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After his success at the Battle of Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror became the first Norman king of England and imported a Norman elite to help him rule over his new territory. This had a profound impact on life in England, importing Norman-French culture into what was a thoroughly Germanic-Anglo-Saxon nation. The presence of the ruling Normans changed the language, the laws, and daily life for the people of England. Discover four important ways that William the Conqueror transformed England.   William the Conqueror Establishes Norman Rule William the Conqueror by an unknown illuminator, c. 1272-1307. Source: Lenton Sands via Flickr   When William the Conqueror took over England, he displaced the Anglo-Saxons, who had ruled the country for around 500 years, and gave England its first Norman king. He brought with him a select group of around 8,000 Norman nobles and church officials who displaced Anglo-Saxon landowners and clerics, giving England an elite class of Normans. The Doomsday Book was produced as part of this redistribution of wealth and power. It records two moments in time: a catalog of England’s landed wealth as it existed under Edward the Confessor in January 1066, and a catalog of how it was redistributed by William the Conqueror in 1085/6.   Statue of William the Conqueror in Calvados, France. Source: Bernard Dupont via Flickr   The Anglo-Saxons were a Germanic people who originally came from Germany and Denmark. The Danes, who took over portions of England during the late 10th and early 11th centuries, also came from Denmark. Interestingly, the Normans also came from largely the same area originally, or somewhat further north. However, by 1066, they had spent the past century and a half in northwest France. Consequently, their culture had changed significantly, and they spoke a form of French known as Norman French.   1. The English Language A pie chart showing the origins of English vocabulary. Source: Wikimedia Commons   While the general population continued to speak Old English rather than adopt Norman French, the new language of the elite influenced the development of the English language. Numerous words in the English language today have French origins. Thus, even though English is fundamentally a Germanic language rather than a Romance (that is, Latin-derived) language, English speakers can still recognise plenty of words in French and other related languages.   The difference between the language of the general populace, many of whom were poor, and the language of the elite class is also reflected in modern English. For example, while “pig” is the name of the animal, “pork” is the name for its meat. The former term comes from Old English, while the latter term comes from the French “porc.” This is because while commoners cared for the animals, the nobility principally ate it! Many similar examples exist in the English vocabulary such as cow versus beef, sheep versus mutton, and calf versus veal.   2. Military Tactics Illustration of a motte and bailey, Arcisse de Caumont, 1870. Source: Wikimedia Commons   The Normans imported many elements of their culture to England with them, but one of the most notable were their military tactics, both offensive and defensive. On the offensive, the Normans tended to use cavalry, soldiers mounted on horses riding across the battlefield. In contrast, the Anglo-Saxons relied more on foot soldiers, even though they would often ride on horses to arrive at the battlefield. This resulted in England developing the tradition of nobles training from childhood to fight as heavily armed knights on horseback, leading to the rise of chivalric culture and infamous pastimes such as jousting.   The inner bailey wall of Pevensey Castle, constructed in the 13th and 14th centuries. Source: 1066 Country   Furthermore, the Normans made extensive use of the motte-and-bailey castle. This was a simple design for a defensive structure which enabled the Normans to conquer and control huge areas very quickly. A tower (often wooden) was constructed on top of a motte, or mound of earth, with a level area at the base (the bailey). This was surrounded by a moat and palisade fencing. This was fundamentally different from Anglo-Saxons defensive structures, known as burghs, which were wooden defensive walls built around towns designed principally to repel the Vikings.   The Normans built an estimated 1,000 castles across England to control and intimidate the large Anglo-Saxon population. They were the backbone of Norman rule acting as administrative and military hubs, usually maintaining a garrison to deal with uprisings.   3. Feudalism Depiction of Harold swearing an oath to William on the Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070s. Source: Bayeux Museum   One of the most significant changes in England with the arrival of the Normans was the introduction of feudalism. This fundamentally changed the way that England functioned throughout the rest of the medieval period.   Feudalism was based on the concept that the king owned all the land in the country. In England, this started with William the Conqueror. He gave parcels of land (called fiefs) to nobles called lords. Naturally, they were expected to be totally loyal to the king, since they were living on land that had been given to them by him. These lords, in turn, entered into agreements with vassals who were expected to be loyal to them and provide them with military service whenever called on. Peasants called serfs lived on the land of the lords and were obligated to serve them.   Serfs working in a field and collecting the harvest, Queen Mary’s Psalter, MS Royal 2. B. VII, c. 1310. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Feudalism transformed the political and social structure of England into a hierarchical system. At the top was the king, with the serfs or peasants at the bottom. Each class owed their loyalty to the vassal, lord, or king above them. They expressed this loyalty primarily through services and goods, such as crops from their land or military service rather than money. Serfs had very few rights, and were essentially viewed as property. They were subject to the will of their lord in many important aspects of life. For instance, they could not even move away or marry without permission from their lord. However, if a serf was able to acquire enough wealth, they could potentially buy their freedom.   In a war, the king would call on his lords to come to his aid. The lords, in turn, would call on their vassals and the serfs living on their land to fight for them.   4. Norman Laws Statue of Edward the Confessor, some of whose laws William perpetuated, Lichfield Cathedral. Source: Elliot Scott via Flickr   William introduced various new laws when he arrived in England, though he did not completely change the English legal system. This would have been against his interests. He wished to establish himself as the legitimate successor to Edward the Confessor, not a foreign invader. Nevertheless, he did introduce some new laws and also centralized the legal system. Previously, there had been many local variations in the law.   Furthermore, William introduced a law known as the “murdrum fine.” This law meant that if a Norman was killed, then the local populace would have to hand over the killer within a set period, usually five days. If they refused or were unable to do so, then they would face a heavy fine. This served as a protection for the new Norman elite class that had arrived in the country with William.   Sherwood Forest. Source: Andrew Hill via Flickr   Another notable law was related to the forests and the wildlife living in them. This is known as the “Forest Law.” Under the new legal system, large areas of the country were designated as royal forests, where only the king and those with his express permission were allowed to hunt. Sherwood Forest, famous for its association with Robin Hood, was one such forest.   Another important new law was the practice of primogeniture. This was the practice in which the eldest son would inherit all the land of his father, assuming that his father was a land-owning noble. This was distinctly different from the Anglo-Saxon system, in which a father’s land would be divided among his children after his death. By introducing primogeniture, this prevented England from being divided into excessively small parcels of land. This contributed to the stability of the feudal system, which was a very important part of Norman England.

  The House of Wessex emerged as a dominant English dynasty in the 6th century and continued to be important until the Norman Conquest in 1066. This dynasty produced many of the most important kings of Britain during the early medieval period. These kings transformed England from a group of kingdoms into a united political entity, paving the way for the England that exists today. Who were the most powerful rulers of the House of Wessex, and what does the legendary King Arthur of the Welsh have to do with this historical English dynasty?   Founding a Dynasty: Cerdic of Wessex & King Arthur Depiction of Cerdic of Wessex, by John Speed from his Theatre, 1611. Source: Wikimedia Commons   One of the most important members of the House of Wessex is, naturally, its founder. He first appears in sources written several centuries after the fact. The first source to mention him is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, commissioned by Alfred the Great towards the end of the 9th century. Despite this late date for this earliest mention, he is generally considered either a historical or semi-historical figure.   According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (which does not provide a detailed narrative of his career), Cerdic arrived in Hampshire on the south coast of Britain with his son Cynric. Together, they fought against the Britons and carved out a kingdom for themselves. By the end of Cerdic’s career, he ruled over everything from the Isle of Wight, off the south coast of Britain, to Bernwood Forest in Buckinghamshire. According to modern scholarship, his career likely lasted from about 538 to 553. Note that these dates are 19 years after the ones given in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.   Illustration of King Arthur from Royal MS 20 A II, 14th century. Source: British Library   Without doubt, Cerdic of Wessex was an important and powerful figure in 6th-century Britain, a time when England as a united entity did not exist. However, as well as being important by virtue of founding the House of Wessex, there are some researchers who go beyond that. According to one theory, Cerdic of Wessex can actually be identified as the enemy of King Arthur. There are several reasons for thinking this. For one, most sources place Arthur in the southwest of Britain, such as in the West Country or in southeast Wales. From that region, the most powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom in the 6th century was Wessex. It therefore makes sense that Cerdic might have clashed with Arthur, if he really existed.   Furthermore, Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britanniae, which preserves many genuine traditions from before Geoffrey’s time, calls Arthur’s enemy “Cheldric.” It has been argued that this is a corruption of the name “Cerdic.” Such a scenario, while unconfirmed, is plausible.   Expanding Power: Egbert of Wessex Map showing the kingdoms of England in the time of Egbert of Wessex. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Centuries after the time of Cerdic, another powerful king from the House of Wessex was Egbert. He was important in establishing England as a united political entity. Before his reign, the English, or Anglo-Saxons, were divided into numerous distinct kingdoms. For example, there was the Kingdom of Wessex, the Kingdom of Mercia, the Kingdom of Kent, and others.   From the 8th century, Mercia’s power had been expanding, and it exercised some influence over Wessex. Beginning his rule in 802, Egbert threw off the yoke of the Mercians, making Wessex independent again. He then managed to defeat the Mercians in 825, bringing an end to their dominance over the other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Eventually, Egbert was accepted on genealogical grounds as the king of Kent, Sussex, Surrey, and Essex. Before his career ended in 839, Egbert had managed to turn the House of Wessex into by far the most powerful dynasty of medieval Britain, and England was finally beginning to take shape.   Undeniable Legacy: Alfred the Great Map of England in the time of Alfred the Great. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Egbert’s grandson was Alfred the Great, another powerful king crucial in the formation of England. In his time, the Vikings had conquered a large portion of what later became England. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were under threat. After ascending to the throne in 871, Alfred fought against the Vikings, achieving great military victories against them. The famous division of England between Anglo-Saxon territory and Viking territory (known as Danelaw) occurred under the supervision of Alfred.   Nevertheless, despite the formal agreement drawn up between Alfred and the Vikings, the latter continued to attempt to conquer more of England. Alfred continued fighting against them, using impressive defensive tactics, for many years thereafter. In 886, Alfred reconquered London from the Vikings. From that point on, he began styling himself as the King of the Anglo-Saxons, rather than just the King of the West Saxons (Wessex). This was an important step in the process of unifying the Anglo-Saxons into a single kingdom, to the point of even making it a question of terminology.   Statue of Alfred the Great, Winchester. Source: Wikimedia Commons   Alfred the Great is also remembered for his social reforms. He placed great emphasis on literacy and education. In fact, to Alfred, this was a necessity in being able to learn how to live in harmony with God’s will. Therefore, it was his policy for all freemen to learn to read English if they had the conditions to do so.   Furthermore, Alfred the Great established an influential law code. He did this after carefully analysing previous laws of the Anglo-Saxons and even the laws in the Biblical Book of Exodus. Alfred’s laws placed great emphasis on the protection of the weak.   As well as being a skilled military leader, it is clear that Alfred had a very scholarly mind. In fact, historians have noted that he would likely have been content to live the life of a scholar rather than becoming king.   King of All England: Athelstan Statue of Athelstan, Beverley Minster, Yorkshire. Source: Smabs Sputzer via Flickr   Alfred’s grandson Athelstan would prove to be another of the most powerful kings of England from the House of Wessex. He is widely considered to be the first true King of England, ruling over all of the Anglo-Saxons and all of what is now England. At first, when he was crowned king in 925, he was the king of only Wessex and Mercia. The Viking kingdom of York remained independent. However, just two years later, he subdued the Vikings and thus became the king of all of England. Hence, he was the first king to unite all of England into a single political entity, somewhat resembling what exists today.   Interestingly, Athelstan’s sovereignty actually extended even further than the boundaries of modern-day England for a while. In 934, for reasons that are still unclear to history, Athelstan invaded Scotland. He fought against Constantine II of Scotland and evidently won, since Constantine later witnessed a charter as a “sub-king” in recognition of Athelstan’s supremacy.   Tomb of Athelstan, Malmesbury Abbey. Source: Spixey via Flickr   However, Athelstan’s reign would not continue unopposed. In 937, a major threat to his kingdom emerged. Owain of Strathclyde (a kingdom in western Scotland), Constantine II of Scotland, and Olaf Guthfrithson of the Vikings united against him. They hoped to defeat Alfred in battle and put an end to the dominance of the House of Wessex.   This campaign led to a major battle known as the Battle of Brunanburh. The exact location is unknown. What is known, however, is that Athelstan was able to achieve a mighty victory over his opponents. This cemented his rule even further. Athelstan went even further than his grandfather Alfred in the title he gave himself. He referred to himself on his coins and in official documents as King of All Britain.   Like his grandfather, Athelstan established a system of laws. These emphasised punishment against corruption and a concern for some of the most vulnerable in society.   Fall of the House of Wessex: Aethelred the Unready to Edward the Confessor Manuscript image showing Sweyn Forkbeard driving Aethelred and his family out of England, MS EE 3.59, fol. 4r, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University Libraries   Edward the Confessor was the last king of the house of Wessex, and he only came to power after his house lost control of England for a period at the beginning of the 11th century. The problems began during the reign of Athelred the Unready, when, in 1002, he ordered all the Vikings in England killed in what would become known as the St Brice’s Day massacre. While it is unclear which Vikings were targeted and how many were killed, there is archaeological evidence confirming the massacre. A royal charter from 1004 CE also remarks on the “most just extermination” of the Vikings at Oxford.   Of course, the Vikings retaliated and under the leadership of Sweyn Forkbeard, who raided Wessex and East Anglia repeatedly from 1003 onwards before launching a full-scale invasion in 1013. His force was so overwhelming that Aethelred and his sons Alfred and Edward were forced to flee to Normandy, leaving the Viking to claim the position of King of England.   Manuscript image showing battle and treaty between Cnut and Edmund, MS EE 3.59, fol. 4r, c. 13th century. Source: Cambridge University Libraries   Sweyn Forkbeard died the following year and was succeeded by his son Cnut. He was forced to defend his claim to England from an army led by Aethelred and his eldest son Edward, but eventually overwhelmed them with a force of 200 ships and 10,000 men. He was officially crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1017 and married Emma of Normandy, Aethelred’s widow, to cement his position with the local elite. Cnut incorporated England into his North Sea Empire, which also included Norway and Denmark.   When Cnut died, power passed to his son with Emma of Normandy, Harthacnut, though not without opposition. When he died in 1041, his mother Emma had her son with Aethelred, Edward, recalled, restoring power to the House of Wessex in a bloodless transition.   King Edward the Confessor. Source: historic-uk.com   Known as Edward the Confessor for his pious nature, Harthacnut’s half-brother died childless in January 1066. It seems that to maintain peace during his reign, he had promised to name various powerful men as his heirs, including Harald Hardrada, the king of Norway, William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold Godwinson, from the English House of Godwin. These three men would fight over England for the rest of that year, with Harold Godwinson defeating Harald Hardrada at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in Yorkshire, weakening his forces, which were then defeated by William at the Battle of Hastings and the start of the Norman Conquest.   The Most Powerful Members of the House of Wessex Map of Anglo-Saxon Britain (Heptarchy 650-750 CE). Source: TheCollector   The kings of the House of Wessex were some of the most significant and powerful rulers in the history of early medieval England. Its origin goes back to the time of the legendary King Arthur. In fact, Cerdic of Wessex may well have fought against that war leader, perhaps being identical to the Cheldric of British legend. After Cerdic gave Wessex a strong foundation, it would ascend in power from the 9th century onwards, starting during the reign of Egbert. His grandson, Alfred, defended England from the Vikings and became the first king of all the Anglo-Saxons. The stability he created allowed his grandson Athelstan to become King of all England.   The last years of the House of Wessex were more tumultuous, with Aethelred the Unready being overthrown by the Viking Sweyn Forkbeard, leaving England in Viking hands for around 30 years. But marriage alliances and a lack of heirs would see power peacefully passed back to Aethelred’s son Edward in 1041. But when he too died childless in 1066, that was the end of the House of Wessex, and the end of Anglo-Saxon control of England due to the Norman Conquest.