire began with a failed marriage in the middle of the 5th century. The sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, Honoria, sent a ring to Attila and sought to escape a planned marriage to a Roman senator. Attila saw this as a proposal for marriage, demanding that he receive half of the Western Roman Empire as her dowry. The dispute helped lead to the most stunning barbarian invasion of Roman territory in history.   By this point, Attila ruled by himself following his brother’s death. He was able to combine many of the “barbarian” tribes of Europe, including the Gepids, Alans, Burgundians, and Ostrogoths, into a massive coalition. In 451 he led an invasion of Roman Gaul, today’s France.   Stopping Attila Attila and his Huns, from The Story of the Greatest Nations, 1900. Source: The Internet Archive   Attila won some staggering victories in Roman Gaul during the 450s, sacking a series of critical cities. During his rampage, his forces murdered a Roman bishop, although he did show mercy to several church leaders and settlements. It is this campaign that helped Attila to build the reputation that gained him the appellation “the Scourge of God.”   It was during this difficult time that one Roman leader gathered an army to confront Attila. Flavius Aetius was the son of a Roman general and a Roman noblewoman. He spent some of his younger years living among the groups the Romans believed were barbarians. He also spent three years as a hostage among the Visigoths, and then among the Huns. He had built an impressive reputation during a series of military campaigns that soon made him the preeminent military figure of the Western Roman Empire. Initially, he signed a peace deal with the Huns allowing them to settle in Central Europe.   However, it was Aetius who had to try and stop the Huns in Gaul. He created an agreement with King Theodoric I of the Visigoths to jointly confront the Hunnic threat. The combined Roman-Visigothic army met Attila at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains on June 20, 451 in modern-day France, previously known as the Battle of Chalons. During the battle, Theodoric was killed but Attila’s army was badly mauled.   Fall of Attila The Attila Gate, a modern Kurultai, or tribal council, held across nations of formerly nomadic peoples, Hungary, 2023. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Both Attila and Flavius Aetius would die in rapid succession, but not in battle against each other. Following the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, Attila’s power began to decline.   However, the Hunnic leader refused to give up his opportunity to pursue his marriage with Honoria. This led to an invasion of Italy in 452, including the destruction of several cities. However, Aetius had little left to challenge Attila. Italy was facing famine before Attila’s invasion, and the Huns represented a large threat to the region while also struggling with the shortage. Attila was supposedly convinced not to sack the city of Rome by Pope Leo I. Attila promised to leave Italy and leave the region. His forces were weakened and had limited ability to press the advantage in a devastated Italy.   However, Attila did not get to enjoy this period. After leaving Italy, Attila took a new wife but was likely heavily drinking during the wedding celebrations and died of a nosebleed and bled to death.   The Last of the Romans A map of the end of the Western Roman Empire, from historian G. Droysens, 1886. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Fate was not much kinder to Flavius Aetius. Despite his victory over Attila in Gaul, he was soon surrounded by potential enemies.   Aetius had failed to prevent Attila from entering into Italy. However, he was able to use a relatively small force to help pressure Attila into leaving Italy without having destroyed Rome or taken Honoria as a wife.   Despite this, Aetius had alienated Emperor Valentinian III. The emperor feared Aetius’s potential power, especially after Aetius’s son became betrothed to the emperor’s daughter. In 454 CE Aetius was at the then-Roman capital of Ravenna. The emperor told him that he would no longer support Aetius and accused him of attempting to seize control of the empire. Along with a co-conspirator, the emperor slew Aetius. Less than six months later, the emperor was stabbed to death by Aetius’s friends, including Aetius’s likely son-in-law.   The murder of Flavius Aetius did not consolidate power for Valentinian and instead was one of the last elements that led to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire. The empire went through an attempted resurgence under Emperor Majorian, who was also murdered, and a series of puppet emperors under increasing influence from non-Romans.   By 476 CE the last of the Roman emperors, the child Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by  Odoacer, bringing the classical world to an end. With the effort of Flavius Aetius, Rome almost survived its most difficult crisis. For his efforts, he received the appellation of the “Last of the Romans.”

  Jealous, vengeful, cruel, foreign, and with a fondness for snakes, Olympias has often been portrayed as a malevolent figure. More than two thousand years after she lived and died, it is impossible to know what she was actually like, but the actions of the mother of Alexander the Great (356-323 BCE) were rarely without logic and context. Just as her son became the template for two centuries worth of successor monarchs, Olympias was the prototype of another common Hellenistic character: the powerful royal woman.   Olympias Before Olympias  Olympias Medallion, Roman, c. 3rd century CE. Source: Walters Art Museum   The person we know as Olympias originally went by other names. Polyxena and Myrtale are recorded as names she used before becoming Olympias upon her marriage to Phillip II of Macedon (382-336 BCE). She was born in 373 BCE, the daughter of Neoptolemus I, the ruler of Molossia in the north western Greek region of Epirus. Her family, the Aeacids, claimed descent from the mythical hero of the Trojan War Achilles. Though Molossia was a poor and remote Greek region, being a descendant of Achilles brought prestige and a sense of needing to live an appropriately heroic life, an ambition Olympias passed down to her son.   In the 4th century BCE, Molossia rarely featured in the calculations of the great powers such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Persia. However, it was more familiar to its neighbor Macedon. Macedon and Molossia shared a tradition of monarchy and a location on the frontiers of the Greek world. It was this closeness to Macedon that transformed the Molossian princess into Olympias.   Bust of Philip II, Roman copy of Greek original. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Alexander’s later biographer, Plutarch, gives us a romantic view of the meeting of Olympias and Philip. While they were both being initiated into the mystery cult on the island of Samothrace in the northern Aegean, Philip, perhaps in his early to mid-twenties, caught sight of the teenage Molossian princess. He fell instantly in love and arranged the marriage. Skeptical modern scholars argue that such a royal marriage could only result from politics, not love. Molossia was a long way from Samothrace and the meeting could hardly have been by chance. Polyxena/Mrytale was likely around 18 when she married Philip in 357 BCE. She took the name Olympias shortly after, either as a commemoration of a Macedonian Olympic victory or in connection to a religious festival.   Olympias was not Philip’s only wife. The Macedonian monarchy practiced polygamy, with Olympias being the fourth of seven known marriages. This context is key to understanding much of what followed. As polygamous kings, the Macedonian Argead dynasty lacked a stable route of succession. Multiple wives meant multiple children and potential successors. There was no formal status division between the wives, and any of them could give birth to the next king. The mother of a king was guaranteed a life of status, while any potential rival heirs and their relatives ran the risk of being killed. Not yet twenty, Olympias was moving to a foreign country and entering a royal court and a high-stakes competition.   Wife of Philip and Mother of Alexander  Reconstruction of the face of Philip II. Source: Manchester Museum   Olympias and Philip were married for 20 years, and while we are ignorant of the details of their marriage, it was ultimately successful in its goals of tying together Molossia and Macedon and producing an heir.   Within a year of the marriage, Olympias gave birth to Alexander. A second child, Cleopatra, followed a year later. Cleopatra was the last of the couple’s children. A number of sources, including Justin and Plutarch, mention an estrangement. However, it should be noted that Olympias was Philip’s only wife known to have had more than one child. The stories of a distance between Philip and Olympias may be due to the events at the end of Philip’s reign and Alexander’s later claims to divine parentage. The later story that Philip recoiled from Olympias after seeing her sleeping next to a snake, an apparent sign of a divine visit, may well mix later propaganda about Alexander being the son of a god and traces of Olympias’ religious practices.   Olympias was frequently associated with snakes, adding an intimidating touch to her image for later historians and perhaps contemporaries. The snakes may have been part of religious practices she brought from Molossia, making Olympias seem not only intimidating but also foreign. On the other hand, snakes can also be viewed as guardians and may have been quite common in some parts of Macedon.   Coin depicting Olympias with a snake, Rome, c. 4-5th century CE. Source: British Museum   The birth of a potential male heir would have elevated Olympias, with her status growing as Alexander became recognised as a successor to Philip. The clearest example of Olympias’ prominence came following Philip’s decisive victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. In the heart of the sacred precinct of Zeus at Olympia, Philip set up gold and ivory statues of himself, Alexander, and Olympia. No other wife of Philip ever came close to such a public honor, which verged on being elevated to divine status. However, Olympias and Alexander’s position was always precarious. In the final years of Philip’s reign there were signs that the relationship between the king, Olympias, and Alexander were fraught.   Philip already had another son, Arrhidaeus, though he was overlooked as he was seen to be incapacitated in some form. In 337 BCE, Philip married again. Cleopatra was the niece of a powerful Macedonian noble, Attalus, and with Philip only around 45 years old, there was a good chance the match would produce potential heirs. Despite the future danger, Alexander was comfortable enough to be at the wedding celebrations. But with the wine flowing, Attalus took the opportunity to imply that any future children from his niece would be more legitimate than Alexander. In the ensuing argument, Philip took Attalus’ side, and Alexander and Olympias went into self-imposed exile. The issue here was not Olympias’ jealousy of the younger wife but the real threat to Alexander’s future succession.   Olympias the Murderer?  Alexander and Olympias, by William Bayer, 1779. Source: Schonbrunn Palace   Olympias and Alexander were soon back in Macedon and, despite continued nervousness over any future potential heirs, were again shown public favor by Philip. In 336 BCE, it was decided that Olympias’ brother, Alexander of Epirus, would marry Philip and Olympias’ daughter Cleopatra. The wedding celebrations in the Macedonian city of Aigai would publicly reaffirm the ties between the Aeacids and Argeads.   In the midst of the festivities, Philip was assassinated. The assassin, Pausanias, was a former lover and bodyguard of Philip. He reportedly murdered the king because Philip had refused to punish Attalus for arranging for Pausanias to be brutally sexually assaulted.   Theater at Aigai. Source: UNESCO   Later historians saw the murder as Olympias’ revenge for marrying another woman. Scholars do not dismiss the possibility of Olympias’ involvement. The recent rift between Alexander and Philip had healed, but there was the long-term threat of children from a new wife. Olympias certainly did have Attalus’ daughter Cleopatra and her infant daughter murdered soon after. These were not the only deaths during Alexander’s succession.   There is no strong evidence linking Olympias, or Alexander, to Philip’s death and such a move would have been an extraordinary risk. However, there was a motive, and the relationship between the royal family had become tense. Pausanias’ grievance and the gathering of Philip, Alexander, the Macedonian nobility, and the army in one place for the wedding may have provided the opportunity. If Olympias, Alexander, or both did decide to move preemptively, assassination was a possible political tool available to them.   Rent for the Womb  Olympias presenting the young Alexander the Great to Aristotle, by Gerard Hoet, before 1733. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Throughout Philip’s reign, Olympias and Alexander demonstrated a strong bond and proved their loyalty to each other during the rifts with Philip. This bond continued once Alexander became king, elevating Olympias from a prominent wife to a powerful political figure.   Two years after the death of Philip, Alexander left to invade the Persian empire. Though Olympias would never see her son again, they remained in frequent contact. In his absence, Alexander left a prominent Macedonian, Antipater, in charge, but Olympias’ influence grew and spread beyond Macedon as we have evidence of her contacting several foreign states. The two quickly became rivals, which may well have been to Alexander’s liking. The respective roles of Antipater and Olympias were not clearly defined and having his mother keep a watchful eye on Antipater was to the king’s benefit. Olympias was often advising Alexander by distance as well as reporting on, and complaining about, Antipater. We have contradictory stories of Alexander’s attitude to his mother’s advice and reports. After reading one of Antipater’s letters criticizing Olympias, Alexander reportedly said that a single tear from his mother was enough to wipe out ten thousand such letters. However, there were tensions between the two. On another occasion, after receiving a long complaint from Olympias, Alexander uttered the famous remark that his mother was charging a high rent for his nine months in the womb.   Olympias was certainly a trusted advisor and loyal figure back home, but Alexander would have had to balance her wishes and advice against other considerations and priorities. In 331/30 BCE, when Antipater was at the height of his power and had defeated a Greek revolt, Olympias withdrew from Macedon and returned to Molossia.   After Alexander  Death of Alexander the Great, by Nicola de Laurentiis. Source: MutualArt   Olympias was in her 50s when her son died suddenly in Babylon in 323 BCE. In addition to the personal tragedy, she, along with everyone else in Alexander’s empire, was thrown into the chaotic new world.   Defending and promoting Alexander’s interests, and by extension her own, had guided Olympias’ political career for the last thirty years. The interests of Alexander’s son, born just after his father’s death, drew Olympias into the War of Successors in which Macedonian generals tore apart Alexander’s empire. In a world dominated by powerful and ruthless men, she played a role for several years.   After 323 BCE, the Macedonian Empire was nominally jointly ruled by Alexander’s son, Alexander IV, and Philip’s apparently incapable son Arrhidaeus, under the name Philip III. Few, however, could have rated Alexander IV’s chances of survival.   Just as with Philip’s death, rumors swirled, and continue to linger today, that Alexander was murdered. For Olympias, the culprit had to be Antipater, who was in the process of being summoned to Babylon by Alexander at the time of the king’s death. The productive rivalry of earlier years became a bitter feud between Olympias and the family of Antipater. When Antipater died in 319 BCE, he passed his control of Macedon, Greece, and the kings not to his son Cassander, but to the veteran officer named Polyperchon. Unfortunately, Polyperchon was not up to the task, whereas Cassander was ruthless and capable. Initially, Olympias refused Polyperchon’s invitations to return to Macedon and assist him. However, in 317 BCE a new danger arose.   Victory and the Death of Olympias  Cassander and Olympias, by Jean-Joseph Taillasson, 1799. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Arrhidaeus had been married to Adea Eurydice, the daughter of a half-sister of Alexander the Great. Adea was an Argead and had married another. As such, she and Arrhidaeus could be a threat to Alexander IV. When Adea made an alliance with Cassander, Olympias was forced into action. In 317 BCE, both Olympias and Adea put themselves at the head of their respective armies and marched to the border between Macedon and Molossia in what has been called the first war between women. Though Adea was descended from a line of warrior queens, her army refused to fight Olympias and defected. Both Adea and Arrhidaeus were captured and, after some delay, executed.   The idea that Olympias was a vicious woman meddling in politics comes up again. In her march into Macedon, she was indeed ruthless. Adea and Arrhidaeus were not the only victims; a brother of Cassander and dozens of his supporters were killed. However, her actions do not seem to have been exceptional. Blood was often spilled during Macedonian dynastic conflicts, and none of the figures in the war of successors emerged guiltless.   Having marched into Macedon, defeated a rival, and protected Alexander IV, Olympias had become a major player in the battle to control the Macedonian Empire. Her fall from this height was swift. Cassander reacted with devastating speed and effectiveness to her success. By early 316 BCE, he and his army were back in Macedon besieging Olympias in Pydna. Polyperchon proved unable to do anything, and Cassander blocked aid from arriving from other allies. The negative tradition in the sources state that Olympias lost support due to her bloody actions on entering Macedon, but it seems that she retained support and that Cassander was simply more militarily effective. Olympias’ defeat was military rather than political.   Coin issued by Cassander with Hercules (obverse) and lion (reverse) Greek, 317-306 BCE. Source: British Museum   In the end, Olympias had no choice but to surrender to Cassander. Despite her alleged unpopularity, Cassander had trouble arranging her death. Olympias was tried and found guilty, but only the relatives of the people she had killed were willing to carry out the sentence. Once Cassander finally found willing executioners, Olympias was said to have met her end with dignity and courage. The bid to protect Alexander IV ultimately failed. Cassander had him and his mother Roxane murdered before he reached adulthood. The Argead house died out as Alexander’s generals gradually declared themselves kings.   Throughout her life, Olympias’ actions were guided not by emotion but by the political calculations necessary to survive and thrive in a brutal royal court. Since she could not hold formal power as a woman, her politics were orientated around the prospects and protection of her son and grandson.   Bibliography   Carney, E. (2006) Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. Routledge: New York.   Rowson, A. (2022) The Young Alexander: The Making of Alexander the Great. Williams Collins: London.   Jouanno, C. (1995) “Alexandre et Olympias: de l’histoire au mythe” Bulletin de l’Association Guillaume Budé, 1995.3 pp. 211-230.   Ogden, D. (1999) Polygamy, Prostitutes and Death: The Hellenistic Dynasties. Classical Press of Wales: London.